I t is b e i n g c o n t e n d e d by modern c r i t i c s t h a t form and

c o n t e n t a r e i n d i a t i n g u i a h a b l e i n a work of a r t . A poem,

p a r t i c u l a r l y , h a s l a n g u a g e p r i m a r i l y a s i t s medium and h e n c e

i t d e r i v e s i t s meaning a n d s i g n i f i c a n c e from i t s v e r b a l

o r g a n i z a t i o n . S t r u c t u r a l and l i n g u i s t i c d e v i c e s add t o t h e

meaning o f t h e poem. A c c o r d i n g t o Mark S c h o r e r , i t is

t e c h n i q u e t h a t " e v a l u t e s " and " o b j e c t i f i e s t h e m a t e r i a l s o f

a r t * . T e c h n i q u e " i s n o t t h e s e c o n d a r y t h i n g .... some

e x t e r n a l m a c h i n a t i o n , a m e c h a n i c a l a f f a i r , bu t a deep and

p r i m a r y o p e r a t i o n " a n d i t n o t o n l y " c o n t a i n s i n t e l l e c t u a l

a n d mora l i m p l i c a t i o n s . b u t .. . i t d i s c o v e r s them" ( 4 6 4 - 6 5 ) .

An e x a m i n a t i o n o f t h e f o r m a l i s t i c a s p e c t s of t h e p o e t r y

o f b o t h H e r b e r t a n d Nammazhvar r e v e a l s how e l e g a n c e and

e f f e c t a r e a c h i e v e d i n t h e i r p o e t r y by t h e s k i l f u l b l e n d i n g

o f c o n t e n t a n d t e c h n i q u e .

M e t a p h y s i c a l p o e t r y i s crowded w i t h m e t a p h o r s , s i m i l e s

a n d b o l d s y n t a c t i c a l d e v i c e s . I h e m e t a p h y s i c a l p o e t s

t r a n s l a t e I n t o words a n i n t e n s e e m o t i o n a l s t a t e . The re is

d e l i b e r a t e d i s r u p t i o n , a n o u t r a g e o u s image ry , a b roken rhyme

e t c . They i n d u l g e i n word games and puns and r e s o r t t o

m i n d - b o g g l i n g c o m p a r l e o n a . T h e i r p o e t r y is d r a m a t i c ,

i n g e n i o u s , c o l l o q u i a l . a n d a r g u m e n t a t i v e . In H e r b e r t ' s

p o e t r y t o o t h e r e is a v a r i e t y and e x c e l l e n c e of t e c h n i c a l

s k i l l .

He p r o f i t e d f rom Donne 's s t y l e , but i t was i n g e n i o u s l y

a d a p t e d by h im t o s u i t h i s temperament . H e r b e r t " s i m p l i f i e d

t h e i n n e r l o g i c a l p a t t e r n , f o l l o w i n g a s a r u l e a s i n g l e

t r a i n o f a r g u m e n t : h e changed t h e m e t r i c a l p a t t e r n i n t o

s o m e t h i n g l e s s f l e x i b l e , though s t i l l s t u d y i n g t o r e l a t e

sound t o s e n s e ; h e n a r r o w e d t h e r ange of d i c t i o n and imagery

w h i l e p r e s e r v i n g t h e i r a c t u a l i t y n ( B e n n e t t 6 4 ) . While

r e p r o d u c l n g t h e t o n e o f t h e spoken word, Herbe r t p r e f e r s a

c o n v e r s a t i o n a l t o n e t o Donne 's b r e a t h l e s s n e s s of e x c i t e m e n t .

B o t t r a l l comments on t h e " e a s y a s s u r a n c e " of H e r b e r t ' s

s t y l e which r e m i n d s u s t h a t "he had long been accustomed t o

' t r a d e I n c o u r t e s i e s a n d w i t ' . H i s m u s i c i a n s h i p i s

e v e r y w h e r e a p p a r e n t * ( 4 ) . He w r i t e s a s a p r i e s t o r a n

i n d i v i d u a l C h r i s t i a n i n moods of d e s p a i r and e c s t a s y . He

r e t a i n s t h e a t t e n t i o n o f t h e r e a d e r by a b a t t e r y of

q u e s t i o n s , u n u s u a l c o m p a r i s o n s and r a i l l e r y . While many

poems a r e d i d a c t i c a n d r e f l e c t i v e , many o t h e r s a r e p o e t i c

a r g u m n t s . T h e r e a r e p o e m s w h e r e a s p i r i t u a l trauma is

d r a m a t i z e d . The p o s t i s a n a c t i v e p a r t i c i p a n t i n t h e drama

a n d t h e o t h e r a c t o r s a n d t h e s e t t i n g be long t o t h e world o f

p a r a b l e s .

' h e s t y l i s t i c a i m s o f H e r b e r t a r e s e t i n t h e " Jordan"

poems, where h i s i n t e n t i o n s towards s i m p l i c i t y a r e made

c l e a r . H i s s t y l e i n c o r p o r a t e s s i m p l e , e f f e c t i v e words and

a p p r o p r i a t e rhyme t o r e f l e c t t h e mood.

C r i t i c s have o f t e n commented on the d e c e p t i v e p l a i n n e s s

of H e r b e r t ' s s t y l e . The two "Jordan" poems " a r e h i s

f a r e w e l l t o p o e t i c a l f a s h i o n s : t o a l l e g o r y , p a s t o r a l .

v e r b a l o b l i q u i t y and c o m p l i c a t i o n . But with a d i f f e r e n c e ;

h i s method i t s e l f i s o b l i q u e : " ( A l v a r e z 7 1 ) . Arnold S t e i n .

w r l t i n g on H e r b e r t ' s a r t of p l a i n n e s s , o b s e r v e s : "Herber t

h a s u s e d a r t a s a metaphor t o e x p r e s s an e x p e r i e n c e of

r e l i g i o u s l i f e n ( 2 5 9 ) . He o p i n e s t h a t i n "The Fore runners"

H e r b e r t b i d s a " f i c t i o n a l f a r e w e l l " t o t h e sweet p h r a s e s .

and l o v e l y metaphors which he h a s rescued from t h e p o e t i c

b r o t h e l s a n d u s h e r e d them i n t o t h e Church. S t e i n s e e s t h i s

p l a i n n e s s a s a r h e t o r i c of s i n c e r i t y , an a r t by which he may

t e l l t h e t r u t h t o h i m s e l f and Cod ( 2 6 4 1 .

H e r b e r t ' s a p p a r e n t s i m p l i c i t y seems t o be i n many

p l a c e s c u l t i v a t e d and d e l i b e r a t e . According t o Swardson,

t h e r e i s a c o n t r a d i c t i o n between H e r b e r t ' s theory and

p r a c t i c e . While i n t h e " Jordan" poems a r t i s t i c p o e t r y i s

r e g r e t t e d , i n " m e F o r e r u n n e r s n Herbert f e e l s t h a t t h e

b e a u t y o f p o e t r y m y be u t i l i s e d by t h e church a s w e l l .

T h i s i s t h e c o n f l i c t , whe ther f i n e language is a d i s t r a c t i o n

1 ) ' a n i n s t r u m e n t f i t t o s e r v e Cod. I n h i s v i ew, though

H e r b e r t " h a s been p r a i s e d f o r m a n l i n e s s a n d s i m p l i c i t y , i n

p r a c t i c e , h e d i d n o t f o l l o w t h i s . H e s e ldom s a y s s imply "My

Cod. My King , " and h i s p l a i n i n t e n t i o n is a l w a y s c u r l e d w i t h

m e t a p h o r s , e v e n i n t h e v e r y poems t h a t r e j e c t t h i s s t r a t e g y "

(Swardson 7 3 ) . H i s s i m p l i c i t y , t h e r e f o r e r e f e r s o n l y t o

t o n e and d i c t i o n . *Sundaym is crowded w i t h me taphors . The

s i m p l e d e c l a r a t i o n "Thou a r t s t i l l my God" i n "The

F o r e r u n n e r s " i s couched i n g r e a t e l a b o r a t i o n ; s i m p l e

a f f i r m a t i o n of f a i t h i s but d r a m a t i c a l l y shown i n "The

C o l l a r " . Thus i t is s e e n t h a t i n H e r b e r t ' s poems " t h e wor th

of a r t l e s s d e v o t i o n is, th rough a r t , d r a m a t i z e d i n t h e

complex e a r t h l y s u r r o u n d i n g s t h a t g i v e such d e v o t i o n a

s p e c i a l human meaning and v a l u e . By t h e f u l l e s t u s e o f

a r t i s t i c d e v i c e , H e r b e r t c o n t r i v e s t o make s i m p l i c i t y

p o i g n a n t , t h rough t h e l i t e r a r y l anguage p u r e d e v o t i o n i s

p l a c e d i n i t s most c o m p e l l i n g c o n t e x t ' (Swardson 77 -78 ) .

H e r b e r t h a s a d i r e c t n e s s of s t y l e and i s a l s o g i f t e d

w i t h t h e a r t of a n t i t h e s i s . H i s s h o r t e p i g r a m m a t i c l i n e s

i l l u s t r a t e h i s s k i l f u l c r a f t s m a n s h i p .

Joan B e n n e t t a n a l y s e s t h e r i s e and f a l l s t r r l c t u r e of

H e r b e r t ' s poems and o b s e ~ e s t h a t H e r b e r t b e g i n s on a low

n o t e , g r a d u a l l y and u n o s t e n t a t i o u s l y r e a c h e s t h e e m o t i o n a l

c l i m a x i n t h e m i d d l e o f t h e poem and t h e n r e l a x e s t h e

t e n s i o n c o m p l e t e l y a t t h e end i n u t t e r s i m p l i c i t y . She

i l l u s t r a t e s t h i s s t r u c t u r e wi th 'Love ( I I I I H which b e g i n s

w i t h : "Love bade me welcome" and e n d s w i t h *So I d i d s i t and

e a t " a n d 0 b S e ~ e S t h a t " A g r a p h m i g h t be made of t h e

e m o t i o n a l p l a n of t h e poem i n t h e shape of a pyramid ; t h e

two s t a t e m e n t s . 'Love bade me welcome; y e t any s o u l draw

back . ' and 'I d i d s i t and e a t . ' a r e t h e b a s e s upon which i t

r e s t s ; a t t h e apex is t h e c r y of s e l f - d i s g u s t " ( 6 9 ) . The

q u i e t n o t e a t t h e e n d seems a lmos t m a t t e r of f a c t i f t h e

e m o t i o n a l t u r m o i l which h a s o c c u r r e d i s not t aken i n t o

a c c o u n t .

O f t h e t h r e e s e c t i o n s i n % Temple, "The Church-

Porch". " m e Churchn and " m e Church M i l i t a n t " , t h e f i r s t

a n d t h e t h i r d a p p e a r t o be e a r l i e r c r e a t i o n s . While "The

Church Porch* is d i d a c t i c . * m e Church M i l i t a n t " w r i t t e n i n

h e r o i c c o u p l e t s is s a t i r i c . Lay m a t t e r s a r e kep t t o "The

Church PorchH and t h e more sub l ime i d e a s r e s e r v e d f o r t h e

house of God soon t o be e n t e r e d i n 'The Church". The r e a d e r

h a s t o p a u s e and s a n c t i f y h i m s e l f a t t h e t h r e s h o l d of t h e

Church i n * S u p e r l i m i n a r e M . A l l is prepared f o r e n t r y i n t o

t h e ha1 lowed a r e a . Once i n s i d e t h e church , t h e r e a d e r i s

l e d t o *The A l t a r " from where ' S a c r i f i c e n n a t u r a l l y

s u c c e e d s , which reminds t h e poe t of o u r deb t t o God and

l e a d s t o * T h a n k s g i v i n g n . The r e a d e r i s t aken on a t o u r

round t h e church a n d s h o r n "The C h u r c h - f l o o r " , "Church

Monuments*, "Church Music" and s o on. Wishing t o c e l e b r a t e

t h e C h r i s t i a n y e a r , H e r b e r t g i v e s u s poems on C h r i s t m a s ,

L e n t , Good F r i d a y . E a s t e r , Whitsunday e t c . ( B o t t r a l l

60 -61) . Ihese poems d e a l w i t h r i t u a l s . c e l e b r a t i o n s a n d

o t h e r e x t e r n a l a s p e c t s o f t h e Church. But t h e v a l u e o f "The

C h u r c h n d e p e n d s n o t on t h e s e bu t on t h e p o e t ' s p r e -

o c c u p a t i o n w i t h t h e c r u c i f i x i o n which a r o u s e s s p i r i t u a l

s t o r m s i n h i s s o u l . Ihe Church t h u s becomes i n a way a

b a t t l e g r o u n d where H e r b e r t f i g h t s w i t h s e v e r a l p r o b l e m s

w i t h i n h i m s e l f a n d t h e c o n f l i c t i s f i n a l l y r e s o l v e d a f t e r

r i c h l y c o n t r i b u t i n g t o p o e t r y . The s o u l and p o e t r y h a v e

g a i n e d by t h e p o e t ' s c o n f l i c t s .

S e v e r a l poems i n The Temple a r e c o l l o q u i e s w i t h God o r

w i t h H e r b e r t ' s own h e a r t . D ia logues a r e used i n "Love

Unknown". which h a s s e v e r a l p a r e n t h e s e s and i s s p i c e d up by

comments of t h e s e c o n d s p e a k e r . S n a t c h e s of c o n v e r s a t i o n

a r e o v e r h e a r d i n poems l i k e "The Quip" and "Peace" .

Somet imes h i s poems a r e i n t h e form of a o n e - s i d e d

c o n v e r s a t i o n . H e r b e r t ' s v e r s e i s d r a m a t i c a n d i t s e f f e c t

h e i g h t e n e d by a v o l l e y o f q u e s t i o n s , e x c l a m a t i o n s a n d

r e p r i m e n d s . About 20 poems b e g i n w i t h a q u e s t i o n and h i s

f o n d n e s s o f t h e i n t e r r o g a t i v e can be seen i n most o f h i s

poems.

mere is v a r i e t y i n H e r b e r t ' s p o e t r y t h a t d a z z l e s t h e

r e a d e r . AS a p o e t H e r b e r t c a t e r s n o t o n l y t o t h e i n t e l l e c t

and p o e t i c s e n s i b i l i t y bu t a l s o t o t h e e a r and e y e of t h e

r e a d e r . AS Summers n o t e s , " I n The Temple t h e r e i s one t r u e

anagram, one e c h o poem, one ' h i d d e n a c r o s t i c ' . one poem

b a s e d on t h e d o u b l e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of i n i t i a l s , one based on

a s y l l a b i c pun a n d . . . a p r u n i n g paem."(238).

In t h e p a t t e r n poem H e r b e r t h a s o n l y i n n o v a t i v e l y u s e d

t r a d i t i o n a l m a t e r i a l . "The A l t a r " and 'Eas te r -wings* a r e

n o t e x o t i c o r f r i v o l o u s o d d i t i e s ; t h e y a r e t h e most o b v i o u s

example8 o f H e r b e r t ' e r e l i g i o u s and p o e t i c conce rn w i t h what

we may c a l l t h e h i e r o g l y p h " (Summers 225) . A h i e r o g l y p h i s

d e f i n e d a s "a f i g u r e , d e v i c e o r s i g n h a v i n g some h i d d e n

mean ing ; a s e c r e t o r e n i g m a t i c a l symbol; an emblem" (Summers

2 2 5 ) . The d e a t h o f C h r i s t is g e n e r a l l y a c c e p t e d t o be a

h i e r o g l y p h a s i t r e m i n d s u s t o b e a r o u r c r o s s s i m i l a r l y .

From t h e t i t l e of t h e poem "The Church-f l o o r e " we t e n d

t o a s sume t h a t t h e f l o o r i s t h e h i e r o g l y p h of t h e c h u r c h ' s

f o u n d a t i o n , wh ich is b a s e d on t h e o l o g i c a l v i r t u e s . But i t

i s o n l y w i t h t h e l a s t word o f t h e poem, " h e a r t " t h a t we

u n d e r s t a n d t h a t t h e r e f e r e n c e i s t o t h e human h e a r t . N e a r l y

a l w a y s H e r b e r t " p r e s e n t s t h e i n s t i t u t i o n a l a s a h i e r o g l y p h

o f t h e p e r s o n a l r a t h e r than v i c e v e r s a : . . . The a r t f u l

' A r c h i t e c t ' h a s b u i l t w i t h i n t h e i n d i v i d u a l h e a r t , e q u a l l y

i n d e s t r u c t i b l y , t h e S a l v a t i o n o f t h e i n d i v i d u a l and t h e

f o u n d a t i o n of H i s Church (Summers 2 2 7 - 2 2 8 ) .

In t h e poem 'The Bunch o f Grapes", the t i t l e i n d i c a t e s

t h e h i e r o g l y p h . I t i s u s e d a s t h e c e n t r a l image i n a

m e d i t a t i o n on a p e r s o n a l e x p e r i e n c e . 'Ihe bunch of g r a p e s i s

a t y p e of C h r i s t and o f t h e C h r i s t i a n ' s communion (Summers

2 2 9 ) .

While t h e h i e r o g l y p h is used a t t imes t o d e f i n e o r

r e s o l v e t h e c e n t r a l c o n f l i c t i n a poem a s in " J o s e p h ' s

C o a t * , a l l t h e h i e r o g l y p h i c a p p l i c a t i o n s of monuments a r e

drawn i n "Church Monuments*. Very o f t e n the poem i t s e l f i s

made i n t o a h i e r o g l y p h a s i n " D e n i a l l n . The d i s o r d e r f e l t

In t h e h e a r t and s o u l of t h e poet when God d e n i e s h i s

r e q u e s t s i s m i r r o r e d by t h e d i s o r d e r i n the rhyme scheme of

t h e poem. Normalcy and p e r f e c t i o n a r e r e s t o r e d on ly when

God mends h i s broken h e a r t and with i t , the rhyme. The l a s t

l i n e of e v e r y p r e c e d i n g s t a n z a h a s an odd rhyme and i t i s

p e r f e c t e d o n l y i n t h e l a s t s t a n z a .

" T r l n i t i e Sunday*. "S innes r o u n d ' and " A Wreath" a r e

a l s o fo rmal h i e r o g l y p h s . The very t i t l e s of 'The C o l l a r "

and *The P u l l e y n a r e h i e r o g l y p h s which symbolize the idea o f

t h e poem f o r t h e r e is n o mention o f the c o l l a r o r t h e p u l l e y

i n t h e r e s p e c t i v e poems. * P a r a d i s e m is a ' p r u n i n g ' poem, i n

which t h e typography becomes a formal e lement . The second

and t h i r d rhymes o f e a c h s t a n z a a r e formed by p a r i n g o f f t h e

f i r s t c o n s o n a n t o f t h e p r e c e d i n g rhyme:

1 b l e s s t h e e , Lord, because I GROW

Among t h y t r e e s , which i n a ROW

To t h e e b o t h f r u i t and o r d e r OW ... Such s h a r p n e s s shows t h e s w e e t e s t F R E N D :

Such c u t t i n g s r a t h e r h e a l t hen R E N D :

And such b e g i n n i n g s touch t h e i r E N D .

'The poet11 i m p l i e s t h a t Cod ' s p r u n i n g of man a l o n e w i l l make

t i i s c r e a t i o n f r u i t f u l . I t a l s o i m p l i e s c l e a r i n g up t h e

s e e d s o f w o r l d l i n e s s and " t h e f i n a l ' c u t t i n g away ' o f t h e

U u d y a n d t h e r e l e a s e of t h e s o u l a t d e a t h w (Summers 2 3 9 ) .

Coming t o H e r b e r t ' s h a n d l i n g of a v i s u a l h i e r o g l y p h ,

t h e s t r u c t u r e of t h e poem l e a p s out of t h e p a g e s t o t h e e y e

of e v e n a l a y r e a d e r and t h e r e i n H e r b e r t t r i e s t o make t h e

message o b v i o u s . The two v i s u a l h i e r o g l y p h s of Herbert 'The

A l t a r w a n d ' E a s t e r - w i n g s n r e l a t e t o h i s C h r i s t i a n b e l i e f .

The A l t a r s y m b o l i s e a t h e human h e a r t a s t h e t r u e a l t a r , upon

which H e r b e r t ' s poems a r e o f f e r e d . H i s h e a r t i s b r o k e n a n d

t h e r e f o r e I s f i t t o be o f f e r e d a s a s a c r i f i c e , a s s t a t e d i n

Psa lms 51. I t i s t o b e n o t e d t h a t i n m e Temple t h e poem

s u c c e e d i n g * I h e A l t a r " immed ia t e ly is "The S a c r i f i c e n . "The

s h a p e o f H e r b e r t ' s poem was i n t e n d e d t o h i e r o g l y p h t h e

relevance Of the old altar to the new Christian altar within

the heartn observes Summers (241).

"Easter-wings" is a hieroglyph which implies that man

can rise only by fall, for "Where Sinne abounded, grace did

much more abound" IRom.V:20). Paradise was lost because of

Adam's Sin but the sinners brought the Son of Cod amidst

them and tic d i e d for their redemption and they rose up with

Him. This is the continual pattern of fall and rise, death

and life. This pattern is projected through "Easter-wingsY.

In thls poem, we see not only the wing pattern but also how

i t is achieved by the process of thinning and expansion

which make6 flight possible (Summers 242).

While other poets of his age used hieroglyphs as the

basis for their imagery, "Herbert's distinction lies in his

successful development of the conception that the entire

poem could be organised around a hieroglyph and that the

poem itself could be constructed as a formal hieroglyph.

The hieroglyph represented toHerbert a fusion of the

spiritual and the material, of the rational and sensuous in

the essential terms of formal relationships" (Summers 2441.

Klawitter analyses "A Wreath" as a word-game poem. Its

word convolutions send the readers round and round till they

reach a finality, which is but a repetition of the poem's

open ing i d e a . J u s t a s a g a r l a n d i s made by b r a i d i n g a new

f l o w e r w i t h t h e p r e v i o u s o n e , u p t o l i n e 5 t h e r e i s "end

weaving' ' and i n t h e r e p e t i t i o n s , t h e words a r e r e v e r s e d .

A Wreathed g a r l a n d of d e s e r v e d p r a i s e .

Of p r a i s e d e s e r v e d . u n t o t h e e I g i v e .

I g i v e t o t h e e , who knowest a l l my wayes

My c rooked wind ing wayes, where in 1 l i v e ,

Wherein 1 d i e , n o t l i v e : . . .

11-51

In 1 . 5 , t h e r e a d e r i s j o l t e d when h e i s c o n f r o n t e d by d e a t h

r a t h e r t h a n l i f e , which h e was made t o e x p e c t . This makes

him a w a r e o f h i s ' c r o o k e d wind ing wayes" a s a l l t h i n g s

~ o r l d l y a r e d e v i o u s . He can r e a c h up t o God i n a s t r a i g h t

1 i n e .

The p o e t ' s y e a r n i n g f o r s i m p l i c i t y i s r e f l e c t e d

h e r e a f t e r by t h e end weav ings which a r e s i n g u l a r words

i n s t e a d of b e i n g m u l t i p l e .

. . . f o r l i f e i s s t r a i g h t ,

S t r a i g h t a s a l i n e , a n d e v e r t e n d s t o t h e e .

To t h e e , who a r t more f a r r e above d e c e i t ,

Then d e c e i t s eems above s i m p l i c i t i e .

G i v e rm s i m p l i c i t i e , t h a t I may l i v e .

So l i v e and l i k e , t h a t 1 may know, t h y wayes,

Know them and p r a c t i s e them: t h e n s h a l l I g i v e

For t h i s p o o r e w r e a t h . g i v e t h e e a crown of p r a i s e .

(5-12)

T h i s f i r s t q u a t r a i n i s r e p e a t e d i n t h e t h i r d q u a t r a i n b u t

t h e words o c c u r i n t h e r e v e r s e o r d e r e x a c t l y . The poem e n d s

where i t began. Once aware of h i s waywardness , t h e p o e t

g o e s u p ' t o t h e e ' a n d a f t e r t h a t l i t e r a l l y r e t r a c e s h i s

s t e p s t o p r a i s e Him.

C i r c u l a r i t y i s once a g a i n s e e n i n " S i n n e s round". ~ u t

i t i s no t ' end-weav ing ' from l i n e t o l i n e , bu t t h e l a s t l i n e

0 1 e v e r y s t a n z a becomes e x a c t l y t h e f i r s t l i n e of t h e n e x t

s t a n z a . Thus t h e c o n c l u d i n g l i n e of t h e poem i s t h e v e r y

same l i n e a s t h e open ing l i n e of t h e poem. T h i s seems t o be

n o t a mere word-game bu t a s y m b o l i c p a t t e r n most a p p r o p r i a t e

t o i t s s u b j e c t s i n c e s i n i s a v i c i o u s c y c l e ( B o t t r a l l 1 0 4 ) .

Significantly, t h e s e two poems a r e s i m i l a r t o t h e a n t a t i

form h a n d l e d by Nammazhvar i n h i s poems.

" T r i n l t i e Sunday" r e v e a l s a d i v i n e numerology i n i t s

p a t t e r n and t h u s i s a n o t h e r fo rma l h i e r o g l y p h . I t is

composed of t h r e e s t a n z a s , e a c h w i t h t h r e e l i n e s and e v e r y

s t a n z a h a s o n l y one rhyme a n d p r o v i d e s *a h i e r o g l y p h of t h e

God who I s s i m l t a n e o u s l y t h r e e p e r s o n s i n o n e W (Ormerod

2 7 ) . In s t a n z a one a n d two t h e r e i s one e n t i t y p e r l i n e :

F a t h e r who c r e a t e s ( 1 . 1 ) . t h e son who redeems ( 1 . 2 1 , t h e

Holy S p i r i t t h a t s a n c t i f i e s man ( 1 . 3 ) . a b s o l v i n g s i n s of t h e

p a s t ( 1 . 4 1 , o r t h e p r e s e n t ( 1 . 5 ) and of t h e f u t u r e ( 1 . 6 ) .

I n s t a n z a t h r e e , e a c h l i n e h a s t h r e e e n t i t i e s : ' E n r i c h my

h e a r t , mouth, h a n d s i n me, / With f a i t h , w i t h hope. w i t h

c h a r i t l e ; / m a t I may r u n n e , r i s e , r e s t w i t h t h e e ( 7 - 9 ) .

Thus t h e poem h a s n i n e l i n e s and t h e t h i r d s t a n z a h a s

n i n e e n t i t i e s . Number n i n e i s a c i r c u l a r number a s i t

r e m a i n s t h e same, m u l t i p l i e d by any number. T h i s i s t h e

d i v i n e numero logy f o r t h e m y s t i c a l number n i n e i s a r e m i n d e r

of t h e e v e r c o n s t a n t , unchang ing a s p e c t of Cod. who h a s

n e i t h e r a b e g i n n i n g n o r an end . I t is p e r h a p s f o r t h i s

r e a s o n t h a t H e r b e r t employs c i r c u l a r i t y i n some of h i s

poems.

" C o l o s s . 3 .3" , h a s t h e message of t h e b i b l i c a l t e x t i n

t h e t i t l e . B e s i d e s t h i s , t h e poem c o n t a i n s a h i d d e n message

i n i t a l i c i z e d words d i a g o n a l l y a c r o s s t h e poem. The message

i s o b l l q u e l i t e r a l l y a n d f i g u r a t i v e l y 1 .e . i t i s s l a n t e d a n d

I t moves f r o m m h a t i s a p p a r e n t t o t h e r e a l . The p a t t e r n

c o u l d a l s o mean d e s c e n d i n g i n two s e n s e s : we must d e s c e n d i n

o r d e r t o a s c e n d l i k e C h r i s t who descended t o u p l i f t man.

J u s t a s o u r e y e r move t o a n d f r o a c r o s s t h e poem, d r o p down

a n d t h e n swing back t o t h e t o p t o g r a s p t h e h i d d e n message ,

we t o o s h o u l d rise, r u n , s i n k , d i e and r i s e s g a i n w i t h

C h r i s t . No t r e a s u r e can be g a i n e d wi thou t o u r d e l v i n g d e e p

f o r i t .

H e r b e r t ' s two- l ine poem "Anagram" is an ep ig ram i n t h a t

t h e r e i s So much s a i d i n s o few words. The poem a s i t

a p p e a r s i n t h e t e x t :

MARY Ana gram

ARMY

How well h e r name an Army do th p r e s e n t ,

In whom t h e Lord of Hos t s d i d p i t c h h i s t e n t !

The poem s a y s s u c c i n c t l y t h a t the e n t i r e C h r i s t i a n army is

huddled i n one smal l t e n t , t h a t i s , in V i r g i n Mary who b o r e

C h r i s t . i n whom e v e r y one d w e l l s .

Thus we s e e Herber t u s i n g s e v e r a l methods t o r e a c h t h e

r e a d e r . I t h a s been g e n e r a l l y a c c e p t e d t h a t he owes h i s

s i m p l i c i t y and t h e g e n e r a l framework of h i s poems t o t h e

B i b l e . As t h e p e o p l e o f the age were f a m i l i a r w i t h t h e

B i b l e , H e r b e r t c o u l d be s u r e of h i s poems be ing w e l l

u n d e r s t o o d by h i s r e a d e r s . The B i b l e p rov ided him w i t h

c o n c e i t s and most of h i s imagery was d e r i v e d from i t . H i s

l i v e l y mind c l e v e r l y u t i l i z e d the s a c r e d m a t e r i a l . His

c o n c e i t s have a homely d i r e c t n e s s f o r which Herber t might be

i n d e b t e d t o t h e Emblem w r i t e r s . His poems r e f l e c t t h e f o r c e

and v i g o u r of p a r a b l e s and a t t imes he sounds l i k e a p u l p i t

orator. Herbert's poetry gains from the Bible "its air of

finality" and every dilemma or conflict is presented

"within the context of an answern (Alvarez 78). Herbert, the

parson is Seen in his poems, elucidating meaning with

scriptural observations. He was able to christanize even

classical allusions. Ihe influence of the En~blern tradition

can be seen in his bringing together the visual and the

intellectual.

Herbert's indebtedness to the Bible is evident from the

stark lucidity and impregnated understatements seen in his

poems. m e influence of the Psalms and the parables of the

Bible is quite significant. He is fond of proverbs and his

"Church-Porchg is a moral lesson in verse. The Book of

Proverbs seems to be responsible for his highly concise and

compressed phrasing. Herbert the poet was not merely

impressed by the piety of the Psalms but by its peerless

poetry. Some of his poems remind us of parables not only

for the parabolic teaching in them as in *Redemptionn. 'Love

( I I I ) " and "Peace" but because they concretise abstractions

like parables and there is an inherent complexity behind

the seeming simplicity in his poems.

His tonal range has also been inherited from the Bible.

For example, the simple last line of "Redemption". "Who

straight. Your suit is granted. said 6 died" reminds one of

Mil t o n ' s l i n e i n * P a r a d i s e Rega ined I V * , "Tempt n o t t h e

Lord t h y God: h e s a i d and s t o o d n ( 6 1 ) .

H e r b e r t and M i l t o n a r e m a s t e r s whose v e r s e can r e f l e c t

t h e theme i . e . t h e i n n e r c o n l l l c t s a r e m a n i f e s t i n t h e v e r s e

form. m e S e l i n e s , which have s u c h a s i m p l e open e n d i n g .

can be i n t e r p r e t e d . I r o n i c a l l y . i n v a r i o u s ways. A l l

e l a b o r a t i o n s a r e suspended and t h e nominal s i m p l i c i t y

a s l o n i s h e s u s by b e i n g an u n d e r s t a t e m e n t . I t i s t h i s

q u a l i t y t h a t h a s been i n h e r i t e d by H e r b e r t and M i l t o n f rom

t h e U i b l e . U o t t r a l l d e c l a r e s t h a t H e r b e r t , l i k e S p e n s e r .

r l i l t o n and B lake , was " a l i v e t o b h e ~ i b i e ' s ] symbol ism and

q u i c k t o p e r c e i v e a n a l o g i e s between t h e Jewish s t o r y and

human e x p e r i e n c e , whe the r r e c o r d e d o r unde rgone i n t h e i r own

p e r s o n s : " ( 9 2 ) .

In h e r A Reading of George H e r b e r t . Rosamond Tuve

i l l u s t r a t e s t h e i n f l u e n c e of t h e Old Testament on H e r b e r t ' s

Imagery. In s e v e r a l poems we s e e h l s a f f i n i t y w i t h t h e Old

Tes t amen t . The 43rd Psalm i n p a r t i c u l a r seems t o be t h e

moving i n f l u e n c e f o r t h e q u i c k and s u b t l e changes of temper

r e f l e c t e d by h i s poems. The Psalms seem t o have g l f t e d h im

w i t h a s u r e n e s s of t o n e and an e a s y f a m i l i a r i t y w i t h which

h e a p p r o a c h e s God. The t e n d e r n e s s and p l a y f u l n e s s found i n t

h i s p o e t r y i s , o f c o u r s e , H e r b e r t ' s own s p e c i a l

c o n t r l b u t l o n .

m e B i b l e seems t o have i n s p i r e d H e r b e r t ' s u s e of

homely imagery. I t names o r d i n a r y t h i n g s l i k e a plough and

a h a t c h e t *showing t h a t t h i n g s of o r d i n a r y u s e a r e not o n l y

t o a e r v e i n t h e r a y of d rudgery , but t o be washed and

c l e a n e d , and s e r v e l o r l i g h t s even of Heavenly T r u t h s n

(e 257).

Herber t d e s c r i b e r f i r e with b i b l i c a l s i m p l i c i t y i n

*Conten ta . "Mark how t h e f i r e i n f l i n t s doth q u i e t

I l e . / Content and warm t ' i t s e l l alone: . (9-10). He c a l l s

n i g h t an ebony box i n which we a r e e n c l o s e d and r e s t e d

("Even-Song*). "Redemption* with i t s a n a l o g i e s of t h e tenant

and t h e l a n d l o r d , i s l i k e a p a r a b l e . 'The P u l l e y w u s e s t h e

p a r a b l e of Pandora ' s Box i m a g i n a t i v e l y . According t o

Bot t r r l l . Herber t "never f o r g e t s the n a t u r a l idioms and

cadences of rpoken Engl i sh . His p h r a s e s a r e s h o r t and t o

t h e p o i n t ... The s i m p l i c i t y of h i s language is adequate t o

a l l demands, l i k e t h e language of t h e Book of Common

Prayera ( 7 9 ) .

Much of H e r b e r t ' s imegery is d e r i v e d from e v e r day

o c c u p a t i o n s l i k e c a r p e n t r y and gardening . There a r e a e v e r r l

n l e m n c e a t o c a b i n e t s , boxes, c h e s t s , cupboards. screw e t c .

According t o Joan Bennett * g r i e f t o r t u r e s a man a s a

c a r p o n t a r t o r t u r e s wood* i n *Confession* ( 6 1 ) . Man is o f t e n

t a l k e d o f r r a f lower , weed. t r e e and Herber t u s h e r s i n t h e

garden t h n ~ 8 h there imager. Agr i cu l tu ra l images abound in

'Hornm. words such a s o f f i c e , exchange, h a l l [ " [ )u idd i t i em) .

s a l e , r a t e , p r i c e , commoditty,(.The P e a r l m ) . purchase, deed.

buyer, and s e l l e r (*Obediencem) reminding us of day t o day

collmarce a u r p ~ i s e us by t h e i r mundanlty.

His poems a r e crowded with domestic imagery a s well .

We f ind household-stuff and fu rn i tu re ( * A f f l i c t i o n ( I ) * ) .

bed and clock ("Even-song") , watch ("Hope"). p i l low.

( " b a t h ' ) , furnace and cauldron ("Love Unknown" 1 ,

handkerchief ("The Dawning") and severa l con ta ine r s l i k e

b o t t l e . b ~ c k e t s , g l a s s . v i a l . The host-guest image and

death sweeping the f l o o r a r e a l s o i n t e r e s t i n g images from

d a i l y l i f e .

He rbe r t ' s imagery i s not always on the mundane l e v e l .

I t doer soa r t o unusual he igh t s of fancy o f t e n : Day i s

*br ide11 of the e a r t h and sk i e" ("Ver tue") , death i s a c h a i r

(.The Pi lgr image") . the hue of the rose i s "angr ie and

bravem ( "Ver tuen ) , p leasure i s nco lou r ' d g r i e f s w and

"blushing woesg ("me Rosen) and Chr i s t leaving h i s grave-

c lo the8 a s a handkerchief f o r us [ * t h e Darningn). God i s an

a n g l e r in g A f f l i c t i o n (V)". Herbe r t ' s use of imagery in

*me F l o w r m r e f l e c t i n g the symbolism of seasons and the

p o t t a r ' s c l ay in *The Pries thoodn deserve mention. Well-

def ined h l s imager c e r t a i n l y a r e ; but they a r e not markedly

p i c t o r i a l ( B o t t r a l l 112) . ' h e r e a r e v e r y few v i s u a l

demcriptlonm and c o l o u r s a r e r a r e l y mentioned; o n l y t h e

symbollam of l l g h t and shade is o f t e n used: "Night draws

t h e c u r t a i n whlch the sunne withdrawsn ("Man"). But i f

Herber t l a g s behind in v i s u a l imagery, h i s sense of smel l

and t a s t e i s So sharp t h a t i t more than makes up f o r h i s

l a c k o f v i s u a l s e n s i b i l i t y . In many poems e c s t a s y and joy

1 s e x p e r i e n c e d a s a sweet t a s t e o r a s a whiff of f r a g r a n c e .

J u s t a s C h r i s t . whi le t e l l i n g h i s p r a b l e s . r e s o r t e d t o

t h e f a m i l i a r t h l n g s of everyday l i f e , Herbert too r e f e r s t o

moon and 11tar6, boxes and c o n t a i n e r s , fu rnaces and gardens .

sheep , f i s h and dog, houses. f l o o r s . doors , windows, keys.

b read , w a t e r , wine e t c . In h i 6 poems. While the a c t i v i t y of

n a t u m p r o v i d e s a c l u s t e r of lmages i n some poems, i n

c e r t a i n o t h e r s , images a r e d e r i v e d from w a r f a r e

( ' A r t i l l e r l e m ) , a r c h i t e c t u r e I n m e Church f l o o r e n ) , l e g a l

a c t i v l t l e s (.Redemptionm) and commerce I n m e H. C O ~ n i O n m ) .

I t l a s a i d next t o Cod and r e l i g i o n , i t was music t h a t

moved Herber t most. While s e v e r a l of h i s poems were meant

t o be sung. t h e musical imagery found i n h i s poems is a

t e a t l a o n y t o h i s l o v e of music. He compares t h e s inews of

Cod t o t h e ~ t r l n g s of a musical ins t rument : "Hls s t r e t c h e d

s i n e n t a u ~ h t a l l s t r l n g t . what key / I s b e s t t o c e l e b r a t e

t h l 8 DOmt h i 8 h day9 ( 'Ba t te r* 11-12).

Such is t h e mercy of C h r i s t t h a t He t e a c h e s u s t h e

music of joy and makes Himself t h e ins t rument from which

emanates d i v i n e music. In "Temper ( I ) " he p r a y s : " S t r e t c h

o r c o n t r a c t me, thy poore d e b t e r : Th is i s but tun ing of my

b r e a s t , To make t h e musick b e t t e r n ( 2 2 - 2 4 ) .

'Ihe Temple is s t rewn w i t h E u c h a r i s t imagery. "?he - S u p e r l i m i n a r e " r i g h t l y i n v i t e s u s t o "approach , and t a s t e u .

S e v e r a l words s t a n d proof t o t h e E u c h a r i s t being t h e

f o u n t a i n h e a d of H e r b e r t ' s p o e t i c s e n s i b i l i t y e . g . a l t a r .

board , banque t , t a s t e , e a t , meat, b read , wine e t c . m e

c o l l e c t i o n of poems which began wi th an i n v i t a t i o n t o a

m y s t i c a l f e a s t r i g h t l y e n d s wi th t h e poet say ing 'So I d i d

s i t and e a t n . The E u c h a r i s t is t h u s t h e i n v i s i b l e cord

which t i e s up the e n t i r e c o l l e c t i o n of poems from beginn ing

t o end . P a r a d o x i c a l l y , what we c a l l the i n v i s i b l e cord i s

s a l d t o be t h e v i s i b l e m a n i f e s t a t i o n of i n v i s i b l e g r a c e .

On t h e whole, i n many poems of Herber t an ana logy i s

mere ly s u g g e s t e d ; symbolism is e x q u i s i t e l y c o n t r o l l e d ,

d e s c r i p t i o n s s c a r c e and imagery u n o b t r u s i v e and s u s t a i n e d .

H i s p l a y f u l n e s s goes u n n o t i c e d and is n e v e r a guffaw. A l l

t h i s is because , t h e whole m a t t e r e d t o him more than the

p a r t s and h e d i d n o t want any p o e t i c d e v i c e t o be s o

e l a b o r a t e a s t o f o c u s a t t e n t i o n on i t s e l f r a t h e r than on t h e

t r u t h embedded i n t h e poem.

H e r b e r t ' s a r c h i t e c t o n i c s k i l l is e v i d e n c e d by t h e

h a r m o n i o u s b l e n d of though t and imagery. He seems t o be a

m a s t e r o f c o n c i s e , c o n t a i n e d , comprehens ive e x p r e s s i o n . ' b e

r a m f i v e rhyme words r e p e a t e d i n "Aaronn , r e p e t i t i v e

imagery , s p a r s e d e s c r i p t i o n , s u s t a i n e d symbolism and

overwhelming p a s s i o n b o t t l e d up i n a s i n g l e word o r p h r a s e

b e a r t e s t lmony t o H e r b e r t ' s economy of e x p r e s s i o n . ' b i s

a l s o d e n o t e s h i s c o n s c i o u s e f f o r t t o d i v e s t h i s s t y l e of

f r i l l s a n d s t r i v e f o r s t a r k s i m p l i c i t y . "Th inew. "Mine".

"Morem, and " R e s t o r e " a r e t h e o n l y f o u r rhyme words i n a

poem of twen ty l i n e s ( " C l a s p i n g of hands ' ) .

H e r b e r t ' s economy of e x p r e s s i o n was t o a g r e a t e x t e n t

a c h l e v e d t h r o u g h sudden s w i n g s and a b r u p t t r a n s i t i o n s . "The

C o l l a r * p o r t r a y s h i s r e b e l l i o u s mood f o r c e f u l l y . T h i s i s

H e r b e r t ' s s p e c i a l i t y , h i s c a p a c i t y t o i n v e n t a m e t r i c a l form

t o s u i t e v e r y s i t u a t i o n p o r t r a y e d . The poem is c o l l o q u i a l

i n t o n e . Impe tuous , u n r u l y , h a s a s e n s e o f u r g e n c y , i s

f i l l e d w i t h s t a c c a t o p h r a s e s and a n g r y e n q u i r y , h a s c h i l d i s h

r e i t e r a t i o n s , i n c o h e r e n c e due t o a n g e r a n d g r i e f , i r r e g u l a r

m e t r e , l i n e s o f uneven l e n g t h - - a l l subdued a n d put i n p l a c e

by one word from t h e Voice. The r e a d e r canno t be1 i e v e t h a t

t h e r e can be such l e a s h e d power i n one word, which can q u e l l

t h e c i v i l war w i t h l n t h e p o e t [ W i l l y 9 2 ) . ' h e poem

a b r u p t l y t a k e s u s f rom r u d e u n c o u t h b e h a v i o u r t o ca lm

c o u r t e s y . One is reminded o f a n i n t r a n s i g e n t c h i l d howl ing

and banging t h e t a b l e when suddenly t h e s t r i c t and lov ing

p a r e n t w i t h one word is a b l e t o make t h e c h i l d swallow i t s

r o b and h iccup . The t i t l e is symbolic, f o r Herber t h a s a l l

a long been behaving l i k e a wi ld b e a s t needing a c o l l a r .

Douglaa Brown d e f i n e s t h r e e shocks d e p i c t e d i n t h e

poem--ons, of a c t i o n i n s t r i k i n g t h e "board*; two, of t h e

v e r b a l shock o f t h e blasphemy and t h r e e . the persona l l a p s e

i n manners. which is un-Herber t ian (127) . l h e poem u s e s

c o n t r a s t t o d r i v e home i t s p o i n t . l h e Voice w a i t s f o r t h e

p o e t ' s o u t b u r s t t o come t o a l u l l . f o r He is too d i g n i f i e d

t o i n t e r r u p t in between. lhis c o n t r a s t s t h e b o o r i s h

behaviour of the p o e t . A l l is chaos, l i t e r a l l y and

f i g u r a t i v e l y t i l l t h e Voice t a k e s over . There a r e f i v e

c o n s e c u t i v e unrhymed l i n e s , a s s y m b o l i c a l l y , H e r b e r t ' s

p o e t r y a l s o seems t o break f r e e from r e s t r a i n t . What

r e s u l t s then i s no t p o e t i c , seeming t o imply t h a t n o t h i n g

good w i l l r e s u l t from h i s rmt iny a g a i n s t Cod. When t h e

f i n a l submission comes, Herber t h a s l e f t behind h i s c h i l d i s h

tan t rums and h a s become cour teous . The s e n s e of c o n t r o l i n

him i a r e f l e c t e d i n t h e v e r s e a s wal l . I t is now t h a t t h e

poem h a 6 e n a c t e d t h e "growing upw of Herber t (Brown 129).

T r a n a l t l o n from s p i r i t u a l a r i d i t y due t o a l i e n a t i o n

from Cod t o t h e f e r t i l i t y of r e c o n c i l i a t i o n is brought ou t

i n " I h a P l o w r n . A a i m i l a r t r a n s i t i o n t a k e s p l a c e i n "Ihe

C r o s a e " , where t h e poe t a c c e p t s a l l pa inkand s u f f e r i n g w i t h

a sudden s u b m i s s i v e n e s s .

The Temple i s b u i l t w i t h a v a r i e t y of rhyme p a t t e r n s - and s t a n z a forms. H e r b e r t is no t a c o n v e n t i o n a l s o n n e t e e r .

C r i t i c s have a n a l y s e d H e r b e r t ' s v a r i a t i o n s on t h e

conven t 1 0 n a l Shakespea rean rhyme-scheme. Ot t enhof f r emarks :

" H e r b e r t t h e c r a f t s m a n e x p l o i t s t h e c o n v e n t i o n s o f t h e

s o n n e t i n d i v e r s e ways: by i n t r o d u c i n g u n e x p e c t e d g r o u p i n g s

of t h e rhyme and s y n t a x , by u s i n g enjambment f r e e l y and

e x p r e s s l v e l y and by a l t e r i n g h i s e s s e n t i a l l y smooth i a m b i c

p e n t a m e t e r v e r s e t o emphas ize t h e s e i n d i v i d u a l u s e s n

( O t t e n h o f f 3 1 .

Of t h e f i t e e n s o n n e t s i n I h e Temple, a l l e x c e p t "The

Redea ip t lonn a r e w r i t t e n i n t h e r e g u l a r S h a k e s p e a r e a n scheme

o f a l t e r n a t i n g rhyme i n t h e t h i r d q u a t r a i n s , t hough w i t h

mlnor d e v l a t l o n s . Seven s o n n e t s have a n i n v e r t e d " e f f e n

rhyme i n t h e t h i r d q u a t r a i n , t h e e x c e p t i o n b e i n g 'S inne

( I ) " , whlch h a s " e l e l " rhyme.

" P r a y e r ( I ) " w i t h no f i n i t e v e r b . " I h e H. S c r i p t u r e s

( 1 ) " w i t h a s y n t a c t i c t u r n a t t h e e e v e n t h l i n e a n d " S i n n e

( 1 ) " w i t h a n o p e n i n g s t a t e m e n t f o l l o w e d by e l e v e n

s y n t a c t i c a l l y r e l a t e d l i n e s , i l l u s t r a t e H e r b e r t ' s p e n c h a n t

f o r " a t r s t c h l n g n t h e s o n n e t form ( O t t e n h o f f 4 ) . mile t h e

n a r r a t i v e s o n n e t s a r e w r i t t e n i n a l i g h t e r metre wi th

unexpec ted l e x i c a l s t r e a a and u n r t r e r e e d s y l l a b l e s , t h e

m e d i t a t i v e e o n n e t s have a h e a v i e r metre and a r e more

i r r e g u l a r due t o t h e number of s t r e s s e d s y l l a b l e s ou t of

p0a i t iOn. 'Prayer [ I ) " is a good example f o r t h e l a t t e r and

* m e H o l d f s a t ~ i l l u s t r a t e s t h e former type. In s h o r t

H e r b e r t ' s sonne ta a r e no t mere s o n n e t s in t h e c o n s e r v a t i v e

s e n a e but complex i n t e r e s t i n g poems - an o l d form employed

i n a new s e r v i c e .

I t i s i n t e r e s t i n g t o n o t e t h a t 116 out of the 169 poems

i n The Temple a r e w r i t t e n i n met res not repea ted . Herber t

was g i f t e d wi th the c a p a c i t y t o invent f o r e v e r y s i t u a t i o n

an a p p r o p r i a t e rhythm and s e t t i n g ( B o t t r a l l 106). m e

r e b e l l i o u s mood d e p i c t e d i n " Ihe C o l l a r * i s e x p r e s s e d

a p p r o p r i a t e l y by an unparagraphed run of f r e e v e r s e . The

v e r s e t h u s symbol i ses H e r b e r t ' s wish t o be f r e e from

r e a t r a i n t . A g e n t l e q u a t r a i n is used i n "Submission* and

thua h i e v e r y p o e t i c mode i s an e x t e r n a l m a n i f e s t a t i o n of

t h e mood of t h e poe t .

H e r b e r t ' @ rhyme scheme and m e t r i c a l p a t t e r n s themselves

p o r t r r y t h e mood of t h e poems. In "Longing" f o r i n s t a n c e .

"each s t a n z a comes t o r e s t i n a two foot l i n e r h i c h r e f l e c t s

t h e moment of e x h a u s t i o n a f t e r s t r e s s n (Bennett 61). One

can r lmoat h e a r Herber t p a n t i n g i n e x h a u s t i o n i n t h i s poem.

A S i m i l a r e f f e c t is c r e a t e d i n "The P i l g r i m a g e " . Accord ing

t o L.C. K n i g h t s , t h e f o u r t h v e r s e , w i t h i t s " s k i l l f u l u s e o f

t h e v a r i e d l e n g t h s o f l i n e and of t h e s l i g h t e n d - o f - l i n e

p a u s e r , r e p r o d u c e s t h e s e n s a t i o n s of t h e t r a v e l l e r , a s

e x p e c t a t i o n - r a t h e r o u t of b r e a t h , but e a g e r and c o n f i d e n t

- g i v e s way a b r u p t l y t o f l a t d i s a p p o i n t m e n t n ( 1 7 7 ) .

I t i s g e n e r a l l y s e e n i n H e r b e r t ' s poems t h a t t h e

v ~ ~ I o u S s t a g e s o f an e m o t i o n a l p rob lem and t h e i r f i n a l

r e s o l u t i o n keep p a c e w i t h t h e s t a n z a form t h a t communicates

them ( B e n n e t t 6 1 - 6 2 ) . Fo r example , i n " D e n i a l l n t h e m e t r e

and rhyme SCheIDe r e v e a l t h e d i s o r d e r and a g i t a t i o n i n

H e r b e r t ' s h e a r t when he canno t g a i n God's g r a c e . I h e u n r u l y

v e r s e p a t t e r n of "The C o l l a r * h a s a l r e a d y been d i s c u s s e d .

I t I s i n t e r e s t i n g t o n o t e t h a t i n 'Home", t h e rhyme

scheme c h a n g e s i n o r d e r t o e c h o H e r b e r t ' s p r a y e r t o t h e Lord

r e q u e s t l n g Him t o come and no t s t a y away from him. He

e x p l a i n s i n t h e poem t h a t by "ryme and r e a s o n " , t h e rhyming

word s h o u l d have been * s t a y n but h e h a s s u b s t i t u t e d i t w i t h

*comen , unmindfu l of t h e b roken rhyme scheme. A l l h e w a n t s

I s f o r h l s d e a r e s t Lord t o come, and h i s v e r s e p r a y s a l o n g

w i t h t h e p o e t .

To t a k e t h e example of n D e n i a l l " a g a i n , t h e t h i r d l i n e

of e a c h v e r s e I s a s p r o l o n g e d a s c o m p l a i n t s and agony

u s u a l l y a r e . I h e d e n i a l o f t h e f i n a l rhyme is s i g n i f i c a n t

a s i t i s a p a r a l l e l t o Codns r e f u s a l . d e n i a l of joy e t c .

me a b s e n c e o f rhyme i n t h e l a s t l i n e of e v e r y s t a n z a

a g i t a t e s t h e e a r and n e r v e s t i l l i t is mended i n t o harmony

i n t h e f i n a l s t a n z a (Brown 1 1 5 - 1 7 ) .

' Ihus we s e e i n H e r b e r t ' s p o e t r y a r a t i o n a l i t y i n rhyme-

scheme, a method and meaning i n m e t r e , a s e n s e i n sound

p a t t e r n s a n d , i n d i c t i o n , a d i r e c t i o n towards t h e

a c h i e v e m e n t of t h e u l t i m a t e meaning.

H e r b e r t ' s u s e of p a r a d o x is e x p r e s s e d i n a n u t s h e l l i n

h i s poem, " B i t t e r - S w e e t " :

Ah my d e a r e a n g r i e Lord,

S i n c e thou d o s t l o v e , y e t s t r i k e :

C a s t down, y e t h e l p a f f o r d ;

S u r e I w i l l d o t h e l i k e .

I w i l l compla in , y e t p r a i s e ;

I w i l l b e w a i l , a p p r o v e :

And a l l my sowre-sweet d a y e s

1 w i l l l amen t . a n d l o v e .

P a r a d o x b e l n g one of t h e c h i e f t o o l s of t h e m e t a p h y s i c a l

p o e t s . i t I s no wonder t h a t H e r b e r t t a k e s t o p a r a d o x a s f i s h

t a k e s t o w a t e r .

H e r b e r t , however , seems t o h a v e l e a r n e d h i s p a r a d o x e s

f rom t h e inexplicable, p a r a d o x i c a l n a t u r e of God ' s ways.

God is h i s * n i g h t a t noon" and a l s o a t n i g h t , h i s noon ( "The

D i s c h a r g e a l . Such is God ' s g r e a t n e s s t h a t ' ev 'n e t e r n i t i e

i s t o o s h o r t t o e x t o l l * Him, ( " P r a i s e ( 1 1 ) " ) . A man who

d o e s n o t p r a y "maketh two n i g h t s t o e v e r y d a y w ('Charms and

k n o t s " ) ; H e r b e r t p l e a d s w i t h God: " K i l l me n o t e v ' r y daya

( " A t f l i c t i o n ( 1 1 ) " ) . In "Confess ion" w h i l e s p e a k i n g o f

a f l l i c t i o n s . H e r b e r t r emarks : " "Onely an open b r e a s t / Doth

s h u t them o u t , 60 t h a t t hey canno t e n t e r * ( 1 9 - 2 0 ) .

In "The S e a r c h * t h e poe t d e s c r i b e s t h e g r e a t d i s t a n c e

be tween him and God; i n compar i son w i t h i t , o t h e r d i s t a n c e s

a r e n o t h i n g : 'Eest and West touch , t h e p o l e s do k i s s e / And

p a r a l l e l s meet* ( 4 3 - 4 4 ) .

In " A l f l i c t i o n (11" H e r b e r t t h i n k s t h a t God s e n d s him

more a l l l l c t i o n s i n t h e I e a r t h a t o t h e r w i s e h e would l e a r n

t o a d j u s t h i m s e l f t o r e g u l a r a f f l i c t i o n s and e v e n become

happy w i t h them: "Yet l e s t p e r c h a n c e I s h o u l d t o o h a p p i e

be / In my u n h a p p i n e s s e , " (49-50).

The poem e n d s w i t h a n o t h e r pa radox , i l l u s t r a t i n g t h e

p o e t 'r r epugnance of h y p o c r i s y : "Le t me n o t l o v e t h e e , i f I

l o v e t h e e n o t * ( 6 5 - 6 6 )

" J u s t i c e ( 1 ) " b r i n g s ou t t h e p a r a d o x i c a l ways o f God

a n d t h e p o e t ' s . God c r e a t e s him and then wounds him; h a v i n g

wounded him He r e l i e v e s him. I h e p o e t c o n t i n u e s i n t h e same

v e i n : "Lord , t hou r e l i e v e s t , y e t by t h e e : / Lord, thou

d o s t k i l l me, y e t thou d o s t r e p r i e v e me" ( 4 - 5 ) .

In "Charms and Knots* H e r b e r t u s e s a p a r a d o x t o warn

man a g a i n s t s t i n g i n e s s and make him more c h a r i t a b l e : "Who

s h u t s h i s h a n d , h a t h l o s t h i s go ld : / Who o p e n s i t , h a t h i t

t w i c e t o l d " ( 5 - 6 ) .

One of t h e most s t r i k i n g f e a t u r e s of m e t a p h y s i c a l

p o e t r y i s I t s f o n d n e s s f o r c o n c e i t s . A c o n c e i t may be

d e f i n e d a s *a comparison whose i n g e n u i t y i s more s t r i k i n g

l h a n i t 6 j u s t n e s s . o r a t l e a s t , is more i m m e d i a t e l y

s t r i k i n g . A l l compar i sons d i s c o v e r l i k e n e s s i n t h i n g s

u n l i k e : a comparison becomes a c o n c e i t when we a r e made t o

concede l i k e n e s s w h i l e b e i n g s t r o n g l y c o n s c i o u s o f

u n l i k e n e s s * ( G a r d n e r "Metaphys ica l ' 3 6 ) . M e t a p h y s i c a l

p o e t s f r e q u e n t l y make u s e of t h e i r l e a r n i n g i n t h e i r

comparisons. But H e r b e r t d i f f e r s from them c o n s i d e r a b l y .

He d o e s no t draw h i s images from s c i e n t i f i c o r s c h o l a s t i c

l e a r n l n g , a s Donne v e r y o f t e n d o e s , bu t f rom f a m i l i a r

e v e r y d a y s o u r c e s . H e r b e r t t o o s u r p r i s e s t h e r e a d e r by h i s

c o m p s r i s o n b u t h e r e i t i s t h e c o n t r a s t between t h e d i g n i t y

of h i s s u b j e c t m a t t e r and t h e f a m i l i a r i t y of t h e image t h a t

I S s t r i k i n g a s i n " A f f l i c t i o n ( I ) " : " F r a c t u r e s w e l l c u r a d

make u s more s t r o n g w (36).

S i m i l a r l y u n u s u a l is t h e c o n c e i t i n "Consc ience" where

t h e c r o s s is compared t o a sword and a p h y s i c k . ' h e c r o s s

p r i c k s h i s c o n s i e n c e and makes i t b l e e d by r emind ing him o f

C h r l s t ' s dy ing f o r h i s s i n s . m e same c r o s s becomes h i s

p h y s i c i a n a s i t p u r g e s him of s i n j u s t a s c u r e s were

e f f e c t e d by b l e e d i n g .

'he v e r y t i t l e s of t h e poems .The P u l l e y " and " m e

C o l l a r U a r e c o n c e i t s . 'he p u l l e y o r t h e c o l l a r d o e s no t

a p p e a r i n t h e poems bu t t h e message of t h e poems is i m p l i e d

i n t h e s e c o n c e i t s .

H e r b e r t ' s u s e of h y p e r b o l e i s a l s o s e e n i n ' ' h e

S e a r c h " : "My k n e e s p i e r c e t h ' e a r t h , mine e i e s t h e

s k i e : " (5).

B e f o r e s i n came and s p o i l t i t a l l , i t was a s e a s y f o r

man t o g o t o heaven a s moving "from one room t o a n o t h e r " a n d

"A f e r v e n t s i g h might m l l have blown / Our i n n o c e n t e a r t h

t o h e a v e n * , ("The H. Connuunion" 31-22].

Coming t o t h e u s e of pun by H e r b e r t , i t i s q u i t e

d e l l b e r a t e i n "he Sonne": "How n e a t l y doe we g i v e one

o n e l y none / To p a r e n t s i s s u e and t h e s u n n e s b r i g h t

r t a r r e l w ( 5 - 6 ) . I t i r c l e v e r l y done i n " G r i e f n , where h e

t e l l s h i s v e r s e : * g i v e up y o u r f e e t a n d runn ing t o mine

e y e s , " ( 1 5 ) .

In "The C o l l a r m t h e r e is a pun i n v o l v l n g " C o r d i a l 1

f r u i t " . The word n c o r d i a l " means " f rom t h e h e a r t * o r

" b l o o d y " . I h e f o r b i d d e n f r u i t s t o l e n by Adam can be c a l l e d

"b loody" b e c a u s e of t h e d e a t h and p a i n a i c h i t caused . I n

a n o t h e r s e n s e , C h r i s t i s t h e f r u i t d r i p p i n g b lood on a t r e e .

He is t h e " c o r d i a l 1 f r u i t * t h a t w i l l redeem man. I t is a n

I r o n y t h a t " f r u i t w i s r e s p o n s i b l e f o r b o t h t h e f a l l and t h e

r e d e m p t i o n of man. .

H e r b e r t o f t e n r e f e r s t o h i m s e l f m e t a p h o r i c a l l y a s

" d u s t n a n d " c l a y " . There a r e s e v e r a l s u c h m e t a p h o r s i n

"Sunday" and " P r a y e r ( I ) " . In " A f f l i c t i o n (V)" h e s a y s

p h l l o s o p h i c a l l y :

"We a r e t h e t r e e s , whom s h a k i n g f a s t e n s more , " ( 2 0 ) .

In " M l s e r i e " man I s t a l k e d of a s f i r s t b e i n g a 'box of

j e w e l s m , a " shop of v e r i t i e s " , a "ga rden" t i l l s i n made h im

"a lump o f f l e s h w i t h o u t a f a s t o r wingn and a " s i c k t o s s ' d

v e s s e l g . While man is a " J u d a s - Jew" i n " S e l f -

Condeams t ion* , h e 1s a f l o w e r i n "me Flower*.

We cow, a c r o s s s e v e r a l s i m i l e s i n H e r b e r t . " G r i e f

m e l t s sway / Like snow i n May," ( " m e Flower" 5-61 and a

good a o u l i s * l i k e s e s s o n ' d t i m b e r " ( m V e r t u e n l . t o q u o t e a

few. But compared t o t h e s p a r k l i n g , d a z z l i n g m a s t e r y of

H e r b e r t ' s s t y l e i n rhyme. d i c t i o n , m e t r e e t c . t h e me taphors

a n d s i m i l e s d o no t h a v e a n i c h e f o r t h e m s e l v e s i n h i s

p o e t r y . T h i s may be a t t r i b u t e d t o H e r b e r t ' s t e n d e n c y o f no t

g i v i n g o v e r t i m p o r t a n c e t o d e s c r i p t i o n s .

Moreover , m e t a p h o r s , s i m i l e s and t o a c e r t a i n e x t e n t

a l l p o e t i c d e v i c e s a r e but man-made and mere c o r r i d o r s

l e a d i n g u s t o t h e t h r e s h o l d of t h e m y s t i c . They can o n l y

t r a n s p o r t u a u p t o t h e b r i n k of t r u t h , g i v e u s bu t a

t a n t a l i z i n g peep i n t o t h e m y s t e r i o u s , s i l e n t wor ld 01 God.

E n t r y i n t o t h i s r e a l m may be g a i n e d by i n t u i t i o n and n o t by

l i n g u i s l i c means a l o n e . The wor ld of s p i r i t u a l i t y canno t

be f u l l y u n d e r s t o o d . No wonder. H e r b e r t c o n c l u d e s

" P r a y e r ( 1 1 " w i t h " someth ing u n d e r s t o o d " [ P r u s s 2 2 ) .

H e r b e r t was " c a p a b l e of c l e a r though t i n c o n j u n c t i o n

8 1 t h vehement f e e l i n g " ( B e n n e t t 59) and h i s p o e t r y was

g i f t e d w i t h ' i n t e l l e c t u a l b i t e , a c u t e and v a r i e d i n t e r e s t , a

u i d e and s t o r e d e x p e r i e n c e of man and a f f a i r s . i n t r o s p e c t i v e

a s t u t e n e s s and a n u n u s u a l power of q u i z z i c a l ha l f -humorous

s e l 1 - r e g a r d n (Brown 1 1 4 ) . He is "God's c o u r t i e r " and h i s

l a n g u a g e is e v e r g e n t l e m a n l y and c o u r t e o u s . I f a t a l l h e is

r u d e , i t is o n l y t o f o c u s a t t e n t i o n on h i s own s h o r t c o m i n g s .

A n o t h e r a s p e c t which l e n d s i n t e r e s t t o h i s poems is t h e

p r e a e n c e of a v o i c e i n h i s poems. Many poems h a v e more t h a n

one v o i c e and even *hen t h e r e is o n l y one. i t is endowed

w i t h s e v e r s f nuances and i n s i n u a t i o n s . H e r b e r t ' s a b i l i t y t o

r e p r o d u c e t h e a c t u a l t o n e of t h e human v o i c e is what g i v e s

an i m e d l a c y and a c t u a l i t y t o h i s poems. The r e a d e r is

o f t e n J o l t e d from p o e t r y t o drama when a v o i c e s u d d e n l y

i n t e r r u p t s In a poem (Brown 115). The d r a m a t i c e f f e c t of

t h e o t h e r v o l c e i n "Redemption*, # ' h e C o l l a r " a n d

"Dialogue" i s a t e s t imony t o H e r b e r t ' s command a n d

m s n i p u l a t i o n of p o e t l c l anguage .

' h e p o e t i c d e v i c e s jo in hands w i t h t h e t h o u g h t s a n d

f e e l i n g s and e n a c t t h e e n t i r e poem. To q u o t e Doug las Brown.

"Each poem i s a s m a l l drama and e a c h f a c e t of workmanship is

an a c t o r r l t h some d i s t i n c t r o l e n e c e s s a r y f o r t h e whole .

Rhymes, l o r i n s t a n c e , w i l l c o n s t a n t l y be found ... j o i n i n g

two r e l u c t a n t p a r t n e r s , oppos lng c o n c e a l e d a d v e r s a r i e s

t o one a n o t h e r , e s t a b l i s h i n g r e l a t i o n s h i p s a c r o s s t h e

l l n e s n ( 1 1 5 ) .

Whi le some h a v e t aken e x c e p t i o n t o t h e " p a l p a b l e

d e s i g n m i n H e r b e r t ' s p o e t r y , i t s h o u l d be remembered t h a t

e v e n t h e p a l p a b l e d e s i g n i s s o a e s t h e t i c a l l y woven t h a t t h e

r e n d e r i s a l r e a d y d r u n k deep w i t h t h e heady wine of p o e t r y

b e f o r e h e r e a c h e s i t .

Above a l l . H e r b e r t t h e p o e t is a n a r t i s t , who

w h i m s i c a l l y p r o v i d e s a r e s t i n g p l a c e f o r God a f t e r l i n e 1 4

i n ' C h r i a t m s u , and whose rhyme is b roken a l o n g w i t h h i s

h e a r t a n d b o t h mended t o g e t h e r i n " D e n i a l l * , whose rhyme is

a s u n r u l y a s t h e r e b e l i n "The C o l l a r n , whose rhyme t o o

p r a y s f o r God's v i s i o n i n "Home*, whose l a n g u a g e b r e a k s down

a l m o s t t o a w h i s p e r overwhelmed by Godns g r e a t n e s s i n

" D i a l o g u e " a n d " T h a n k s g i v i n g m and who conveys meaning by

J u g g l i n g w i t h g rammat ica l t e rms i n " A r t i l l e r i e " . H i s f a n c y

and d e v i c e s j o i n h a n d s a n d l e a p up t o u n b e l i e v a b l e h e i g h t s

i n h i s p o e t r y . In s h o r t , H e r b e r t u s e s h i s p o e t i c a r t t o

e x p l o r e t h e r e a l m s o f h i s mind, h e a r t , s o u l and o f

r e l i g i o u s t r u t h s .

When we t u r n o u r a t t e n t i o n t o Narmnazhvar's p o e t r y we

s e e t h a t v a r i o u s p o e t i c d e v i c e s h a v e been h a n d l e d s k i l l f u l l y

by him a l s o . He makes p o e t i c t e c h n i q u e s and forms s e r v e h i s

p u r p o s e of e x p l o r i n g r e l i g i o u s t r u t h s . A l l t h e f o u r works

of Nammazhvar have t h e p r e f i x Tiru m i c h means good, d i v i n e

o r a u a p i c i o u a . T i r u v i r u t tam and T i r u v a s i r i y a m a r e s o named

a f t e r t h e k i n d of v e r s e s i n which t h e y a r e w r i t t e n namely.

v i r u t t a m a n d a s i r i y a m . i n T i r u v s n t a t i means

" g r e a t . a n d a n t a t l is a k i n d of Tamil v e r s e . Vaymozhi i n

Ti ruvaymozhl means "word t h a t i s u t t e r e d n . Ti ruvaymozhi

t h u s means " d i v i n e u t t e r s n c e " .

T i r u v i r u t t a m is a poem of a hundred s t a n z a s , a l l of

them l o u r l i n e d , i n K a t t a l a i - K a l i t t u r a i met re i n which e a c h

l i n e h a s f i v e f e e t . m e rhyme o c c u r s a t t h e beg inn ing of

the l i n e s , u n l i k e i n Engl i sh . Ihis metre was a l s o known a s

V i r u t t a m and any work having t h i s metre was c a l l e d a

Vi ru t tam. Vi ru t tam a l s o meant a 'message" o r an "event" and -- t h e poem may be taken a s d e s c r i b i n g t h e even t of the Azhvar

f a l l i n g i n love wi th God.

T i r u v a s i r i y a m i s a poem 01 7 1 l i n e s d i v i d e d i n t o seven

unequal s e c t i o n s . I h e f i r s t s e c t i o n h a s f i f t e e n l i n e s , t h e

second , t h i r d . f o u r t h and s e v e n t h have n i n e l i n e s each and

Ihe f i f t h and s i x t h have ten l i n e s each. The metre used is

c a l l e d a 6 l r i y a p p a and hence t h e name g iven t o t h e work.

P e r l a T l ~ v a n t a t i c o n s i s t s of 87 s t a n z a s of f o u r l i n e s - e a c h , s e t in Venpe metre . I t h a s a rhyme scheme i n which

t h e second l i n e rhymes wi th the f i r s t and the f o u r t h wi th

t h e t h i r d , bo th rhymes be ing i n i t i a l .

Tiruvaymozhi c o n s i s t s of 1102 s t a n z a s i n n i n e d i f f e r e n t

t y p e s of m e t r e s . Following a long Tamil t r a d i t i o n t h e

v e r s e s a r e a r r a n g e d i n 100 decads which a r e d i v i d e d I n t o t e n

s e c t i o n 8 c a l l e d pattu ( " t e n * ] . Each pattu h a s t e n

t i r u v a y w r h l a and e a c h t i ruvaymozhi haa e l e v e n v e r s e s c a l l e d

pasurams. ' h e e l e v e n t h v e r s e is a s i g n a t u r e and a meta-poem

c a l l e d a p h a l a s t u t i ( a r e c i t a l of r e s u l t s ] d e s c r i b i n g t h e

m e r i t s of t h e t e n v e r s e s of t h e t i ruvaymozhi . One

t i ruvaymozhi h a s t h i r t e e n pasurams i n s t e a d of the u s u a l

e l e v e n a n d hence t h e t o t a l 1102.

A.K. Ramanujan o b s e r v e s t h a t i n Tiruvaymozhi , " s i n g l e

v e r s e s have an e x i s t e n c e o f t h e i r own: t h e y a r e quo ted and

r e c i t e d a s complete poems. Each g roup of t e n i s u n i f i e d by

mete r , theme and d i c t i o n , but t h e t r a n s i t i o n from each group

t o t h e n e x t i s not a lways c l e a r ; commentators o f f e r v a r i o u s

schemes" ( I n t r o d u c t i o n x v ) .

One common f e a t u r e abou t t h e works of Nammazhvar i s

t h a t a l l of them a r e i n t h e a n t a t i form. In t h i s d e v i c e t h e

f i n a l l e t t e r , s y l l a b l e o r foo t of a s t a n z a is used a s t h e

f i r s t l e t t e r , s y l l a b l e o r foo t of t h e f i r s t l i n e of t h e n e x t

s t a n z a . The l a s t u n i t of t h e work c o r r e s p o n d s t o i t s f i r s t

u n i t . T h i s d e v i c e makes t h e whole work a " g a r l a n d of

v e r s e s n d e d i c a t e d t o God.

For example, t h e f i r s t word of T i r u v i r u t t a m , fxlyninra

c o r r e s p o n d s t o t h e l a s t word of t h e poem p o y n i l a t t e .

Tiruvaymozhi b e g i n s w i t h U y a r w a r a and e n d s wi th y a r n t 6 . The f i r s t v e r s e o f Tiruvaymozhi e n d s wi th manan; and t h e

second s t a r t s w i t h manan-akam. Such a l i n k is m a i n t a i n e d

th roughout t h e work.

lhis k i n d of a v e r s e is d e s c r i b e d a t a i l a d h a r a , a

s t r e a m of f lowing o i l from v e s s e l t o v e s s e l , from v e r s e t o

v e r s e , from mind t o mind, from god t o d e v o t e e n

(Ramanu jan 1 6 8 ) .

Although t h e a n t a t i form h a s been adopted by many

p o e t s , Tiruvaymozhi h a s t h e d i s t i n c t i o n of being t h e l o n g e s t

poem i n Tamil l i t e r a t u r e t o f o l l o w t h i s scheme.

Apart from t h i s l i n k i n g d e v i c e , t h e poems of Nammazhvar

do no t have any l i t e r a r y u n i t y and v e r y o f t e n they a r e

rambl ing . The s e t s of t e n s t a n z a s of Tiruvayrnozhi have "a

k i n d of i n t e r n a l u n i t y , but seldom is t h e r e a u n i t y among

t h e s e t s . The d i v i s i o n of t h e decads i n t o hundred seems

r a t h e r mechanical and t h e r e is no a p p a r e n t t h e m a t i c b a s i s

f o r t h e d i v i s i o n " ( K a y l o r and Venka tachar i 1 3 ) . I t is

a r g u e d t h a t t h e r e is a n o v e r a l l theme, t h a t of p r a i s i n g

God and l o n g i n g f o r un ion wi th Him. But t h a t i s no t

s y s t e m a t i c a l l y d e v e l o p e d , wi th v a r i o u s moods i n t e r v e n i n g i n

between and wi th no p r o p e r c l u e a s t o "what g i v e s r i s e t o

t h o s e p a r t i c u l a r moods, o r how one l e a d s t o a n o t h e r " (Kaylor

and V e n k a t a c h a r i 1 3 ) . About Tiruvaymozhi t h e a u t h o r s remark

t h a t " t h e r e is an a p p r o p r i a t e beg inn ing of s o r t s , wi th a

r a t h e r p h i l o s o p h i c a l f l a v o u r and t h e r e is an a p p r o p r i a t e

s o r t of end ing wi th an account of a f i n a l v i s i o n of e n t e r i n g

heaven , bu t i n between t h e r e is no r e a l l y l o g i c a l

deve lopment , a l t h o u g h t h e r e have been a t t e m p t s i n t h e

t r a d i t l o n a l i n t e r p r e t a t i o n t o d e r i v e such a deve lopmenta l

scheme from t h e random poemsn [Kaylor and Venka tachar i 1 4 ) .

A.K. Ramanulan c a l l s t h e Azhvar p o e t r y "a p o e t r y of

c o n n e c t i o n s , o f c o n t i n u i t i e s . I t c o n n e c t s god, gods , and

a l l c r e a t i o n ; t h e god of myth, t h e god of p h i l o s o p h y , t h e

god i n t h e temple and t h e god w i t h i n ; s p e a k e r , s u b j e c t ,

l i s t e n e r ; good and e v i l , h e l l and heaven, mythic then and

p o e t i c now, o p p o s i t e s and c o n t r a r i e s " (166-67) . According

t o him, t h i s e x p r e s s e s i t s e l f p o e t i c a l l y i n t h e form of

a n t a t i .

I t i s q u i t e i n t e r e s t i n g t o s e e how Nammazhvar h a n d l e s

t h e a n t a t i form i n h i s poems and t h e v a r i a t i o n s t h a t i t

undergoes i n h i s h a n d s t o s u i t h i s purpose .

m e l a s t word / foo t o r s y l l a b l e of a v e r s e be ing used t o

beg in t h e f o l l o w i n g v e r s e is t h e main type t h a t one f i n d s i n

Namma zhva r :

T i r u v i r u t tam 7 e n d s wi th ank kin rave and v e r s e 8 b e g i n s wi th

Kgnkinranakalum

T i r u v a p i r i y a m 4 e n d s w i t h mimutal a t i y 6 and v e r s e 5 b e g i n s

w i t h G m u t a l a t i p p b t u

P e r i a T i r u v a n t a t i 2 1 e n d s wi th and v e r s e 2 2 b e g i n s wi th

k a l e -

I n t h e s e e x a m p l e s , t h e p a i r s of words h a v e t h e same meaning.

But a w i t h which 1.1.11 e n d s and Vi tumin w i t h which

1 . 2 . 1 b e g i n s do n o t h a v e t h e same meaning though t h e r e is a

c o r r e s p o n d e n c e of s o u n d s . While vTte means s a l v a t i o n ,

v i t u m i n means " g i v e u p n .

TVM 2.2.1 h a s & a s t h e l a s t word and t h e n e x t v e r s e - b e g i n s w i t h i pavam. There is o n l y t h e c o r r e s p o n d e n c e of

t h e sound " e n i n t h e two words .

Somet imes t h e p e n u l t i m a t e f o o t of a v e r s e forms t h e

a n t a t i a s i n 2 .2 .3 and 2.2.4: TBvumulate a n d

~ 6 v u m e p p o r u l u m . In c e r t a i n v e r s e s , t h r e e o r f o u r f e e t form

t h e a n t a t i ( e .8 . JVJ 8.4.6 6 8 . 4 . 7 ; 10 .3 .5 6 10 .3 .61 .

A s i g n i f i c a n t d e v i a t i o n i n t h e a n t a t i scheme can be

s e e n i n 1 . 6 . 1 which e n d s w i t h ( f l o w e r ) . The n e x t

v e r s e b e g i n s w i t h ma tuvar ( h o n e y ) . 'Ihe r e l a t i o n s h i p between

t h e f l o w e r and honey makes t h e p o e t u s e t h e l a t t e r word.

T h i s i s a k i n d o f f i g u r e of s p e e c h c a l l e d Akupeyar A n t a t i .

This a g a i n l e n d s charm t o t h e s t r u c t u r e of t h e work.

As p o i n t e d o u t e a r l i e r , t h e sequence between t h e l a s t

v e r s e and t h e open ing v e r s e is a l s o k e p t up i n T i ruvaymozh i ,

s o t h a t t h e whole work i s l i k e a g a r l a n d . The Azhvar

h i m s e l f c a l l s i t Tamizhmalai ( 5 . 6 . 1 1 ) , g a r l a n d of Tamil

v e r s e o r i c a i m a l a i ( 3 . 2 . 1 1 ) ~ a r l a n d of m u s i c a l hymns. While

some c a l l t h e whole work a b ig g a r l a n d , some o t h e r s c o n s i d e r

e a c h v e r s e a g a r l a n d s o t h a t Tiruvaymozhi becomes a s t o r e

house c o n t a i n i n g a thousand g a r l a n d s (Damodaran 2 3 2 ) .

S i n c e t h e s e works a r e i n t h e form of an a n t a t i t h e

o r d e r i n which t h e v e r s e s were w r i t t e n o r i g i n a l l y remains

o v e r t h e c e n t u r i e s , u n a l t e r e d . And i n s p i t e of t h e rambling

n a t u r e of t h e works, i t is s t i l l p o s s i b l e t o f i n d a s t e a d y

p r o g r e s s i o n from t h e f i r s t work t o t h e l a s t .

The f i r s t work of Nammazhvar T i r u v i r u t t a m speaks abou t

t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p between t h e Supreme Being, who is

c o n s i d e r e d t o be t h e Only Male and t h e human s o u l , which is

t h e female p r i n c i p l e . ' h e r e a c t i o n s of t h e s o u l caught up

by t h e L o r d ' s bewi tch ing b e a u t y and charm and y e a r n i n g t o

merge wi th t h e Lord a r e r e v e a l e d i n t h e poem.

The second work T i r u v a g i r i y a m d e a l s w i t h t h e n a t u r e of

R e a l i t y , t h e means and t h e goa l of human endeavour and a l s o

t h e o b s t a c l e s t h a t one h a s t o meet wi th on t h e way. Having

d e s c r i b e d t h e g r e a t n e s s of t h e Lord and s e t f o r t h t h e g o a l

f o r t h e human s o u l . Nammazhvar p r o c e e d s t o i n s t r u c t h i s mind

t o worsh ip t h e Lord, i n h i s t h i r d work T i r u v a n t a t i .

He t e l l s h i s mind of t h e v a r i o u s ways of worsh ip ing t h e

Lord, t h e most e f f e c t i v e o f them be ing l o v i n g S u r r e n d e r t o

Him.

l h e s e v a r i o u s themes a r e d e a l t wi th i n g r e a t e r d e t a i l

i n Tiruvaymozhi , t h e l a s t work of t h e Azhvar. The

e x c e l l e n c e s o f t h e Lord a r e t a l k e d about i n t h e open ing

s t a n z a of t h i s work. Cod is c h a r a c t e r i s e d a s one wi th a l l

p e r f e c t i o n s , f u l l of love and g r a c e . l h e Azhvar a d d r e s s e s

h i s h e a r t and then h i s f e l l o w b e i n g s and a d v i s e s them t o

s e e k o n l y Him and no t t h e wor ld ly mas te r s . What f o l l o w s is

a g r a p h i c account of t h e v a r i o u s m y s t i c e x p e r i e n c e s of t h e

p o e t . t h e a l t e r n a t i n g p h a s e s of t h e joy of union and t h e

pangs of s e p a r a t i o n . The Azhvar ' s love f o r God grows t o

supra -cosmic p r o p o r t i o n s b u t , s a y s t h e p o e t , God's l o v e f o r

him i s far-more i n t e n s e . In t h e conc lud ing s t a n z a of t h e

work t h e Azhvar d e c l a r e s t h a t h e h a s reached t h e u l t i m a t e

d e s t i n a t i o n of h i s l i f e ' s journey. Thus t h e r e is a p e r f e c t

a c c o r d n o t o n l y between t h e f i r s t v e r s e which t a l k s abou t

t h e u l t i m a t e r e a l i t y and the l a s t one where t h e R e a l i t y i s

r e a c h e d , but a l s o between t h e f i r s t v e r s e of T i r u v i r u t t a m

which t a l k s about t h e f a l s e h o o d of t h e world (w ninra

J n i l a m ) and t h e l a s t v e r s e of Tiruvaymozhi which s t a n d s f o r

e x a l t a t i o n ( U y a r n t e ) .

In h i s p a i n s t a k i n g s t u d y of Tiruvaymozhi. Damodaran

o b s e r v e s t h a t t h e beg inn ing and t h e end of t h i s poem " a r e i n

p e r f e c t a c c o r d even t o t h e m i n u t e s t d e t a i l " ( 1 3 1 ) . He

p o i n t s ou t t h a t t h e f i r s t decad of h i s work s e t s f o r t h

e v e r y t h i n g t h a t i s e s s e n t i a l abou t t h e Ul t imate R e a l i t y ,

which is a l s o t h e goa l of human endeavour . Tne second decad

( 1 . 2 ) r e f e r s t o b h a k t i a s t h e means of a t t a i n i n g t h a t g o a l .

me t h i r d decad (1 .3) t e a c h e s t h a t t o t h e devout s o u l . t h e

Lord is e a s y of a t t a i n m e n t . These same i d e a s a r e a g a i n

r e f e r r e d t o i n 1 0 . 4 and 1 0 . 5 t h u s e s t a b l i s h i n g a l i n k

between t h e s e decads . S i g n i f i c a n t l y t h e same m e t r e ,

V a n c l t t u r a i , is used i n bo th 1 . 2 and 1 0 . 5 . The a u t h o r a l s o

p o i n t s ou t how u p t o t h i s p o i n t 110.5) t h e Azhvar pursued t h e

Lord and from now on, i t is t h e Lord who p u r s u e s t h e Azhvar .

In f a c t t h e Azhvar s t a r t e d p u r s u i n g t h e Lord i n h i s f i r s t

work T i r u v i r u t t a m i t s e l f and i t c o n t i n u e s th rough t h e o t h e r

two works and conc ludes i n 1 0 . 5 . The work e n d s w i t h t h e

Azhvar r e a c h i n g t h e b l e s s e d f e e t of t h e Lord, t h e g o a l h e

had s e t f o r h i m s e l f i n t h e f i r s t v e r s e of Tiruvaymozhi .

' h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c mark of a g r e a t work of l i t e r a t u r e

i s t h a t i t t r e a t s of a h e r o . A l l t h e i n c i d e n t s and

c h a r a c t e r s c e n t r e round him. The h e r o of Tiruvaymozhi i s

t h e Lord Himself and t h e Azhvar is t h e h e r o i n e . Quite

u n l i k e t h e o t h e r h e r o e s , t h i s Hero does n o t s p e a k a t a l l

a l t h o u g h He is the most t a l k e d about i n t h e work.

S t o r y i s a n o t h e r r e q u i s i t e f o r a g r e a t work.

Tiruvaymozhi t e l l s t h e s t o r y of t h e s o u l on a p i l g r i m a g e t o

i t s t r u e home i n 1 0 0 d e c a d s ; however, t h e s t o r y element is

n o t i t s s t r o n g p o i n t .

I n Nammazhvar's p o e t r y we s e e p h i l o s o p h i c a l i d e a s

expounded In s imple language and e x q u i s i t e melody.

FOllOwing t h e Akapporul t r a d i t i o n , he u s e s t h e language of

symbolism and i n t r o d u c e s a p p r o p r i a t e imagery, f i g u r e s of

s p e e c h , m e t r e s and rhyme, a l l t h e s e be ing r e l a t e d t o t h e

c e n t r a l theme. I t w i l l b e q u i t e a f r u i t f u l e x e r c i s e t o

s t u d y t h e v a r i o u s f e a t u r e s of Nammazhvar's p o e t r y such a s

d i c t i o n , s t y l e , n a r r a t i o n and s o on.

J u s t a s one f i n d s many d e v i a t i o n s i n Nammazhvar's

h a n d l i n g of t h e A n t a t i scheme, t h e r e a r e o t h e r d e v i a t i o n s

such a s t h e r e p e t i t i o n of sound, i n v e r s i o n of t h e word

o r d e r , c o n s t r u c t i o n of invo lved h i e r a r c h i e s e t c . a l l of them

i n t e n d e d t o s e r v e some a e s t h e t i c f u n c t i o n .

The v e r y f i r s t v e r s e of Tiruvaymozhi i s a d e p a r t u r e

from t h e u s u a l grammatical s t r u c t u r e i n Tamil . I n s t e a d of

s a y i n g "Let my mind worship t h e b l e s s e d f e e t of t h e Lord.

who h a s a l l t h e e x c e l l e n c e s . . ." t h e Azhvar changes t h e

o r d e r and s a y s "He who is p o s s e s s e d of t h e e x c e l l e n c e s .... l e t t h e mind worship Him." The Azhvar f i r s t s t a t e s t h a t

which c a p t i v a t e s h i s mind - t h e L o r d ' s g l o r i o u s a t t r i b u t e s - a n d then a s k s h i s mind t o worsh ip such a Lord. T h i s

approach no t o n l y sounds l o g i c a l bu t e n a b l e s t h e

r e a d e r / l i s t e n e r t o u n d e r s t a n d t h e i d e a e a s i l y .

'me same k ind of l o g i c a l l y d e v e l o p i n g a n i d e a is s e e n

In 1 . 6 . 8 :

Kazhimin t o n d i r i i l ! K a z h i t t u t t o z h u m i n ;

a v a i n a l t t o z h u t Z i 1 .... Oh you s e r v a n t s of t h e Lord! S e v e r

a l l w o r l d l y c o n t a c t s . S e v e r t h u s and s e r v e t h e Lord; i f you

s e r v e t h e Lord . . . Here , t h e p h r a s e e n d s w i t h a f i n i t e v e r b Kazhimin and

Tozhumin; a f i n i t e p a r t i c i p l e of t h e v e r b is used n e x t , t h u s

e s t a b l i s h i n g a l i n k - K a z h i t t u and t o z h u t a l r e s p e c t i v e l y .

The s t r u c t u r e of t h e v e r s e s 9.3.6 and 7.3.9 is q u i t e

n o v e l . Each l i n e of 9.3.6 b e g i n s wi th a v e r b and t h e r e s t

o f t h e l i n e comple tes t h e i d e a . Each l i n e is a comple te

s e n t e n c e wi th s u b j e c t and v e r b a l t e r e d : m a t which my Lord

embraces i s Goddess Lakshmi 's bosom. / Those whom He f i g h t s

a g a i n s t a r e t h e e v i l ones , e t c .

TVM 7.3.9 b e g i n s wi th : "Reach w i l l I. . ." and e n d s w i t h " t h e - c i t y of T i r u p p e r e y i l . " There a r e many such v e r s e s which

beg in wi th a v e r b , t h u s employing an unusua l s t y l e of p o e t r y

i n Tamil.

Another method t h a t t h e Azhvar a d o p t s i s t h e r e p e t i t i o n

of words a s i n fl 3 .4 where t h e word enko is r e p e a t e d 53

t i m e s In a b o u t t h i r t y l i n e s . The word h a s a sonorous e f f e c t

on t h e e a r . Fa r from be ing merely r e p e t i t i v e , i t is h i g h l y

e f t e c t i v e . I t conveys the i d e s t h a t the Azhvar d i s c e r n s the

Lord i n e v e r y l i t t l e th ing and t h e r e f o r e t h e r e is n o t h i n g

t h a t t h e poet can d i s m i s s a s being d i s a g r e e a b l e . In the

f i r s t e i g h t s t a n z a s of the decad, the Azhvar wonders how t o

a d d r e s s t h e Lord and hence t h e q u e s t i o n , m? In t h e

n i n t h v e r s e , he h imse l f answers t h a t the Lord i s p r e s e n t i n

e v e r y t h i n g .

In t h e same way, when the mother of the g i r l - i n - l o v e

t a l k s about h e r love- lo rn daughte r , she s a y s t h a t the g i r l

s e e s t h e Lord i n e v e r y t h i n g (z 4 . 4 ) . Here the Azhvar u s e s

t h e word C m r e p e a t e d l y . In TVJ 5.6., t h e words Yine ennum a r e repea ted 4 1 t imes i n the 10 v e r s e s . Moreover. we

s e e t h a t the same i n i t i a l word/words is r e p e a t e d i n almost

e v e r y l i n e of a s t a n z a . l h i s i s the p a t t e r n i n a l l t h e

v e r s e s of the decad. n u s , a l l the e i g h t l i n e s of the f i r s t

v e r s e begin with K a t a l j n i l a m , of t h e second v e r s e wi th

Karkum k a l v i , of the t h i r d wi th Kankinra and s o on. --

K a t a l j n i l a m ceytenum y ine ennum;

Ks t a l jni lam lvdnum y ine ennum;

~ a t a l j n a l a m kont6num y ine ennum;

Kata l jnalam kintSnum y6ne ennum; (5.6.1 1 - 4 )

Such r e p e t i t i o n s b e f i t t h e anx ious mother of a g i r l who is

madly i n love wi th t h e Lord and who h a s i d e n t i f i e d h e r s e l f

w i t h Him comple te ly . I h e s e n t i m e n t s of t h e mother a r e

b e a u t i f u l l y b rought out i n t h e s e v e r s e s .

In 6.6. t h e r e is an e l a b o r a t e e n u m e r a t i o n , by t h e

mother of t h e ~ i r l , of what h e r d a u g h t e r h a s l o s t a f t e r

f a l l i n g i n l o v e wi th t h e Lord. Every v e r s e t a l k s abou t one

q u a l i t y which s h e h a s l o s t - beau ty , complexion, l e a r n i n g ,

f e m i n i n i t y e t c . I n c i d e n t a l l y , t h e s e a r e t h e q u a l i t i e s

which, t h e Azhvar s a y s , a r e no t worth p o s s e s s i n g a t a l l

i f t h e Lord does not l i k e them(= 4.8). Thus t h e p o e t

e s t a b l i s h e s a connec t ion between t h e s e two decads .

Moreover , e v e r y v e r s e r e f e r s t o God by a s e t of t h r e e

p h r a s e s a s p e r t h e conven t ion fo l lowed i n v e r s e s i n venpa

metre . For example, i n 6.6.4. t h e Lord is d e s c r i b e d a s t h e

One who c r e a t e d Brahma, t h e Lord of C r e a t i o n who spanned t h e

E a r t h ( i n His I n c a r n a t i o n a s Vamana); and who went a s the

Messenger on b e h a l f of t h e Pandavas ( i n H i s I n c a r n a t i o n a s

K r i s h n a ) .

Damodaran r e f e r s t o c e r t a i n r a r e u s a g e s of words t h a t

one comes a c r o s s i n Nammazhvar ( 1 4 9 ) : Ki rpan k i l l g n ( 3 . 2 . 6 ) ;

Nal lanak 'al ( 6 . 7 . 9 ) ; Cuntlyam (7 .8 .7 ) ; !C& and

( 9 . 1 . 9 ) ; K o l l a i and C i l l a i (6 .7.4) . C e r t a i n changes i n t h e

word forms have a l s o been e f f e c t e d by t h e p o e t : e .g . Vrtumin

( 1 2 1 ) i n s t e a d of Vitumin; viyavt iy ( 7 . 8 . 4 ) . I h e Azhvar

a l s o makes c e r t a i n changes i n t h e u s e of words t o s u i t t h e

d i a l e c t i c a l requ i rements . An i n t e r e s t i n g example of t h i s

t y p e can be found i n 9 1 0 . 2 . 1 . In t h i s decad t h e p o e t

t a l k s about t h e Lord a t Tiruvanantapuram, a p l a c e where

Malayalam is spoken today. The word a r c c i k k i n r u i n 1 0 . 2 . 6 ,

though no t i n usage i n Tamil i s a p p r o p r i a t e l y used by t h e

Azhvar a s i t conforms t o t h e p l a c e d e s c r i b e d . A s i m i l a r

d i a l e c t i c a l i n f l u e n c e can be seen i n - 9.8 i n the u s e of

t h e word kurukkum whi le t a l k i n g about t h e p i l g r i m c e n t r e ,

Ti runava y (Damodaran 1 4 9 - 5 0 )

We come a c r o s s a number of S a n s k r i t words and Tami l i sed

forms of S a n s k r i t words i n t h e poems of Nammazhvar.

Sometimes he c o i n s new Tamil words from S a n s k r i t words. For

example, from the S a n s k r i t n i s c a y a , he forms t h e v e r b

n i c c i t t u i r u n t e n . --

Nammazhvar's p o e t r y abounds i n s i m i l e s , metaphors and

o t h e r f i g u r e s o f speech , a l t h o u g h he does not use a s many of

t h e s e a s o t h e r Tamil p o e t s do. In a d d i t i o n t o t h e

t r a d i t i o n a l s i m i l e s he f a s h i o n s c e r t a i n new ones h imse l f and

they a r e not on ly ornamental but d e s c r i p t i v e a s w e l l . A s

Nammazhvar v e r y o f t e n d e s c r i b e s Cod o r t a l k s about H i s

e x p l o i t s , some of the common p l a c e s i m i l e s a r e found t o be

i n a d e q u a t e . So he r e s o r t s t o t h i n g s not o f t h i s world f o r

comparison ( c a l l e d i l p o r u l uvamai) .

Four k i n d s of s i m i l e s can be n o t i c e d i n Nammazhvar:

a ( a c t i o n ) , payan ( e f f e c t ) . ( f o r m ) and uru ( c o l o u r ) ; o f t h e s e % s i m i l e s a r e n o t v e r y f r e q u e n t

( Damodaran 1 5 8 ) .

In = 3.9, Nammazhvar a d d r e s s e s h i s f e l l o w p o e t s and

t e l l s them t h a t i t is f u t i l e t o s i n g about t h e s h o r t - l i v e d

g l o r i e s of men. He a d v i s e 8 them t o s i n g o n l y abou t God. In

v e r s e 7 , h e s a y s he w i l l not be i n d u l g i n g i n f a l s e h o o d by

comparing a u s e l e s s weakling t o t h e g e n e r o s i t y of t h e c l o u d s

o r t h e m a j e s t y of t h e mountains. Nammazhvar does no t want

t h e p o e t s t o i n d u l g e i n u n c a l l e d - f o r and ou t of p l a c e

s u p e r l a t i v e s . He h i m s e l f h a s d i f f e r e n t s e t s of s i m i l e s t o

d e s c r i b e man and God.

Nammazhvar's f a v o u r i t e God i s Vishnu, i n His v a r i o u s

forms a n d I n c a r n a t i o n s . Vishnu is t r a d i t i o n a l l y d e s c r i b e d

a s d a r k - b l u e i n complexion. So t h e Azhvar compares Him t o

t h e c l o u d o r t h e sky o r the sea o r c e r t a i n f l o w e r s :

mukil vannan ( 1 . 4 . 4 ) , K a t a l i n menipp i ran (6.1.4). p u v a i k a l -- pz l n i r a t t a n (6 .8 .7 ) e t c .

When h e d e s c r i b e s t h e p h y s i c a l f e a t u r e s of t h e Lord.

t h e Azhvar i n v a r i a b l y r e s o r t s t o c e r t a i n s e t s i m i l e s : e y e s

l i k e r e d l o t u s Plowers , l i p s l i k s c o r a l s , t e e t h l i k e p e a r l s

and s o on. The p o e t i s fond of imagining t h e v a r i o u s p a r t s

of t h e L o r d ' s body a s be ing red: Red e y e s , l i p s , f e e t ,

pa lms , n a v e l , c h e s t , d r e s s and crown (T& 8 .4 .6 ) . I n

T i r u v i r u t t a m 42 a l s o , t h e L o r d ' s e y e s . h a n d s a n d f e e t a r e

compared t o r e d l o t u s f l o w e r s . Ihe p o e t i m a g i n e s t h a t h e

was a w i t n e s s t o t h e Lord growing enormous ly i n s i z e *men He

spanned t h e t h r e e w o r l d s ( i n H i s i n c a r n a t i o n a s Vamana).

J u s t t h e n H i s s i d e g l a n c e f e l l on t h e Azhvar . The p o e t

compares i t t o t h e c l u s t e r of l o t u s f l o w e r s i n a pond b e i n g

t o s s e d c o m p l e t e l y t o one s i d e of t h e pond by a s t r o n g

b r e e z e . 'Ihe s i m i l e is t h u s c o n s i s t e n t and a p p r o p r i a t e .

A l t h o u g h t h e Azhvar compares t h e L o r d ' s e y e s , f e e t a n d

h a n d s t o t h e l o t u s f l o w e r , h e is a t t h e same t ime aware of

t h e i n a d e q u a c y of s u c h compar i sons . He h a s chosen t h e r e d

l o t u s f o r compar i son f o r want of a b e t t e r , w o r l d l y o b j e c t .

He h i m s e l f p o i n t s o u t i n -T& 3.1.2 t h a t t h e l o t u s c a n n o t be

a n a p t compar i son t o d e s c r i b e t h e L o r d ' s e y e s , f e e t a n d

h a n d s ; t h e s h i n i n g g o l d cannot compete w i t h H i s s p l e n d r o u s

form. In f a c t any o b j e c t of t h e wor ld w i l l n o t o n l y be a

p o o r compar i son but i t w i l l amount t o d e n i g r a t i n g t h e Lord

whose b e a u t y and s p l e n d o u r a r e i n d e s c r i b a b l e .

As Nammazhvar i s n o t s a t i s f i e d w i t h t h e s e o r d i n a r y

s i m i l e s h e r e s o r t s t o u s i n g e p i t h e t s t o q u a l i f y them a n d

s i m i l e s f rom o u t s i d e t h i s world . The L o r d ' s f e e t a r e l i k e

two r i s i n g s u n s of u n p a r a l l e l e d b r i g h t n e s s and g l o r y

( 8 . 5 . 5 ) . Not o n l y a r e t h e L o r d ' s f e e t l i k e t h e s u n , H i s

v e r y fo rm is l i k e t h e sun. a b l a c k s u n , a t t h a t ! (8.5.2 a n d

8.5.7) . The Lord i s r a d i a n t l i k e t h e sun no d o u b t ; b u t t h e

d a r k COloUr of Hi s body makes t h e p o e t compare Him t o a n

u n i m a g i n a b l e b l a c k sun .

An i n t e r e s t i n g example of t h i s ou t -o f t h e - w o r l d s i m i l e

can be s e e n i n T i r u v a s i r i y a m 1: The Lord r e c l i n i n g on t h e

ocean l o o k s l i k e a glowing r e d - v e i n e d e m e r a l d h i l l r e s t i n g

on t h e waves of t h e s e a . H i s c l o t h e s l o o k l i k e b r i g h t r e d

c l o u d ; t h e crown on H i s head i s l i k e t h e b r i g h t and f i e r y

s u n ; H i s n e c k l a c e is l i k e t h e coo l moon a d o r n i n g t h e h i l l ;

t h e j e w e l s t h a t t h e Lord is wear ing t w i n k l e l i k e t h e s t a r s ;

t h e e y e s a n d t h e l i p s a r e r e d and t h e g r e e n body, o u t s h i n e s

e v e r y t h i n g e l s e .

I n = 10 .10 .7 t h e Azhvar d e s c r i b e s t h e Lord i n His

i n c a r n a t i o n a s t h e Boar ( V a r a h a ) : When t h e E a r t h was

submerged u n d e r d e e p w a t e r s d u r i n g t h e d e l u g e , t h e Lord i n

t h e fo rm of a Boar p u l l e d i t o u t of t h e w a t e r s . The Boar

w i t h two p r o t r u d i n g b r i g h t t u s k s r i s i n g f rom b e n e a t h t h e

w a t e r s h o l d i n g t h e E a r t h is compared t o a s a p p h i r e moun ta in

r i s i n g up , h o l d i n g two moons. While t h e Lord is compared t o

t h e moun ta in end H i s t u s k s t o two moons, t h e r e is no men t ion

o f t h e E a r t h . T h i s i s p e r h a p s d e l i b e r a t e l y i n t e n d e d by t h e

Azhvar t o s i g n i f y t h a t i n t h e b r i g h t n e s s of t h e s a p p h i r e

m o u n t a i n a n d t h e moons, t h e E a r t h f a d e d o u t of s i g h t .

' h e Azhvar t h u s u s e s v a r i o u s k i n d s of s i m i l e s i n h i s

poems and we n o t i c e t h a t many of them a r e from n a t u r e . And,

when t h e Azhvar d e s c r i b e s t h e b e a u t y of t h e Lord, h e i n t e n d s

t o a p p r e c i a t e H i s e x c e l l e n c e a s w e l l . At t i m e s h e u s e s

homely s i m i l e s t o d e s c r i b e t h e L o r d ' s q u a l i t i e s . The Lord

who i s t h e I n d w e l l e r of a l l t h i n g s , o f e v e n t h e f i v e

e l e m e n t s , r e m a i n s i n v i s i b l e , j u s t a s ghee i s i n v i s i b l y

p r e s e n t i n m i l k (TVJ 8 . 5 . 1 0 ) . T h i s s i m i l e e x p r e s s e s a g r e a t

p h i l o s o p h i c i d e a s u c c i n c t l y .

L i k e c h i l d r e n s e e i n g d i f f e r e n t s h a p e s a n d f i g u r e s i n

t h e c l o u d s Nammazhvar i m a g i n e s t h e d a r k c l o u d s t o be a h e r d

of e l e p h a n t s ( T i r u v i r u t t a m 4 0 ) . In t h i s v e r s e h e compares

t h e a e t t i n g sun a l s o t o a n e l e p h a n t d i s a p p e a r i n g b e h i n d t h e

m o u n t a i n s . In o t h e r words , one e l e p h a n t seemed t o d i s a p p e a r

y i e l d i n g p l a c e t o many o t h e r s .

A n o t h e r s i m p l e s i m i l e t o b r i n g ou t a g r e a t i d e a can be

s e e n i n 10 .10 .5 . The Lord i s s a i d t o h a v e consumed t h e

A z h v a r ' s s o u l c o m p l e t e l y even a s t h e r ed -ho t i r o n s u c k s a l l

t h e w a t e r s p r i n k l e d on i t .

In a few v e r s e s Nammazhvar compares h i s t e n d e r h e a r t t o

t h e m e l t i n g wax k e p t n e a r f i r e (5 .10 .5 , 6 . 9 . 6 ) . When t h e

Azhvar c o n t e m p l a t e s on t h e v a r i o u s i n c a r n a t i o n s o f t h e

Lord, h e m e l t s l i k e wax. In H i s i n c a r n a t i o n a s Narasimha.

t h e Lord k i l l e d t h e demon Hi ranya . The Azhvar i m a g i n e s t h a t

He was l i k e a huge l i o n s i t t i n g a t o p a mountain and

s p l i t t i n g i t i n t o two.

The Azhvar employs a v e r y i n t e r e s t i n g s i m i l e i n

4 .6 .7 . The g i r l i n l o v e is i n a s t a t e of ex t reme

d e s o l a t i o n on account of s e p a r a t i o n from t h e Lord. The

e l d e r s t h i n k she i s possessed and a r e t r y i n g t o p r o p i t i a t e

i n f e r i o r d e i t i e s wi th customary o f f e r i n g s such a s meat.

l i q u o r and dance. Chid ing t h e e l d e r s f o r t h i s f o o l e r y , t h e

g i r l ' s companion remarks t h a t t h i s is l i k e a p p r e c i a t i n g t h e

b e a u t y of a donkey e a t i n g paddy and g e t t i n g l o s t i n i t s l i p

movements, f o r g e t t i n g t h e l o s s of paddy t h a t i t entai ls . . W s

k i n d of s i m i l e i s c a l l e d e t u t t u k k a t t u uvamai i n Tamil

p o e t i c s (Damodaran 1 5 6 ) .

In t h e d e s c r i p t i o n of t h e Lord, His v a r i o u s e x p l o i t s

and h i s r e l a t i o n s h i p wi th Him, t h e poet u s e s a number of

metaphors . Some of t h e s imple metaphors used o f t e n by t h e

Azhvar a r e pata pankayam ( l o t u s f e e t ) , t i r u k k a n t i m a r a i

[ l o t u s e y e s ) , p a l n i l ; muttam [ p e a r l t e e t h ) e t c . L i f e is

o f t e n compared t o a s e a . P i r a v i k k a t a l .

A p e c u l i a r type of metaphor is n o t i c e d when t h e Azhvar

a d d r e s s e s t h e Lord a s tcya amutu ( p u r e n e c t a r ) ,

( n o n - s a t i a t e n e c t a r ) , d e l i c i o u s f r u i t , candy, honey, cane

j u i c e and n e c t a r [ 3 . 5 . 6 ) , c o r a l mountain e t c . God is

r e f e r r e d t o a s t h e " d i v i n e bee" ( 9 . 9 . 4 ) a s He h a s sucked t h e

e s s e n c e o u t of t h e Azhvar and d i s a p p e a r e d even a s a bee

s u c k s t h e n e c t a r from a f lower and goes away.

m e r e is a d e s c r i p t i o n of t h e v a l o u r of Kr i shna who

k i l l e d t h e e l e p h a n t . uKuvalayapi tam". l h e e l e p h a n t i s

compared t o a mountain, wi th i t s two huge t u s k s resembl ing

twin peaks (z 8 . 4 . 1 ) .

When t h e Lord, i n His i n c a r n a t i o n a s Rama invaded

Lanka, t h e demons f l e d from t h e r e l i k e h o r s e s runn ing away

from t h e Dinosaur o r a fox from the l i o n , howling a l l t h e

way t o t h e Underworld. The Lord k i l l e d a l l t h e demons and

made a mountain ou t of t h e dead b o d i e s ( 7 . 6 . 8 ) .

In 7 .7 . t h e r e i s a long drawn metaphor. The

v e r s e s d e s c r i b e t h e e y e s , n o s e , mouth, e y e l i d s , t e e t h , e a r s

and f o r e h e a d of t h e Lord. His e y e s which a r e l i k e f r e s h

l o t u s f l o w e r s a l s o a p p e a r t o be c r u e l , l i k e t h e d e a t h -

d e a l i n g Yama; t h e bewi tch ing e y e s torment h e r (1). He

wonders whe ther t h e L o r d ' s nose is t h e c r e e p e r o r a t e n d e r

l e a f o f a Karpaka t r e e ( 2 ) l h e L o r d ' s l i p s a r e c o r a l - l i k e

and n e c t a r e a n ( 3 ) . His e y e l i d s a r e l i k e t h e e n t i c i n g

amorous bow o f t h e god o f l o v e ( 4 ) . The L o r d ' s t e e t h a r e

p e a r l s t h a t s h i n e l i k e l i g h t n i n g ( 5 ) . l h e L o r d ' s e a r s make

t h e p o e t wonder whether they a r e f i s h - s h a p e d l e a v e s ( 6 ) .

The f o r e h e a d of t h e Lord is compared t o t h e waxing moon ( 7 ) .

In t h e e i g h t h v e r s e of t h e decad , a l l t h e s e a r e r e f l e c t e d i n

t h e charming f a c e of t h e Lord. In t h e n i n t h v e r s e , t h e

Azhvar compares t h e b e a u t i f u l s t r a n d s of b l a c k h a i r t o t h e

p i t c h d a r k n e s s e n v e l o p i n g t h e whole world d u r i n g t h e Deluge,

compressed i n t o d a r k - b l u e t h r e a d , n e a t l y packed and r o l l e d .

In one v e r s e t h e Azhvar d e s c r i b e s t h e Lord, u s i n g t h e

metaphor of t h e imaginary f r u i t of a n imaginary t r e e :

Akkzrakkaniye [TVJ 2 . 9 . 8 1 .

In t a l k i n g about h i s r e l a t i o n s h i p wi th God, t h e Azhvar

u s e s s e v e r a l metaphors . A predominant one is t h e f a m i l i a l

metaphor of f a t h e r - s o n . God a s F a t h e r a l s o e x p r e s s e s t h e

i d e a of t h e Lord ' s s u p e r i o r i t y and love and t h e p o e t ' s s e n s e

of o b e d i e n c e , h i s dependence on H i m a s w e l l a s h i s l o v e .

The Lord who p r o t e c t e d t h e wor lds d u r i n g t h e Deluge i s

a l w a y s t h e F a t h e r - f i g u r e .

The economic metaphor of m a s t e r and s l a v e is a l s o

f r e q u e n t l y u s e d , s t r e s s i n g t h e Azhvar ' s dependence on and

o b e d i e n c e t o t h e Lord. The poe t Wants t o do l o v i n g s e r v i c e

t o t h e Lord and n e v e r does h e grudge i t . And h e wants t o

s e r v e no t even t h e Lord - he w i l l be c o n t e n t t o s e r v e t h e

l o w l i e s t of His d e v o t e e s ! That t h i s r e l a t i o n s h i p is no t a n

o r d i n a r y one can be s e e n i n 2 5.1.10: When I s a i d "He h a s

become my m a s t e r " , t h a t c l o u d - c o l o u r e d One became my v e r y

s e l f . I t i s t h i s k i n d o f a n i d e n t i f i c a t i o n t h a t t h i s

metaphor t r i e s t o e s t a b l i s h . Almost s i m i l a r t o t h i s i s t h e

owner -proper ty metaphor i n p~ 5.7.10 where t h e Azhvar

d e c l a r e s t h a t even h i s s o u l be longs t o t h e Lord and t h e r e is

n o t h i n g r e a l l y be long ing t o him t h a t h e can o f f e r t o t h e

Lord.

The most s i g n i f i c a n t metaphor i n Nammazhvar is t h a t of

nayaka-nayaki o r Lover-beloved. In T i r u v i r u t tam and

Tiruvaymozhi t h e r e a r e s e v e r a l v e r s e s where t h i s metaphor is

employed. I h i s a l s o i n d i c a t e s t h e n o t i o n s of l o v e , s e r v i c e

and dependence. In 9 .2 .10 t h e Azhvar e x p r e s s e s h i s

d e s i r e t o s e r v e t h e Lord i n a w i f e l y f a s h i o n . ' h i s metaphor

conveys t h e i d e a t h a t t h e human s e l f shou ld be g iven o v e r t o

d u t i f u l s e r v i c e t o God. I t s h o u l d be n o t e d t h a t t h e t y p i c a l

I n d i a n w i f e c o n s i d e r e d h e r s e l f s u b s e r v i e n t t o and e n t i r e l y

dependen t on h e r husband.

We come a c r o s s t h e soul-body metaphor a l s o q u i t e o f t e n

i n Nammazhvar. The Lord i s t h e I n d w e l l e r o r the Soul of t h e

body of t h e u n i v e r s e . He i s p r e s e n t i n e v e r y t h i n g a s i t s

s o u l .

Mention must be made h e r e t o two o t h e r t y p e s of

comparison o c c u r r i n g i n Tamil p o e t r y , r e f e r r e d t o a s U l l u r a i

and I r a i c c i . They a r e used mainly i n l o v e l y r i c s of t h e

Cankam age . In o b j e c t i v e p o e t r y one comes a c r o s s what i s

c a l l e d Kurippu. A l l t h e s e terms r e f e r t o d e e p e r o r

s u g g e s t e d meanings u n d e r l y i n g t h e e x p l i c i t meanings i n a

poem. U l l u r a i i s an i m p l i c i t comparison. Unlike a

metaphor , I t i s a s t r u c t u r a l f e a t u r e wi th t h e poem. I t

i n t e g r a t e s t h e v a r i o u s e l e m e n t s of t h e poem and g i v e s

shape t o i t s message.

Nammazhvar's h a n d l i n g of kurippu l e n d s charm t o h i s

p o e t r y . Very many v e r s e s i n Nammazhvar l e n d themse lves t o

such a t r e a t m e n t .

In T i r u v i r u t t a m 7 t h e g i r l i n l o v e is obsessed by t h e

coming of t h e r a i n y season , when h e r Lord h a s promised t o

come. Her companion t e l l s h e r t h a t t h e f i e r c e f i g h t of t h e

b u l l e p p e a r s l i k e d a r k c l o u d s dash ing a g a i n s t e a c h o t h e r ,

making h e r b e l i e v e i t is r a i n y season . She does no t know

whether i t i s r e a l l y r a i n y season . The d e e p e r meaning found

i n t h i s v e r s e i s t h i s : The w o r l d l y l i f e i s l i k e t h e r a i n y

s e a s o n . F a l s e knowledge h i d e s t h e t r u t h j u s t a s t h e r a i n

c l o u d s make i t imposs ib le f o r one t o s e e the way. Like t h e

r a i n y s e a s o n , wor ld ly l i f e a l s o c a u s e s s e v e r a l h a r d s h i p s .

When t h e Lord promises t o come d u r i n g t h e r a i n y season , i t

means t h a t when men become confused and g e t d e f e a t e d by

w o r l d l y p a s s i o n s , t h e Lord w i l l a p p e a r and redeem them.

When t h e Lord is d e s c r i b e d a s t h e one who k i l l e d t h e

e l e p h a n t "Kuva layap i t am" ( 1 . 9 . 2 1 , i t is s u g g e s t e d t h a t t h e

A z h v a r ' s s e n s e s which a r e a s f i e r c e a s t h e e l e p h a n t h a v e

been d e s t r o y e d o r c o n t r o l l e d by t h e Lord.

I n 2 . 4 . 2 . t h e mothe r of t h e g i r l a d d r e s s e s t h e Lord

and a s k s Him why He who c u t a s u n d e r t h e thousand h a n d s o f

t h e demon, Vanasura canno t a p p e a r b e f o r e t h e g i r l . The

r e f e r e n c e t o t h e k i l l i n g of t h e demon is no t t o b r i n g o u t

t h e v a l o u r of t h e Lord bu t t o remind Him t h a t He d i d i t i n

o r d e r t o b r i n g two l o v e r s , Aniruddha and Usha, t o g e t h e r .

The poe t e x p e c t s t h e Lord t o h e l p him i n t h e same way.

I n c e r t a i n v e r s e s t h e Azhvar u s e s words t o convey t h e

o p p o s i t e meanings. In 2 . 1 . 6 f o r example , h e i m a g i n e s t h a t

t h e moon is s u f f e r i n g on a c c o u n t of s e p a r a t i o n from t h e

Lord , l i k e t h e Azhvar h i m s e l f . So h e a s k s t h e moon w h e t h e r

i t a l s o b e l i e v e d t h e " t r u e wordsn of t h e Lord, imply ing t h a t

He spoke f a l s e h o o d .

I n 9 . 1 0 . 4 when t h e p o e t d e s c r i b e s t h e t emple w a l l s

of T i rukkannapuram a s t o u c h i n g t h e s k y , i t i s no doub t a n

e x a g g e r a t i o n . The i n t e n d e d meaning i s t h a t j u s t a s t h e

w a l l s p r o t e c t t h e Lord, He a l s o p r o t e c t s H i s d e v o t e e s .

A n o t h e r i l l u s t r a t i o n of t h i s k i n d of u s a g e is s e e n

5 . 9 . 2 where t h e g i r l i n l o v e d e s c r i b e s t h e Lord i n t e r m s o f

t h e s o u t h wind. J u s t a s t h e wind t a k e s away t h e sweet

I r a g r r n c e Of t h e f l o w e r s and does not g i v e back a n y t h i n g t o

them, t h e Lord does not g i v e back anyth ing t o h e r . ' h u s t h e

wind p a s s i n g through t h a t p l a c e , T i r u v a l l a v a z h , and t h e

Lord o f t h e p l a c e s h a r e a common c h a r a c t e r i s t i c

a c c o r d i n g t o the g i r l .

m e r e a r e a number of poems where t h e Azhvar employs a

few o t h e r f i g u r e s of speech such a s h y p e r b o l e , t r a n s f e r r e d

e p i t h e t , oxymoron and paradox , symbolism, imagery e t c .

I n 9 . 1 0 . 4 and 9.2.8 the temple w a l l s a r e d e s c r i b e d a s

reach ing t h e sky/moon. ' h e e x a c t purpose of t h i s h y p e r b o l e

h a s been d i s c u s s e d above.

In T i r u v i r u t t a m 5 2 , the mytholog ica l Milky Ocean is

r e f e r r e d t o a s " b l a c k n , s i n c e t h e d a r k complexioned Lord is

r e s t i n g on i t s waves. O t h e r examples of t r a n s f e r r e d e p i t h e t

can be seen i n v e r s e s 4 7 and 49 where t h e moon is d e s c r i b e d

a s t e r r i b l y ho t and d a r k n e s s i s s a i d t o be e x t r e m e l y p a i n f u l

f o r t h e g i r l i n love .

The n a t u r e of God o r of R e a l i t y Is e x p r e s s e d th rough

paradoxes i n many v e r s e s . He is p o v e r t y and w e a l t h , h e l l

and heaven , foe and f r i e n d , po ison and ambros ia , joy and

sor row, confus ion and c l a r i t y , h e a t and shade , v i r t u e and

s i n , remembrance and f o r g e t f u l n e s s , youth and a g e , o l d and

new, l i t t l e n e s s and g r e a t n e s s e t c . F i n a l l y , He is a l l and

n o t of a l l . (z 6 . 3 ) .

The Azhvar r e s o r t s t o a number of symbols, many of them

t r a d i t i o n a l . The t u l a c i l e a v e s a lways a s s o c i a t e d wi th Lord

Vishnu, symbol i se c h a s t i t y . The Garuda o r E a g l e ,

Serpent.Whee1. Conch, Club , Bow a r e some of t h e major

symbols a s s o c i a t e d wi th Vishnu. The Garuda, t h e v e h i c l e of

Vishnu, g e n e r a l l y s y m b o l i s e s t h e Veda w i t h i t s t w o f o l d

c o u r s e of l e a r n i n g and d i s c i p l i n e . The e a g l e , which is

supposed t o be t h e ' d e s t r o y e r of s e r p e n t s h a s t o c o - e x i s t

w i t h i t , a s t h e Lord r e c l i n e s on t h e thousand-headed

s e r p e n t . A s t h e Lord i s a lways a t war w i t h t h e e v i l .

symbol i sed a s demons, He h u r l s H i s wheel and u s e s H i s c l u b

a g a i n s t them. When He blows H i s conch, t h e enemies a r e

f i l l e d w i t h t e r r o r . He a l s o h a s a bow c a l l e d Saranga f o r

t h i s purpose . The s e a i s a f i g u r e f o r w o r l d l y l i f e and a l s o

t h e c y c l e of b i r t h s and d e a t h s .

Nammazhvar r e f e r s t o a number of s t o r i e s from t h e

mythology, t h e i n c i d e n t s of which a r e c l e v e r l y woven i n t o

t h e t e x t u r e of h i s p o e t r y . H i s a im seems t o be t o l e a d t h e

r e a d e r from t h e rea lms of t h e known t o t h e unknown.

I t i s no t e a s y t o f u l l y compare t h e f o r m a l i s t i c a s p e c t s

of t h e two p o e t s , be long ing t o two d i f f e r e n t a g e s and

l i n g u i s t i c backgrounds. But an a t t e m p t h a s n e v e r t h e l e s s

been made i n t h i s c h a p t e r t o f i n d s i m i l a r i t i e s i n s t y l e and

i n t h e i r h a n d l i n g o f p o e t i c d e v i c e s . One s t r i k i n g

resemblance d i s c e r n e d i s t h e remarkab le economy of

e x p r e s s i o n found i n t h e i r p o e t r y . l h e y b o t h draw t h e i r

imagery and symbols mainly from t h e i r r e s p e c t i v e r e l i l g i o u s

t e x t s and mytho log ies . But imagery from day-to-day l i f e

abounds more i n H e r b e r t ' s p o e t r y than i n Nammazhvar's. I t

i s found t h a t d e s c r i p t i v e p a s s a g e s a r e more i n Nammazhvar's

p o e t r y and hence h i s p r o f u s e u s e of s i m i l e s and metaphors .

I n t h e m a t t e r of rhyme and met re , w h i l e H e r b e r t j u g g l e s and

e x p e r i m e n t s w i t h them t o make t h e rhyme s u i t t h e s i t u a t i o n ,

Nammazhvar is r a t h e r c o n v e n t i o n a l . Regarding form, t h e r e i s

a wider v a r i e t y i n Herber t than i n Nammazhvar.