SH¯I‘ ¯I ISLAM An Introductionassets.cambridge.org/97811070/31432/frontmatter/...SH¯I‘ ¯I ISLAM An Introduction The initial centuries after the Prophet Muh.ammad’s death

SH I ‘ I IS L A M

An Introduction

The initial centuries after the Prophet Muh. ammad’s death witnessedthe proliferation of diverse ideas and beliefs. It was during this periodof roughly three centuries that two dominant intellectual traditionsemerged, Sunnism and Shı‘ism. Sunnı Muslims endorsed the histori-cal caliphate, whereas Shı‘ı Muslims lent their support to ‘Alı, cousinof the Prophet and the fourth caliph. The Shı‘a also articulated adistinctive set of theological doctrines concerning the nature of Godand legitimate political and religious authority. This book examinesthe development of Shı‘ı Islam through the lenses of belief, narrative,and memory. In an accessible yet nuanced manner, it conceives ofShı‘ism as a historical project undertaken by a segment of the earlyMuslim community that felt dispossessed. It also covers, for the firsttime in English, a wide range of Shı‘ı communities from the demo-graphically predominant Twelvers to the transnational Isma‘ılıs tothe scholar-activist Zaydıs. The resulting portrait of Shı‘ism reveals adistinctive and vibrant Muslim community with a remarkable capac-ity for reinvention and adaptation, grounded in a unique theologicalinterpretation of Islam.

Najam Haider is Assistant Professor of Religion at Barnard Collegeof Columbia University. His articles have been published in manyjournals, including Der Islam, the Journal of Near Eastern Studies, andIslamic Law and Society. His research interests include early Islamichistory, Islamic law, and the impact of modernity on the contemporaryMuslim world. His first book, The Origins of the Shı‘a (CambridgeUniversity Press), was published in 2011. His new project focuses onearly Muslim historical writing.

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SHI‘I ISLAM

An Introduction

NAJAM HAIDERBarnard College/Columbia University






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Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication DataHaider, Najam Iftikhar, 1974–

Shi‘i Islam : an introduction / Najam Haider.pages cm – (Introduction to religion)

Includes bibliographical references and index.isbn 978-1-107-03143-2 (hardback) – isbn 9781107625785 (paperback)

1. Shi‘ah. 2. Shi‘ah – History. 3. Shi‘ah – Doctrines – History. I. Titlebp193.5.h25 2014

297.8′2–dc23 2014009780

isbn 978-1-107-03143-2 Hardbackisbn 978-1-107-62578-5 Paperback

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For Saman, Ayaan, Shahzaib, and Sareena











Contents

List of Tables and Maps page ixAcknowledgments xiNote on the Cover Image xiiiA Note on Transliteration and Dating xv

Introduction 1

section 1: theology 13

1 ‘Adl (Rational Divine Justice) 18

2 Imamate (Legitimate Leadership) 31

section 2: origins 51

3 Community 53

4 Fragmentation 84

section 3: constructing shı‘ism 101

5 Zaydism in the Balance between Sunnı and Shı‘a 103

6 The Weight of Isma‘ılı Expectations 123

7 Twelver Shı‘ism and the Problem of the Hidden Imam 145

section 4: shı‘ism in the modern world 167

8 Zaydism at the Crossroads 169

9 (Nizarı) Isma‘ılism Reconstituted 182

vii






viii Contents

10 The Politicization of the Twelver Shı‘a 200

Conclusion: Sunnı–Shı‘ı Relations 218

Appendix: Verses Mentioned in the Argument from Qur’anicExpectations in Chapter 3 229

Index 233






List of Tables and Maps

t a b l e s

2.1 The Imamate page 463.1 The Main Characters of the Karbala Narrative 684.1 The Twelver Shı‘ı Imams 945.1 Batrı and Jarudı Zaydism 1095.2 The Qasimı Imams of Yemen 1146.1 The Fat.imid Dynasty (909–1171) 1286.2 The Nizarı Rulers, Alamut Period (1090–1256) 1336.3 The Nizarı Imams, Post-Alamut (1256–Present) 138

10.1 The Role of the Jurist in the Iranian Constitution 214

m a p s

1 World Muslim Population Distribution xvi2 World Sunnı/Shı‘ı Population Distribution xvii3 The Shı‘ı Population of the Middle East xviii4 The Middle East in the Early Muslim Period xix5 The Middle East and North Africa in the Modern Period xx6 The Khoja Population of Pakistan and India xxi

ix











Acknowledgments

A number of people were pivotal in bringing this book to fruition. Ithank Marigold Acland at Cambridge University Press for proposing theproject and providing insightful comments in its formative stages. WilliamMcCants and Justin Stearns were incredibly helpful in reading and com-menting on early iterations of the book proposal. They then generouslyoffered feedback on drafts of chapters and (later) the full manuscript. I alsobenefited from valuable feedback on either individual chapters or the fullbook from Mona Abdallah, Aun Ali, Gene Garthwaite, Iago Hale, AbdullahHamidaddin, Tariq al-Jamil, Hossein Kamaly, and Hussein Rashid. Manyothers have contributed to this book either directly or indirectly. Theseinclude Sumaira Arastu, Grace Bickers, Elizabeth Castelli, Celia Deutsch,Jack Hawley, Bernard Haykel, Gale Kenny, Amena Saeed Lone, and IntisarRabb. A special thanks to Michael Cook and Hossein Modarressi for theirmeticulous feedback on a late version of the complete text. Although thisbook would not be possible without the help and support of my teachers,colleagues, and friends, I bear full responsibility for any errors of fact orinterpretation.

xi











Note on the Cover Image

The cover image is an illustration of the investiture of ‘Alı by the Prophetat Ghadır Khumm from the earliest extant illustrated manuscript ofal-Birunı’s (d. 1048) Athar al-baqiya ‘an al-qurun al-khaliya (commonlyknown as The Chronology of Ancient Nations) located in the Special Col-lections Department of Edinburgh University Library. The manuscript(Arab Ms. 161) was produced by the calligrapher Ibn al-Kutbı in 1307. Itsgeographic origin is not known with certainty, but possibilities includeMaragha or Tabriz, major urban centers of the Ilkhanid dynasty (1256–1335). Recent scholarship has shown that the manuscript’s images, fusingArab and Chinese motifs, served as the basis for many subsequent pictorialrepresentations of the Prophet’s life.

Al-Birunı’s text focuses primarily on competing calendrical systems. TheEdinburgh manuscript intersperses the Arabic text with twenty-five illus-trations of varying size. The image of the investiture of ‘Alı (folio 162r) is thefinal illustration and reflects a clear pro-Shı‘ı orientation. The manuscriptis often discussed with reference to the conversion of the Ilkhanid rulerUljaytu (r. 1304–16) to Twelver Shı‘ism in 1310, possibly through the influ-ence of the Shı‘ı scholar Ibn al-Mut.ahhar al-‘Allama al-H. illı (d. 1325). Theportrait of investiture is the largest of the manuscript, occupying almostan entire page.

In the illustration, note the swirling red and gold clouds and the darkblue sky, signifying the dramatic importance of the moment. The Prophet(on the left and cloaked) appoints ‘Alı (in a blue robe with his left hand onhis sword) as his successor by reciting the formula “Of whomever I am themaster (mawla), ‘Alı is his master (mawla).” Also significant is the Prophet’splacement of his left hand on ‘Alı’s shoulder. According to Priscilla Soucek,this gesture reflected a popular Iranian tradition in which individuals couldforge intimate bonds that exceeded those of kin or marriage in importancethrough a ceremony performed on the day of the investiture (the eighteenthof the Islamic month of Dhu al-H. ijja).

xiii






xiv Note on the Cover Image

A final point to consider concerns the pictorial representation of the facesof the Prophet and ‘Alı. There is no indication that this was consideredreligiously problematic in the Ilkhanid period. The three faces scratchedout in the image likely belong to the first three Sunnı caliphs, Abu Bakr,‘Umar, and ‘Uthman. Christiane Gruber interprets this act as a polemicalattack on Sunnı religious claims rather than a general condemnation ofpictorial representation.

For more on the cover image and the manuscript, see the followingworks:

Sheila Blair, “The Development of the Illustrated Book in Iran,” Muqarnas 10(1993): 266–74.

Christiane Gruber, “Questioning the ‘Classical’ in Persian Painting,” Journal ofArt Historiography 6 (2012): 1–25.

Robert Hillenbrand, “Images of Muhammad in al-Biruni’s Chronology of AncientNations,” in Persian Painting, ed. Robert Hillenbrand (London: I. B. Tauris,2000), 129–46.

Teresa Kirk, “The Edinburgh Al-Biruni Manuscript,” Persica 20 (2005): 39–81.Priscilla Soucek, “An Illustrated Manuscript of al-Birunı’s Chronology of Ancient

Nations,” in The Scholar and the Saint, ed. Peter Chelkowsi (New York: NewYork University Press, 1975), 103–68.






A Note on Transliteration and Dating

The system of transliteration employed in rendering Arabic names, techni-cal terms, and other phrases into Latin characters is essentially the same asthat used in most modern academic journals (e.g., International Journal ofMiddle Eastern Studies or Islamic Law and Society). The primary exceptionsto this strict transliteration are certain well-established locations that arereferred to by their common names. Most prominent among these are thecities of Mecca and Medina and the geographic regions of Syria, Yemen,Iraq, and Iran. Dates are given according to the Common Era calendar.This differs from the Islamic (Hijrı) calendar, which is lunar and beginsin the year 622 c.e. Death dates are provided at the first mention of eachhistorical figure in the main text and repeated when considered appropriate.

xv






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Map 6. The Khoja Population of Pakistan and India

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SH¯I‘ ¯I ISLAM An Introductionassets.cambridge.org/97811070/31432/frontmatter/...SH¯I‘ ¯I ISLAM An Introduction The initial centuries after the Prophet Muh.ammad’s death