Social Problems: Sexism and Gender Inequality

Gender Inequality as a Social ProblemSexism: the subordination of one sex, female, based on the assumed superiority of the other sex, malePatriarchy: a hierarchical system of social organization in which cultural, political, and economic structures are controlled by menThough women comprise 51% of Canadians, they are called a minority group because they dont have the resources of men. WomenAre victims of sexual assaultEarn 71 percent of what men earn

Defining Sex and GenderSex: biological differences between males and females.Gender: the culturally and socially constructed differences between females and males based on meanings, beliefs, and practices that a group associates with femininity or masculinityIntersexed: having unrecognizable genitalia or both male and female genitaliaTransgendered: ones gender not the same as biological sex

Sexism and Gender InequalitySexism refers to the range of attitudes, beliefs, policies, laws and behaviors that discriminate on the basis of genderResults in a system of gender inequalityPower and Male HegemonyMale hegemony refers to the political and ideological domination of woman in society

Sexism and Gender InequalityPower and Male HegemonyMales have greater access to:Cultural prestigePolitical authorityCorporate powerWealthMaterial comfortsIdeology plays a role in legitimizing male hegemony

Biological and Social Bases for Gender RolesGender roles: rights, responsibilities, expectations, and relationships of women and men in a societyAt birth, males and females are distinguished by primary sex characteristicsAt puberty, hormonal differences produce secondary sex characteristics

Biological and Social Bases for Gender RolesTo what extent are differences culturally determined?Gender ideology: ideas of masculinity and femininity that are held to be valid in a particular society and timeGendered division of labour: the process whereby productive tasks are separated on the basis of gender

Gender Inequality and SocializationAgents of socialization:Parents and family: treatment, clothes, toys, or choresPeers: pressure for behaviour and aspirationsReligionMedia and languageEducation: Gender bias: favouritism toward one gender, e.g., aggressive boys and dependent girls get attention

The FamilyTraditionally, the role of wife and mother has been a subordinate role in societyIncrease in working wives and moms and the juggling of work and familySee Table 5.1 on Unpaid Housework (p.190)On average, women do 4.3 hours daily while men do 2.8 hoursWomen also responsible for bulk of senior care

Language and the MediaLanguage often reinforces traditional sex role stereotypes : i.e. Policeman vs. police officer, or calling women girlsMedia portrays men and women in traditional roles Underrepresent women, andReinforce stereotypical ideas about women and physical attractivenessStereotypes are a source of prejudice and discriminationFeminine mystiqueMasculine mystiqueStereotypes place limits on us and on our behaviour

Organized ReligionReligion has reinforced secular traditions and gender roles in many cultures, including our ownReligion has been male dominatedIn the last few decades some religions have begun to ordain women as ministersEpiscopaliansPresbyteriansReformed Jews

Sexism in SchoolsToday, there is more focus in schools onFemale achievementGirls sportsMore involvement in school politicsGender gap in higher education and in certain disciplines is narrowing but still persists todayHowever, research show sexism still a significant factor in schools

Sexism in Schools (cont.)Research results on sexism in schools shows that generally,Teachers pay less attention to girls than boysGirls lag behind in math and science scoresGirls tend not to choose careers in math and scienceTextbooks and gender stereotypes still persistBiased testsMinority girls tend to be ignoredSchool counselors still channeling girls into sex typed occupations

HoweverThe Gender Gap (2004) text p. 197Montreal study on gender differences in achievement in schoolBoys falling behind especially in language skillsMore likely to drop out or not continueHave more behavioural, learning and social problems in schoolStudy notes that girls see educational achievement as key to better life, whereas boys rely on traditional masculinity to get ahead

Contemporary Gender InequalityGender inequality is maintained by:Individual sexism: anti-female prejudice by individualsInstitutionalized sexism:discrimination engaged in at the organizational levelAlso, when inequality, prejudice and discrimination exist, the imbalance in power leads to sexual harassment

Gender Inequality and Sexual HarassmentSexual harassment: unwanted sexual advances, requests for sexual favours, or other verbal or physical conduct of a sexual natureOccurs at work and schoolSexual harassment is also a growing problem in schoolsThe results of a recent U.S. survey found that 83 percent of girls and 79 percent of boys have been harassedBoth boys and girls are limited by sexual harassment and stereotypical notions

Gender Inequality and WorkGendered division of paid work: women have high labour force participation, but are concentrated in different occupations.Pink-collar ghetto: jobs held by women that are low-paying and semi-skilled.Contingent work: part-time work, temporary work, and subcontracted work that offers advantages to employers, but detrimental to workers.Years of work experience women are more likely to have interruption in their work historiesHiring and promotion practicesFor minority women, there is even a larger wage gap

Gender Inequality and Work

Wage gap: disparity between womens and mens earningsPay equity: equal pay for work of equal or comparable (worth of the job) worthSexual harassment: unwelcome sexual attention at work

2004 CensusApproximately 58% of women worked full time vs. 68% of men in Canada83% of 2 parent families have 2 income earnersWomen made up 46.8% of workforce72.5% of women with children under 16 in the home work

2004 CensusAverage income women $36,500 men $51,700In 2004 women made 70.5 cent for every $1 men earned3.4% of clout positions (CEOs, presidents, etc.) of Fortune 500 companies held by womenAt age 40, 90% of working men vs. 35% of working women had at least one childWomen still concentrated in teaching, nursing, service and clerical jobs (67% of employed women)

Gender Inequality and WorkGlass Ceiling and Glass Escalator:Glass Ceiling: invisible barrier constructed by male management to prevent women from reaching top positions. Women do advance in the service sectorGlass Escalator: upward movement of men in womens occupations disproportionate to their numbers

Gender Inequality and Unpaid WorkDouble shift: women are wage earners and also do most of unpaid household work, now recorded in the census90% of Canadians do unpaid work, but the majority, especially child care, is done by women

Gender Inequality and Unpaid Work

However, roles in homemaking have been changingWomen still continue to bear the primary responsibility for homemakingHusbands and fathers with working wives that support non-traditional roles are taking on a larger share of homemaking responsibilities

Perspectives: Symbolic InteractionistFocus on socialization and labellingAlso note existence of double standardLanguage is extremely important in defining social realitiesLinguistic sexism: communication that ignores, devalues, or makes sex objects of women.Genderlects: mens and womens styles and contents of language differ.Non-verbal communication: men control more space, than women, including sexual harassment

Perspectives: FunctionalistEarly thinking (Parsons, Kingsley-Davis):Men are more suited to instrumental (i.e., goal-oriented) tasksWomen perform expressive tasksThis was functional for societyMore recently:Differences in human capital of men and women (capital diminishes with time off for child-bearing and childcare)

PerspectivesConflictSocial life is a continuous struggle in which the powerful seek to control economic and social resourcesGender inequality results from capitalism and private ownership of the means of productionA result of structural and historical relationsBeneficial to capitalists to have unpaid female workforce

Perspectives: FeministSocialist: men gain control over property and womenRadical: mens oppression of women is deliberately supported by media and religionLiberal: inequality is rooted in gender-role socializationBlack, Indigenous, and other women of colour face inequalities compounded by racialization, class, and gender

Can Gender Inequality be Reduced?Symbolic Interactionist Perspective:Redefine social realities with languageFunctionalist Perspective:Redefine gender rolesEducate women about how their decisions affect human capitalEnforce existing anti-discrimination legislation and use the Canadian Charter of Human Rights and Freedoms

Can Gender Inequality be Reduced? Conflict Perspective:Marxist: abolish capitalism

Feminist:Socialist Feminists: abolish capitalism and create a new economyLiberal Feminists: change gender socializationRadical Feminists: abolish patriarchyBlack and other feminists: treat all women more equitably