Short happiness and affect research protocol (sharp)

M. J. STONES, ALBERT KOZMA, JOHN HIRDES, DOLORES GOLD, TANNIS ARBUCKLE AND PAM KOLOPACK

SHORT HAPPINESS AND AFFECT RESEARCH PROTOCOL (SHARP)

(Accepted 8 May, 1995)

ABSTRACT. Issues in the measurement of subjective well-being (SWB) include the relative balance between scale brevity and measurement accuracy. Because accuracy is expected to vary negatively with the length of a scale, the brevity/ accuracy trade-off has pragmatic implications for survey research.

This article begins by examining minimal psychometric criteria to evaluate short measures of SWB. These criteria include content validity (i.e., four basic categories are cited), criterion validity, internal consistency, and test-retest reliability. Several measures frequently used in large-scale surveys are shown to fail against one or more of these criteria. Consequently, a new brief measure was developed and shown to satisfy all the criteria. It is termed the Short Happiness and Affect Research Protocol (SHARP). This measure contains 12-items derived from the Memorial University of Newfoundland Scale of Happiness (MUNSH), with the content balanced over positive and negative, and short-term (affective) and long-term (dispositional) components. The internal consistency, temporal stability, and criterion validity coefficients for the SHARP are comparable to those of the MUNSH, which is among the most accurate measures of self-reported SWB.

The subjective well-being (SWB) construct occupies such a pivotal position within theories about the overall quality of life that any evaluation of the latter would incomplete without the inclusion of global happiness or life satisfaction within the data array (Michalos, 1991). Veenhoven (1994), and Veenhoven and Ehrhradt (1995) even propose that for purposes of policy evaluation SWB is a main "output-indicator of policy success" (p. 33). It is, therefore, not surprising that measures of SWB find frequent use in survey research, as well as correlational and analytic studies of the quality of life.

Because a complete appraisal of the quality of life must sample from among wide arrays of subjective parameters (e.g., happiness, life satisfaction, life domain satisfactions), objective variables (e.g., demographic, economic, health, and activity indexes), and social interaction indicators, a significant issue in tool selection is the length of the measure. Short measures are quicker and less expensive to administer, with lower cost being an important consideration when

Social Indicators Research 37:75-91, 1996. (~) 1996 Kluwer Academic Publishers. Printed in the Netherlands.

76 M.J. STONES ETAL.

selecting measures for large-scale surveys. However, a psychometric concern is that brevity may result in low reliability and validity in comparison with longer measures.

This article addresses the trade-off between brevity and accuracy in the selection of measures of SWB. We were prompted in this undertaking because several brief measures used in North American and European surveys may fail to pass scrutiny against conventional psychometric criteria. Although brevity can sometimes take prece- dence over accuracy in the selection of measures, a consequence is that the validity of the findings may be threatened. Most researchers would agree that any immediate savings resulting from the use of brief tools may prove costly over the long-term if the data gathered are of poor quality, and as such retard the development of effective theory and social policy. An optimal tool, for the purpose of survey research, is one that contains few items but retains the reliability and validity of longer measures.

The sequence of issues addressed by this article can be summa- rized as follows. First, we cite key findings that clarify the scope and dimensions of SWB, with the intent to provide minimal psychometric criteria for an accurate measure of the construct. Recent reviews of the literature on SWB show good consensus on what these criteria should be (Diener, 1984, 1994; Kozma, Stones, and McNeil, 1991). Second, we apply these criteria to several short measures frequently used in survey research. Because none of these measures satisfied all the criteria, it became apparent that the development of a new short instrument was required to meet this need. Third, we review findings with a longer measure that satisfies all the criteria, with the aim to develop a short form of this measure. Fourth, we present data relevant to the success of the new short measure to satisfy the criteria (i.e., the Short Happiness and Affect Research Protocol, or SHARP). Finally, we conclude that, despite its brevity, the SHARP provides reliable and accurate measurement of SWB.

MINIMAL PSYCHOMETRIC CRITERIA FOR MEASURING SWB

SWB refers to happiness or satisfaction with life as a whole (Veen- hoven, 1984). Its basic dimensions and properties are revealed by correlational, experimental, longitudinal, and factor analytic research.

SHARP 77

Correlational research suggests SWB to reflect the balance between recent (i.e., short-term) positive and negative affective experiences (Larsen, Diener, and Emmons, 1985). These components comprise the full content of the Affect Balance Scale (ABS; Bradburn, 1969), a measure frequently used in survey research. Bradburn (1969) was among the first to find different correlates for positive and negative affect, a finding frequently replicated in subsequent research (Diener, 1994). However, early factor analytic research revealed a dispositional component of SWB, in addition to factors of positive and negative affect (Bieser, 1974). Later findings showed the first-order factors (McCulloch, 1991) or scales (Stones and Kozma, 1985) to be subsumed by a single second-order factor.

The inclusion of disposition and affect as discrete components of SWB is also supported by experimental and longitudinal research. Kozma, di Fazio, Stones, and Hannah (1992) found long-term positive and negative content to be minimally responsive to the effects of a mood induction paradigm, in comparison with the high reactivity of short-term content, suggesting SWB to include both dispositional and affective components. The dispositional content probably accounts for findings of a surprisingly high temporal stability to SWB in longitudinal research, with reviews of different instrumentation showing stabilities of 0.3-0.7 over intervals of several years (Diener, 1994; Kozma et al., 1991; Veenhoven, 1994). This stability appears to be relatively unaffected by life changes during the intervening period (Atkinson, 1982; Costa, McCrae, and Zonderman, 1987), suggesting the dispositional component to remain robust despite changes in life circumstances.

The preceding findings reveal some basic but essential psychometric criteria that should be used to evaluate measures of SWB. These criteria include requirements for content validity, reliability, and criterion validity.

Content Validity

The requirements of content validity necessitate at least a two-by- two representation of content, with the inclusion of short-term and long-term items in both the positive and negative domains. The distinction between positive and negative content is important because of the independence of the components in selected measure-


ment paradigms, and differences in their respective correlates. The distinction between short-term (i.e., affective) and long-term (i.e., dispositional) components was shown to be significant in factor analytic, experimental, and longitudinal studies. Only by sampling items from these four content areas can we accurately represent the composition of SWB, or evaluate the different influences on its respective components.

Internal Consistency and Test-Retest Reliability

High internal consistency is a prerequisite condition for measurement accuracy. Findings on the temporal stability of SWB indicate that an accurate measure of the construct should show test-retest reliability. Findings that a measure has low test-retest reliability would probably suggest an inadequate representation of dispositional content.

Criterion Validity

The requirements of criterion validity include correlations with measures that reflect the balance between recent positive and negative affect. Such criterion indexes include self-reports of recent happiness and affect, external ratings on these dimensions, and measures of positive and negative affectivity.

Satisfaction of all the preceding criteria should ensure a good standard of measurement accuracy by demonstrating that a minimal set of necessary conditions are met. However, Diener (1994) advises survey practitioners to consider adding extra content, such as mood and emotion items, and non-self-report indexes (e.g., facial expression, vocal expression, memory production). Although this extra content could allow for checks on transient influences and method bias, such inclusion may exceed the practical constraints of survey research. In an era of fiscal restraint, survey practitioners can be thankful that research on short-lasting situation effects and multi- method estimation found these factors to add low explanatory variance to that contributed by self-report measures of SWB (Cham- berlain and Zika, 1992; Lance, Mallard, and Michalos, 1995; Rogers, Herzog, and Andrews, 1988). Consequently, the most practical way to attain accurate measurement is to use self-report measures that satisfy the minimal psychometric criteria we described.

SHARP 79

APPLICATION OF THE CRITERIA TO EXISTING SHORT MEASURES

There are four main categories of short measure that have been used to estimate SWB. These are (1) single item ratings, (2) multi-item measures of affect, (3) multi-item measures of life satisfaction, and (4) multi-item depression measures. In this section, we evaluate an example from each category that is among the most frequently used in survey research.

Single-item ratings of happiness, life satisfaction, and domain satisfactions are the most frequent of all SWB measures in quality of life research (e.g., Andrews, 1991). A main limitation to single-item ratings is their inability to satisfy the minimal requirements for content validity. Depending on whether the response is to a happiness 'now' or 'in general' prompt, experimental findings show the rating to measure either affect or disposition, with corresponding implications for test-retest reliability (Kozma, Stone, Stones, Hannah, and McNeil, 1990). Also, it cannot be determined whether the correlates of single-item ratings share variance with either or both the positive and negative domains of content, thereby limiting the scope and depth of subsequent interpretation.

The ABS (Bradburn, 1969) is among the most frequently used measures of affect. It is a 10-item scale balanced across the positive and negative domains. A limitation to its content validity is the omission of long-term items. This omission may contribute to the low test-retest reliability of the ABS, although another factor is probably the low internal consistency of the subscales. A review by Kozma, Stones, and McNeil (1991) reported coefficient alphas ranging from 0.5 to 0.7 in several studies, with none achieving the conventional requirement of o~ > 0.8. The low internal consistency should also result in criterion validities below the true levels.

The Satisfaction with Life Scale (SLS; Diener, Emmons, Larsen, and Griffin, 1985) is a short measure with c~ > 0.8, and which correlates highly with longer measures of SWB (Parvot, Diener, Colvin, and Sandvik, 1991). A limitation to the content validity of this measure is the omission of affect items, resulting in a lack of reactivity to mood induction manipulations (Kozma et al., 1992). It is probably an accurate measure of the dispositional component of SWB, but not of the construct as a whole.

8 0 M.J. STONES ETAL.

The Centre for Epidemiological Studies Depression Scale (CES- D; Radloff, 1977) is a longer (20-item) scale developed to measure short-term depression. It may be the most popular of all the depression scales used in survey research. As a measure of SWB, the limitations to its content validity include few items with positive content (i.e., only 3/20 items), and the omission of long-term items. although its internal consistency falls within acceptable limits (c~ > 0.8), the absence of disposition items probably contributes to its low test-retest reliability (i.e., r -- 0.32 over 3-12 months). Although the CES-D shows criterion validity against indexes such as caregiver stress (Canadian Study of Health and Aging, 1994), its predomi- nantly negative content probably precludes sensitivity within the upper half-range of SWB.

This brief evaluation of representative short measures of SWB showed none to satisfy the minimal criteria for content validity. Internal consistency is indeterminate for single-item ratings, it is low for the ABS, but adequate for the SWL and CES-D. The temporal stabilities are low for the ABS and CES-D, but vary with single- item ratings depending on the prompt used. Criterion validity against variation in recent affect is low for the SWL, expected to be lower for positive affect than negative affect with the CES-D, and varies with the prompt used for single item ratings. Consequently, none of the preceding measures meets the minimal psychometric criteria that were proposed. However, the survey practitioners' need for short but accurate measures remains an enduring and pressing issue. Possible ways to solve the dilemma include the following: (1) to relax the minimal psychometric requirements, and accept a lower quality of measurement; (2) to use longer measures that meet the psychometric standards, and bear the additional expense incurred; (3) to develop new measures that provide accurate measurement with few items. If the third alternative seems the most pragmatic, a feasible strategy may be to scale down an existing longer measure that does satisfies the minimal criteria, in the anticipation that the reliability and validity estimates will not be greatly reduced by the shorter scale length.

SHARP 81

APPLICATION OF THE CRITERIA TO A LONGER MEASURE

The Memorial University of Newfoundland Scale of Happiness (MUNSH; Kozma and Stones, 1980) is the only long measure to provide nearly balanced representation over the four content areas. For this reason, a short form with balanced content can be developed with less distortion to its basic structure than with other scales. The MUNSH contains 5-item subscales for each of positive and negative affect, and 7-item subscales for each of positive and negative long-term happiness.

In addition to providing balanced content, the MUNSH satisfies the requirements of reliability and criterion validity. The internal consistency routinely exceeds a > 0.8 with the original yes/no/? response format and a simpler yes/no format (Stones and Kozma, 1989), and the test-retest reliability ranged from r = 0.4 to r = 0.7 over intervals of 18-48 months (Kozma and Stones, 1983a; Stones, Kozma, Hannah, and KcKim, 1991). The following findings evidence criterion validity against measures relevant to affect and disposition: (1) correlation with life satisfaction and morale indexes, and immediate and longer-term happiness ratings (Kozma and Stones, 1980, 1983b, 1987, 1988); (2)Correlation with psychopathology indexes, and particularly depression (Kozma, Stones, and Kazarian, 1985); (3) correlation with observer ratings by peers and institution staff, and with behavioral ratings of affect (Kozma and Stones, 1979, 1983b, 1987); (4) correlation with indexes derived from an Affect Intensity Measure (Stones and Kozma, 1994); (5) correlation with health, activity, and activity limitation indexes (Stones and Kozma, 1989), (6) discrimination between institution versus community resi- dence (Kozma and Stones, 1988; Stones and Kozma, 1989).

Other factors having relevance to the generalized measurement accuracy of the MUNSH include the following: demonstrated utility with subjects of all adult ages (Kozma and Stones, 1987, 1988); equivalent reliability across different ethnic and linguistic groups (Arbuckle, Gold, Andres, Schwartzman, and Chaikelson, 1992; Gold, Andres, and Schwartzman, 1987); minimal effects on criterion validity because of social desirability bias (Kozma and Stones, 1987, 1988); minimal effects because of yea/nay saying bias in cognitively competent respondents (Kozma et al., 1991).


APPLICATION OF THE CRITERIA TO A SHORT HAPPINESS AND AFFECT RESEARCH PROTOCOL (SHARP)

Because the MUNSH meets the minimal criteria of content validity, internal consistency, test-retest reliability, and criterion validity, a short form was developed that includes half its items. That data used to develop the SHARP, and for initial tests of its reliability and criterion validity, were those described by Kozma and Stones (1987, 1988). These data were obtained from 330 subjects covering ~an age range from 21-82 years, and living in community or institution residences.

Item Selection and Content Validity

The selection of items for the SHARP used similar construct validation procedures to those previously used to select items for the MUNSH; specifically, the items selected were those having the highest correlations with avowed happiness ratings for the immediate time period and over the past month. Content validity was assured by selecting the three items with the highest correlations from each of the four content categories. The content comprised three items measuring each of (1) recent positive affect (PA); (2) recent negative affect (NA); (3) long-term positive experiences (PE); (4) long-term negative experiences (NE). This selection ensures that the SHARP is balanced with respect to positive affect, negative affect, long-term happiness, and long-term unhappiness. English and French transla- tions of the scale are shown in the Appendix.

Internal Consistency and Test-Retest Reliability of the SHARP

Reliability estimates for the SHARP were computed using the Kozma and Stones (1987, 1988) data, new data, and data previously obtained by other researchers. With the preceding data, the internal consistency of the SHARP was a = 0.8, and it correlated with the MUNSH at r = 0.94. Hirdes provided new data from a survey of 50 residents in long-term care. The internal consistency of the SHARP was a =- 0.82, and it again correlated with the SHARP at r -- 0.94. Kalopack and Stones conducted two new studies, with the first including 125 undergraduates. The SHARP had an internal consistency of a = 0.8, and it correlated with the MUNSH at r =

SHARP 83

TABLE I

Length corrected coefficient alphas for subscales of the SHARP

Subscale veterans Sample civilians

Positive affect 0.86 0.85 Negative affect 0.83 0.85 Positive experience 0.88 0.74 Negative experience 0.85 0.88

0.95. The second study included 175 undergraduates, and produced a = 0.82.

Data by Gold et al. (1987) and Arbuckle et al. (1992) were used to compare the internal consistency of the SHARP subscales with English and French linguistic groups. The data were respectively from 360 civilians of mean age of 73 years, and 379 veterans having a mean age of 64 years, with the distribution within each sample being 55-65% English speaking. Table I gives the subscale internal consistencies corrected to the length of the SHARE Only one alpha coefficient of eight falls below 0.8. The mean corrected alphas for the English and French groups within each sample ranged from 0.8-0.9. These findings show comparably high internal consistencies across the SHARP subscales and between the linguistic groups.

Estimates of test-retest reliability were computed using the data from 203 elderly subjects described by Stones et al. (1991). Three measures were taken from each subject, with the retests being 18- months and 48-months after the initial assessment. At each assessment, the SHARP and MUNSH were found to correlate at r > 0.9. The findings on temporal stability marginally lower coefficients for the SHARP than MUNSH between the first to second, and second to third assessments, but with the two measures having equivalent reliability from the first to third assessment (Table 2).

The preceding findings show the SHARP to have an internal consistency at or above ~ = 0.8 in several data sets, with the adjusted subscale reliabilities being of a similar magnitude with Anglo- phone and Francophone respondents. The test-retest reliability of the SHARP closely approximated that of the longer MUNSH, being


TABLE II

Test-retest coefficients for the MUNSH (above diagonal) and SHARP (below diagonal) over intervals of 18, 30, and 48 months

Time 0 months 18 months 48 months

0 months - 0.64 0.39 18 months 0.52 - 0.49 48 months 0.42 0.41 -

TABLE III

Criterion validity coefficients for the SHARP and MUNSH

Validity criterion SHARP MUNSH Source

Avowed happiness (immediate) 0.63 0.63 Avowed happiness (past month) 0.69 0.69 Judges ratings of happiness 0.59 0.59 Judges ratings of mood balance 0.30 0.31 Positive affectivity 0.39 0.46 Negative affectivity -0.35 -0.32 Affectivity balance 0.51 0.52

Kozma and Stones (1987, 1988)

Hirdes (new data) Kalopach and Stones (new data)

r > 0.4 over four years. Consequent ly , the S H A R P satisfies min ima l requi rements for in temal consis tency and test-retest reliability.

Criterion Validity

As already indicated, the S H A R P correlated with its parent instru- men t at approximate ly r = 0.95 in several data sets. Other tests o f cri terion validi ty were against s ingle- i tem ratings, third-party ratings by observers who k n e w the respondents well, and measures o f affectivity. The various data sets pe rmi t compar i sons be tween the cri ter ion validit ies of the S H A R P and M U N S H . The f indings are shown in Table III.

F indings with the K o z m a and Stones (1987, 1988) data show validity coefficients against self-reports and observer rat ings f rom r -- 0.59 to r = 0.69, with no di f ference in the coefficients obta ined

SnARl' 85

using the MUNSH or SHARP. The validity criterion for the Hirdes survey was the balance between observer ratings of positive and negative mood. The coefficients with the SHARP and MUNSH were comparable at around r -- 0.3. The criteria in the first Kalopack and Stones study were new measures of positive and negative affectivity. The findings show comparable coefficients for the SHARP and MUNSH, with affectivity balance correlating with each at around r -- 0.5. We conclude from these findings that the criterion validities for the SHARP are comparable to those of the MUNSH.

Factor Structure of the SHARP

In a second new study, Kalopack and Stones administered the SHARP to 175 undergraduates. A principal components analysis showed a main factor that accounted for 36% of variance. The factor loadings showed the PA and PE items to be positively weighted on the main factor, and the NA and NE items to be negatively weighted. The weights had an absolute value of > 0.45 for all except one of the items, which had a weight of 0.33. These results suggest the SHARP to be significantly explained by a single bipolar factor.

Cluster Analytic Structure

Whereas factor analysis estimates latent variables, cluster analysis is used to group the respondents. Based on a matrix of 12 items and 175 respondents in the second Kalopack and Stones study, use of the K-means algorithm produced three main groups. Analysis of the SHARP distributions per group revealed significant differences in the means (all p < 0.0001), but overlap between groups with adjacent means.

A discriminant analysis using the SHARP subscales as dependent variables correctly assigned 94% of respondents to cluster groups, but with different profiles of regression coefficients (i.e.,/3 weights) across the groups (Figure 1). The group lowest on the SHARP was predicted by low scores on the positive subscales, suggesting that levels of unhappiness may be more determined by infrequent positive experiences than by frequent negative experiences. The group inter- mediate on the SHARP had high coefficients for positive affect and both the negative subscales, suggesting a strong influence because of recent affect. The group highest on the SHARP was predicted by


Beta weight8 1,0

0.5

0.0

-0.5

-1.0

%%"

1 2 3

Groups in 88oending order of SWB

PA ~ NA ~ PE ~ NE

Fig. 1. Beta weights for the PA, NA, PE, and NE subscales against cluster groups ordered by SHARP means.

high long-term positive experience and low scores on both negative subscales, with the dispositional components strongly contributing to gradations within happiness. These findings show the groups to be predicted by different combinations of SWB components, thereby supporting previous contentions that an understanding of SWB cannot be derived from its global level alone (e.g., Diener, 1995).

CONCLUSIONS

The purpose of the SHARP is to provide a short survey and research tool that satisfies minimal psychometric criteria for a measure of

SHARP 87

SWB. The specification of these criteria followed a review of significant findings on the dimensions and properties of SWB, and include content validity (i.e., the inclusion of items on recent positive and negative affect, and long-term happiness and unhappiness), high internal consistency, test-retest reliability, and criterion validity against indexes having relevance to recent affect. Of the existing short measures to which these criteria were applied, all failed to meet two or more of these requirements. Of the longer measures, only the MUNSH is balanced over the respective content domains.

The SHARP contains those 12 items from the MUNSH having the highest correlations with self-ratings of happiness. It is balanced across the four areas of content, and was shown to correlate repeat- edly with the MUNSH at around r = 0.95. Consequently, it is not surprising that the validity coefficients for the SHARP differed minimally from those of the MUNSH against criteria of self-ratings and observer ratings of recent SWB, and affectivity indexes. The lower length of the SHARP than the MUNSH impacted minimally on the internal consistency, with the alphas for both instruments regularly exceeding 0.8. The test-retest reliability of the SHARP also approximated that of the MUNSH, being r > 0.4 over 48-months.

In conclusion, the accuracy of the SHARP to represent the dimensions and properties of SWB closely approximates that of its parent scale. The SHARP appears to be the only short instrument that satisfies the minimal psychometric criteria that were delineated for accurate measures of SWB. It may be preferred over the MUNSH in surveys and research that necessitate brevity without adverse consequences on accuracy and scope.

APPENDIX

English and French Versions of the SHARP

SHARP

These questions are about how things have been going for you lately. Please answer "yes" or "no" to the following:

During the past month have you fel t . . .


.

2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

o

8. 9. 1 0 . 11. 12.

_ _ In high spirits? Particularly content with your life? Depressed or very unhappy?

_ _ Flustered as you didn't know what was expected of you? _ _ Bitter about the way your life has turned out?

Generally satisfied with how your life has turned out?

The next questions have to do with general life experiences.

_ _ I am just as happy as when I was younger. As I look back on my life, I am fairly well satisfied.

_ _ Things are getting worse as I get older. Little things bother me more this year. Life is hard for me most of the time.

_ _ I am satisfied with my life today.

Scoring Affirmative responses score 1 point for items 1, 2, 6, 7, 8, and 12, and - 1 for the remaining items. Negative responses or items left blank are scored 0.

SHARP

Nous voudrions vous poser quelques questions pour savoir comment les choses ont 6t6 pour vous derni~rement. S'il-vous-la~t, r6pondez "QUI" si 1'6conc6 est vrai en ce qui vous concerne, et "NON" s'il ne s'applique pas it vous.

Dans les mois que viennent de s'6couler, vous ~tes-vous senti: OUI NON

1. Plein d'entrain?

2. Particuli~rement satisfait de votre vie?

3. D6pressif ou tr~s malheureux?

4. D6concert6 parce que vous ne saviez pas ce que l 'on attendait de vous? 5. Amer ~t propos de la faqon dont votre vie a tourn6?

6. G6n6ralement satisfait ~ propos de la faqon dont votre vie a tourn6?

SHARP 89

Les 6 prochaines questions ont ~ voir avec des exp6riences de vie plus g6n6rales couvant les 10 ann6es pr6c6dentes.

7. Je suis tout aussi heureux que lorsque j'6tais plus jeune.

8. Quand je regarde en arri~re dans ma vie, je suis passablement satisfait.

9. Les choses empirent ~t mesure que je vieillis.

10. Les petites choses me d6rangent d'avantage cette ann6e.

11. La vie est difficile pour moi la plupart du temps.

12. Etes-vous satisfait de votre vie aujoud'hui?

REFERENCES

Andrews, E M.: 1991, 'Stability and change in levels and structure of subjective well-being: USA 1972 and 1988', Social Indicators Research 25, 1-30.

Atkinson, T.: 1982, 'The stability and validity of quality of life measures', Social Indicators Research 10, 113-132.

Arbuckle, T. Y., D. P. Gold, D. Andres, A. E. Schwartzman, and J. Chaikelson: 1992, 'The role of psychosocial context, age and intelligence in memory per- formance of older men', Psychology and Aging 7, 25-36.

Bradburn, N. M,: 1989, The Structure of Psychological Well-Being (Aldine, Chicago).

Canadian Study of Health and Aging: 1994, 'Patterns of caring for people with dementia in Canada', Canadian Journal on Aging 13,470-487.

Chamberlain, K. and S. Zika: 1992, 'Stability and change in subjective well-being over short time periods', Social Indicators Research 26, 101-119.

Coval, M., D. Crockett, S. Holliday, and W. Koch: 1985, 'A multi-focus assessment scale for use with flail elderly populations', Canadian Journal on Aging 4, 101- 109.

Costa, P. T., R. McCrae, and A. Zonderman: 1987, 'Environmental and dispositional influences on well-being: Longitudinal follow-up of an American national sample', British Journal of Psychology 78, 299-306.

Diener, E.: 1984, 'Subjective well-being', Psychological Bulletin 95,542-575. Diener, E., R. A. Emmons, R. J. Larsen, and S. Griffin: 1985, 'The Satisfaction

with Life Scale', Journal of Personality Assessment 49, 71-75. Diener, E.: 1994, 'Assessing subjective well-being: Progress and opportunities',

Social Indicators Research 31,103-158. Gold, D., D. Andres, and A. E. Schwartzman: 1987, 'Self-perceived personality

continuity and change in elderly people', Experimental Aging Research 13, 197-203.


Kozma, A., R. di Fazio, M. J. Stones, and T. E. Hannah: 1992, 'Long- and short- term affective states in happiness: Age and sex comparisons', Social Indicators Research 4, 293-310.

Kozma, A., S. Stone, M. J. Stones, T. E. Hannah, and K. McNeil: 1990, 'Long- and short-term affective states in happiness', Social Indicators Research 22, 119-138.

Kozma, A. and M. J. Stones: 1978, 'Some research issues and findings in the study of psychological well-being in the aged', Canadian Review of Psychology 19, 241-249.

Kozma, A. and M. J. Stones: 1980, 'The measurement of happiness: Development of the Memorial University of Newfoundland Happiness Scale (MUNSH)', Journal of Gerontology 35,906-912.

Kozma, A. and M. J. Stones: 1983, 'Predictors of happiness', Journal of Geron- tology 38,626-628.

Kozma, A. and M. J. Stones: 1983, 'Re-validation of the Memorial University of Newfoundland Scale of Happiness', Canadian Journal on Aging 2, 27-29.

Kozma, A., M. J. Stones, and S. Kazarian: 1985, 'The usefulness of the MUNSH as an index of well-being and psychopathology', Social Indicators Research 17, 49-55.

Kozma, A. and M. J. Stones: 1987, 'Social desirability in measures of subjective well-being: A systematic evaluation', Journal of Gerontology 42, 56-59.

Kozma, A. and M. J. Stones: 1988, 'Social desirability in measures of subjective well-being: Age comparisons', Social Indicators Research 20, 1-14.

Kozma, A., M. J. stones, and K. McNeil: 1991, Subjective Well-Being in Later Life (Butterworths, Toronto).

Lance, C. E., A. G. Mallard, and A. C. Michalos: 1995, 'Tests of the causal direc- tions of global-life facet satisfaction relationships', Social Indicators Research 34, 69-92.

Larsen, R. J., E. Diener, and R. A. Emmons: 1985, 'An evaluation of subjective well-being measurers', Social Indicators Research 17, 1-18.

McCulloch, B. J.: 1991, 'A longitudinal investigation of the factor structure of subjective well-being: The case of the Philadelphia Geriatric Center Morale Scale', Journal of Gerontology: Psychological Sciences 46, 251-258.

Michalos, A. C.: 1991, Global Report on Student Well-Being, Vol. 1: Life Satis- faction and Happiness (Springer-Verlag, New York).

Parvot, W., E. Diener, C. R. Colvin, and E. Sandvic: 1991, 'Response artifacts in the measurement of subjective well-being', Social Indicators Research 24, 35-56.

Radloff, L. S.: 1977, 'The CES-D. A self-report depression scale for research in the general population', Applied Psychological Measurement 1,385-401.

Rogers, W. L., A. R. Herzog, and F. M. Andrews: 1988, 'Interviewing older adults: Validity of self-reports of satisfaction', Psychology and Aging 3,264-272.

Stones, M. J. and A. Kozma: 1985, 'Structural relationships among happiness scales: A second order factorial study', Social Indicators Research 17, 49-55.

Stones, M. J. and A. Kozma: 1989,'Multidimensional assessment of the elderly via a microcomputer: The SENOTS program and battery', Psychology and Aging 4, 113-118.

SHARP 91

Stones, M. J., A. Kozma, T. E. Hannah, and W. A. McKim: 1991, 'The correlation coefficient and models of subjective well-being', Social Indicators Research 24, 13-23.

Stones, M. J. and A. Kozma: 1994, 'The relationships of affect intensity to happiness', Social Indicators Research 31,159-174.

Veenhoven, R.: 1984, The Conditionsof Happiness (Kluwer Academic Publishers, Dordrecht).

Veenhoven, R.: 1994, 'Is happiness a trait? Tests of the theory that a better society does not make people happier', Social Indicators Research 33, 101-160.

Veenhoven, R. and J. Ehrhardt: 1995, 'Tests of predictions implied in three theories of happiness: The cross-national pattern of happiness', Social Indi- cators Research 34, 33-68.

Department of Health Studies and Gerontology, University of Waterloo, Waterloo, Ontario, N2L 3G1, Canada and Institute of Social Gerontology of Quebec, 5800 Cavendish Blvd., Suite 200, C~te St.-Luc, Quebec H4W 2T5 Canada

Documents

Short happiness and affect research protocol (sharp)