ACTIVITIES

1, Create a Time Line for the excursions of GiovanniVerrazano, Jacques Cartiet, and the Sieur deRobervai. Add as many dates as you can. Even if youare not sure exactly when an event occurred, add iton your Time Line between two known dates.

2. What social values would have led Jacques Cartierto kidnap the sons of his Iroquois host at theGasp6 Peninsula and take them to Europe?

3. In point form, summarize Champlain's reasons forexploring Canada and his successes and failures inCanada. What were your criteria for determiningwhether something was a success or failure?

4. Create a drawing that reflects the many facets ofHuron society. Use the text on page 229 as yourinformation base.

Settlement and ColonizationVTV! '<N 7)

The Hurons found theJesuits' robes and beardsstrange. They noticed thatthe robes restrictedmovement, dried slowlywhen wet smelted bad,caught on the underbrush,and dragged dirt into thecanoes. The priests' beardswere considered by theHurons to be "the greatestdisfigurement that a facecan have."

charter: a documentsetting out terms ofexistence

selgneuries: feudal-likestates

bankruptcy: a state offinancial ruin

By the time Champlain died,

European countries wereworking hard to extend theirimperial interests around the

world. On the Atlantic Coast of NorthAmerica, the Dutch and the Englishhad colonies. They also tookpossession of islands in the Caribbean,challenging France and Spain. By thelate 1600s, Holland had lost its colonyto the English, and the Englishcolonies of Massachusetts, Maryland,Connecticut, Rhode Island, Delaware,Virginia, New Jersey, Maine, andCarolina—also called "the ThirteenColonies"—were growing rapidly.

The Company of a HundredAssociates was required by its charterto bring settlers to Canada and toestablish seigneuries, which werefeudal-style manors. Overseeing postsalong the St. Lawrence, including thetown of Montreal, the Companyviewed the settlement issue withsome reluctance. They were, after all,in the fur business, not in the farmingbusiness. By mapping out seigneuriesin Acadia and along the St. Lawrence,and appointing seigneurs to bring inthe settlers, they believed they hadsolved the problem.

In the long run, the Company of aHundred Associates was a business

failure. It lost its monopoly in the furtrade in 1660, and soon fell intobankruptcy.

THE JESUITMISSIONSThe Jesuits, an order of RomanCatholic priests, were the partners ofthe Company of a HundredAssociates. Richelieu wanted theNative peoples to hear "theknowledge of the true God [and] ... becivilized and instructed in theCatholic faith." He was encouraged inthis view by the Icing of France,Louis XIII.

Other missionaries had tried andfailed to convert the Hurons toCatholicism, but the Jesuits weredifferent. They were prepared to goanywhere and make any sacrifice tospread the influence of the Church.The Jesuits were also prepared to

" adapt to Native traditions andcustoms. This accommodationallowed them to live and work withthe Hurons, who were tolerant of thenewcomers, but unwilling to abandontheir own culture or religious beliefs.

232 CHAPTER 8

Figure 8-13 These photographs show the reconstruction of the Jesuit mission ofSaint Marie Among the Hurons. it was built on the ruins of the original, whichburned down in 1649. One of a chain of missions, Saint Marie had a stockade anda protected system of water locks that allowed canoes to come up into the fort.The mission also had a chapel, smithy, bakery, storehouses, gardens, stables, andliving quarters.

The Jesuits found the task ofmastering Native languages daunting,yet this was essential forcommunication. Native languages'were very different from French orLatin (which every Jesuit hadstudied). They included manyconnected words and complicatedverbs. The meaning of somethingcould change according to where thespeaker was located—on land or inthe water. And one word could haveseveral meanings, based on breathing,

tone, or inflection.On the surface, the Jesuits tried to

stay out of Huron politics. Butbecause Hurons who converted toChristianity enjoyed privileges in thefur trade, many joined the Churchand came to live near the Jesuitmissions in Huronia. Still, manyHurons refused to join the Church.This disagreement eventually splitthe Huron nation, which made itmore vulnerable to attack.

smithy: workshop

daunting: challenging

inflection: the emphasisplaced on a particularsyllable of a word

ARRIVAL )N CANADA .233

Between 1649 and 1650, Huroniawas attacked by a coalition ofSeneca and Mohawk Indians. For thenext ten years, the powerful Iroquoismoved in and almost annihilated theHurons and other Native bands insouthern Ontario. They destroyed allthe missions in Huronia. Many Hurons,Petuns, Tobacco, and others of thebands of southern Ontario, were takencaptive and lateradopted into theIroquois League ofFive Nations. Jesuitpriests were capturedand tortured to death.

This was a fearful time for both themissionaries and the Hurons. TheIroquois were skilled aggressors—soskilled that even their enemies were inawe of them, as the Jesuit accountbelow illustrates. As you are reading,pay attention to the similes used inthis excerpt. What do they have incommon? Are they effective? Why?

Five Nations: the originalIroquois confederacy

similes: a figure of speechcomparing two things

[The Iroquois] come like foxesthrough the woods, which affordthem concealment and serve themas an impregnable fortress. Theyattack like lions and, as their surprisesare made when they are least expected, theymeet with no resistance. They take flight likebirds, disappearing before they have reallyappeared.

Figure 8-14 This weapon was carved from a single piece of wood and thrownby an Iroquois warrior in battle. It could fell an enemy 40 metres away.

Fir YOU KNOViiThe names du Lhut,Marquette, and Cadillacsurvive in the twentiethcentury as the names of acity (Duiuth, Minnesota) aCatholic university(Marquette University inMilwaukee, Wisconsin) anda luxury car (the Cadillac).

THE ROLE OFTHE COUREURSPE BOISIn keeping with their plan, the Frenchtried to develop close tradingrelationships with Native peoples.Officially, they wanted Native tradersto come to the St. Lawrence. But in

practice, French explorers andcoureurs de bois travelled far out intothe continent, seeking both furs andthe elusive Northwest Passage.

The coureurs de bois were theindependent traders of the furbusiness. Furs were supposed to becontrolled by monopolies, such as theCompany of a Hundred Associates,but these rules were easy to bend.Since the Iroquois had more or lessstopped the Algonkians and otherNative bands from bringing furs tothe St. Lawrence, the coureurs de boishad to go to the source. They paidofficials fees and bribes to look theother way. The coureurs de boistravelled the waterways in birch-barkcanoes, usually made by the

234 CHAPTER 8

Algonkians. This was the beginningof the fur brigades, which eventuallyopened up the west to the fur trade.Once into the Great Lakes, they couldtravel great distances.

Brothers-in-law Pierre Radissonand Medart de Groseilliers areperhaps the most famous of thecoureurs de hois. De Groseilliersbrought many furs from the northcountry. Radisson, hearing of thegreat northern sea from theAlgonkians and Ojibwa, was guidedto Hudson Bay and the rich furterritories that surrounded it. When

Radisson and de Groseilliers failed tointerest France in their find, theytravelled to England, where KingCharles II sponsored the creation ofthe Hudson's Bay Company—soon tobe New France's Number One enemy.

Other travellers, such as Danieldu Lhut, Jacques Marquette, andAntoine de la Mothe Cadillac,travelled the Great Lakes and theupper Mississippi. By 1740, theYerendrye family (a father and threesons) had crossed the prairies and hadestablished trading forts. Theyprobably saw the Rocky Mountains.

One of the most famous of(fie independent trader-explorers was Rene Robert,Sieur de La Salle, a noblefrom Normandy in France.He built the first sailing shipon the Great Lakes, theGriffin. The ship sank andwas rediscovered in deepwater at Tobermory,Ontario, in this century.

fur brigades: groups ofpeople who traded fursfor a living

Figure 8-15 This map shows the routes of French coureurs de bois and adventurers into the interiorof North America. They were always assisted by Native guides. Regions of the continent were namedaccording to what the travellers saw, or recorded, with reference to the fur trade.

ARRIVAL IN CANADA 235

The Royal Province of MewFrance

staves: the narrow strips ofwood in barrel

—hen Champlain died in% / 1635, only a few French

\i lived in New France. Thew w Company of a Hundred

Associates had failed to bring settlersto Canada, and the Iroquoiscontrolled much of theiur trade (after .wresting it from the Hurons). Theybegan to set higher prices and to cutFrench profits. For the next twenty-five years, little changed.

However, in 1661, an appeal toFrance for help from New France metwith success. Louis XIV, now king ofFrance, and his minister of themarine, Jean-Baptiste Colbert, weredetermined to make the colony strongand profitable.

The theory of mercantilism wasvery popular in the seventeenthcentury (see feature on page 237). ToLouis and Colbert, Canada needed tobecome a part of the Frenchmercantile empire. In addition to thefur trade, there was talk of NewFrance shipping barrel staves toFrance's colony in the West Indies,where they were needed for sugar

production. Wood was cheaper inCanada than anywhere else. Louisand Colbert knew they had toorganize life in New France so that itcould operate successfully as acommercial venture.

France responded to the colony'scall for help by sending a regiment ofprofessional soldiers. The 1100soldiers almost doubled thepopulation of Canada. Led by theMarquis de Tracy, they attacked andburned Iroquois villages until theIroquois asked for peace. Both partiesgot what they wanted: the Frenchwould open up the fur trade to thewest for themselves, and the Iroquoiscould devote their energies toexpanding their territory elsewhere.

In 1663, the government of Francemade New France a royal colony. Agovernor was appointed to representthe king of France, supeiyise defence,and establish treaties with the Nativepeoples. A chief administrator, theintend ant, would govern the localpeople. Professional soldiers weresent for protection. A Catholic bishop

Figure 8-16 This map showsthe flow of raw materials andfinished products within theFrench and English empires.In this type of trade, Englandused waste-sugar products tomake rum, and traded it forfurs in North America. As youstudy this map, consider whythe French governmentwished to keep New Francesmall.

), -^**1 The Triangle TradelUOndfln

AlWfRtCA ^ ,£uebec~ —

' ^ Q^V' ^ Fish OH % %

Industrial Goods

Agricultural Supplies ^ ^

•"""(.e Havre'-.A ^•J'aris ?

VrRAhCE ^ "UglP®'

EUROPE-•"-N

Rum

GUADELOUPE

MARTINIQUE0 1000 2000 km

V SOUTH AMERICA

L

AFRICA

\ \ /i ¦¦¦ /

236 CHAPTERS

would be responsible for religiousaffairs, and Catholic priests and nunswould continue to convert the Nativepeoples to Christianity. Together, thegovernor, the intendant, and thebishop made up the SovereignCouncil—the government of NewFrance. A few settlers were alsorepresented on the Council.

France wanted the colony to be asmall copy of the home country. The

seigneurial system, similar to thefeudal system, would ensure that thecolony's aristocrats would havecontrol of the land, with the samerights they enjoyed in France.Champlain had wanted the Nativepeoples and the French traders tointermarry and make one nation. Butthis idea was slowly replaced with anew plan—a strong colony populatedby French peasants.

nun: a Catholic womanwho takes vows andenters a religiouscommunity

11M:lercantilism is an economic

(theory you read about lastyear in your study of global history.Mercantilism became popular inEurope in the 1500s and was theprimary reason behind Europe'sdesire to colonize new lands.

The theory of mercantilismstates that there is a certainamount of wealth in the world andthat it is in a nation's best interestto accumulate it. Through wealth,a nation can achieve power. Acountry achieves wealth byproducing and exporting moregoods than it imports. These goodsmust be sold at a profit for wealthto accumulate.

Profits are large when acountry spends a small amount ofmoney on the raw materialsneeded to create a product andsells the finished product for ahigh price. It is easy to see how anew colony in North Americawould be the perfect place forEuropeans to find a steady supplyof new raw materials.

Mercantilism was meant toserve the interests of the empire,not the colony. Colonies existed forthe benefit of the home country.Colonies could not sell their rawmaterials to anyone but the homecountry, and they were not allowedto manufacture anything for export.

As you continue reading thischapter, think about the politicaland social consequences ofmercantilism and colonialism. Startby looking at Figure 8-17. As youlearned in Chapter 4, the WestIndies produced many goods thatEuropeans wanted, especiallysugar. Who provided the labour inEurope's West Indian colonies?What does this say about Europeanimperialism and the mercantilistsystem?

profit: an excess of money after spending

raw materiais: natural sources, such astrees or furry animals

finished product: a product that hasbeen manufactured

Colony Home Country

Colony = Source of raw materials(beaver pelts)Result = Small payment for valuableraw materialRestrictions = Numerous

Home Country = Manufacturer/Exporter

Result = Profit (accumulated wealth)Restrictions = None

FranceMarket for goods

Other CountriesOther markets

Other ColoniesMarkets for surplus goods

Figure 8-17 in this diagram of mercantilism, using beaver fur as an example, peltswere bought for a low price, made into hats, blankets, and other luxuries, and sold tohome and foreign markets for profit. The surplus was often sold off to other colonies.

ARRIVAL IN CANADA 237

'im&mmstannery: a place where

hides are converted toleather THE FIRST

GOVERNMENTJean Talon was New France's firstintendant. He knew that New Franceneeded settlers, a good defencesystem, and basic industries. Thearrival of so many French soldiersmade New France safer and alsoincreased its population, since manyof the soldiers decided to settle inCanada. Talon recruited women bylooking to those who had the least togain by staying in France. Thesewomen, often orphans, becameknown as the filles du roi, or the "the

king's daughters." Over the next tenyears, hundreds of young womencame to start new lives in Canada.

Talon also understood the role ofthe colony in the mercantile system.He established lumber mills, atannery, and a brewery in Canada.These did not compete with Frenchindustries, but made trade within theempire easier, and life in the colonymore comfortable. He also allowedsmall ships to be built. Theseimprovements made New Francestronger, more self-sufficient, andmore profitable to France,.

Frontenac, became New Francesfirst govemor^He agceed-ton^ktrmeposting-because he needed to escapepeople to whom" he bwechnoney inFrance! Almost from the beginning,

-hFrontenac fought with the Church and-e.the home government. Instead of

keeping the colony small, as Louis XIV

Figure 8-18 The colony's first bishop, Francois de Laval,was an aristocrat who founded a training school for priestsin New France. It later became Laval University. Lavalfought very hard against the emerging trade in alcohol.Both French and English traders exchanged alcohol for fursat a large profit, a development that had a devastatingimpact on Native communities. This portrait shows the firstbishop as a severe aristocrat. What other personality traitscan you glean from this portrait?

Figure 8-19 Frontenaccooperated with—and foughtwith—the Iroquois.

238 CHAPTER 8

and Colbert wished, .he ordered thecoureurs de bois to look for more furs,

- thereby extending the boundaries ofthe empire. He also disliked the

-Jesuits, who were perceived to beharming the fur trade by trying tolimit the use of alcohol.

At one point, Frontenac asked theIroquois to meet with him and build abusiness alliance. Simultaneously,however, he was building forts toprotect the French against their

attacks. The Iroquois said they wouldagree only if the French would notexpand their territory. Frontenac'sown policy of encouraging thecoureurs de bois and other explorersto travel far beyond the borders ofNew France seemed highly suspiciousto the Iroquois. Frontenac wasrecalled to France in 1682, but he wassent back several years later to leadhis last campaign against theIroquois.

ACTIVITIES

1. Create a dialogue between a Huron chief and aJesuit missionary in which both present their bestarguments for and against allowing the Jesuits tostay and work in Huronia.

2. Outline the reasons why young French Canadiansbecame coureurs de bois. Summarize theexplorations of the French in central North America.

3. Outline the results of the fur trade from the pointsof view of both the French traders and the Nativepeoples whom they encountered.

4. Explain the relationship between mercantilism andcolonialism (page 237). Can there ever be profitwithout one party being short-changed? Explain.

5. Talon, Frontenac, and Laval are often consideredimportant figures in the early history of NewFrance. Do you agree? Make cases for and againstthis proposition and draw a conclusion.

6. Explain why some young women would agree tocome to the colony of New France as filles du roi.

Life m New France

Life in New France was firmly

anchored in the seigneurialsystem. Seigneurs, or lords,

were granted parcels of land,and the habitants, or peasant farmers,had the right to cultivate the land inexchange for providing fees andservices to the seigneur. This systemhad much in common with the oldfeudal system of Europe, but it wasalso quite different. Both theseigneurs and the habitants, wholived on the land, were relatively

prosperous. Many worked part-timein the fur trade

These various enterprises gave thepeople of New France an attitude ofindependence, which sometimesirritated representatives of France.They began to think that thecolonists had forgotten their place.Nevertheless, the people of NewFrance were always loyal to France,and kept French traditions andcustoms.

ARRIVAL IN CANADA 239

arpent: a French [andmeasure

midwife: a woman whohelps deliver babies

militia: citizens who trainas soldiers in their sparetime

THE SEIGNEURYYou read earlier that the parcelling ofland into seigneuries was begun bythe Company of a HundredAssociates. By 1663, there were 104seigneuries divided into more than13 million square arpents and spreadover 320 kilometres on both sides ofthe St. Lawrence.

The seigneur had to build and livein a manor house, hold court in theevent of disputes, attract settlers, andbuild a mill. Usually, he was alsoresponsible for defence. The habitantswere required to pay rent, providedays of service to the seigneur, andserve in the militia. They had to keeptheir land productive and grind theirgrain into flour at the seigneur's mill.

Figure 8-20 If the seigneur was absent andcould not defend the seigneury, members of hisfamily could be called up. In 1692, teen-agedMadeleine de Vercheres led the defence of aseigneury when it was attacked by Iroquoisforces.

Figure 8-21 Rich merchantsworking in New France wereable to import furniture andother articles from France.Judging from the contents ofthis room, what observationscan you make about thepeople who used it?

THE HABITANTS'The lives of the habitants were builtaround the manor and the Church.Many of the younger people workedin the fur trade or, if they could be

Figure 8-22 The homes of the habitants were well-builtand often made of stone. Their furniture was made by localcraftspeople, or by the habitants themselves. What signs ofprosperity and lifestyle can you find in the picture?

240 CHAPTER 8

spared, in some of the smallindustries of Quebec. Women workedon the farm, and they had manychildren, always delivered in thehome by midwives. They livedsimply, but reasonably well, once thedanger of attack by the Iroquois hadbeen removed.

Life was based on the cycle of thefarm. In the spring, crops wereplanted, sugar was harvested fromsugar maples, and the fishing seasonbegan (in the spring, many species

Although the habitants hadmany of the same duties aspeasants in France, their lives werebetter in many ways. The averagefarm was 150 metres wide and2500 metres long, of which only25 percent needed to be farmed.The habitants paid the seigneur twobushels of wheat, a live chicken, .and about $5 a year in rent. Theywere tithed for one-twenty-sixth of

the wheat they harvested.A French peasant, on the

other hand, paid 600 times asmuch rent as the habitant, andmany taxes, which the habitant didnot have to pay at all (see page 59,Did You Know?). It is not surprisingthat the peasants of New Franceregarded themselves as superior tothe peasants of the home country.

One mtendant, apparently fed

up with the attitudes of thehabitants, described them this way:

The men are allstrong andvigorous buthave no liking forwork; the women lovedisplay and are excessivelylazy, those of the country

s :s just as much asthe towns' people.

Figures^ Thiswatercolour lookstowards the Hed'Orleans, which isshown m Figure 8-6.You can see the style offarmhouses, and even afew habitants. You can'tsee the manor house,probably because thepainter is using it as avantage point. Whatmight be the purpose ofthe fenced areas on theriver itself?

to tithe: to tax

came into the shallows to spawn).The habitants spent the summercultivating and weeding their fields,cutting wood, and clearing wasteland.The fall marked the climax of theyear's labours. This was harvest time,when the crops were gathered. In thefall, animals were slaughtered andfoods preserved for the winter.

The habitants ate well, andshortages seem to have been rare.People raised pigs, chickens, ducks,geese, and some cows, so there was an

abundance of milk, butter, and

cheese. Peas were an important crop,

and pea soup a common dish. Theyate lots of fish, particularly onFriday—the Catholic meatless day.Fruits and berries were abundant.

Habitants enjoyed music andstory-telling, which occupied many awinter's evening. They were alsoregular church-goers. As was thecustom of the medieval farmers ofEurope, they often worked togetheron joint projects and helped eachother with planting, clearing, orharvesting.

ARRIVAL IN CANADA 241

THE TOWNS 'The largest towns in New Francewere Quebec and Montreal,followed by Trois Rivieres andTadoussac, all of which were on theSt. Lawrence River. Quebec was theoldest and most important of thetowns. With its fortifications, it wasalso the strongest.

None of these communitieswas large. In the early seventeenthcentury, only about 18 000Europeans lived in the whole ofCanada. Towns, with their smallindustries, schools, hospitals, andother amenities, were rather moreinteresting places to live than thescattered seigneuries. At the far endof the St. Lawrence/bordering theterritory of the Iroquois (a borderthe Iroquois did not accept),Montreal was becoming a livelyplace. Fur brigades arrived via theOttawa River, the Church was veryactive, and Native visitors andemissaries came and wentregularly.

WOMEN IN NEWFRANCEIn the early days, Canada hadattracted some women fromFrance, but they were relativelyfew in number. If they could avoidit, the fur-trading monopolies didnot want to build up communitiesof farmers. Some of the first femaleimmigrants to New France were

. nuns, sent out by religious orderstoTielp convert and educate Nativepeoples. Marie L'Incarnation, whocame to Quebec in 1668, foundedthe Ursuline Order of Nuns for justsuch a purpose. The Ursulinesestablis'hed a long tradition ofCatholic service in New France.

X.a.jjtaO'jJ). Jvuzt&s.E. J.a.CajAedrai'.eT. Lt Jamnsurt-ff ¦ OTostzll^u.

i W- J.a>ceAe-I¦

• mapMtn apmiJi

Figure 8-25 Quebec, with its upper city high on the bluffs and itstower city teeming with port activities, was the largest Europeantown in Canada. Did the Church have much influence in NewFrance? How can you tell?

amenities: things andservices which improvelife

emissaries: people sentout on missions

Figure 8-26 This woman, in her long, fur-trimmed cape and hood,is dressed for winter. She also carries a fur hand-warmer. What canyou conciude about her financial and social status?

ARRIVAL IN CANADA 243

As in old France, women inQuebec and Acadia had few legalrights. A married woman could noteasily carry on business, sue or besued, or dispose of her own-property,without her husband's consent. Evenso, women often worked like partnersin the family business, learning theskills of buying and selling, investing,and bookkeeping. Because many menhad to travel to trade furs, womenwere often more knowledgeable aboutthe day-to-day running of thebusiness than the men.

As widows, women could and didactively take part in the business lifeof the colony. After her husband'sdeath in 1745, for example, MadameMarie-Ann Fornel invested in landand other ventures with great success.Similarly, Louise de Ramezay ranlumber mills, a tannery, and a flourmill. Other women also operatedsuccessful businesses in New France.Of course, on the farms, womenworked alongside the men, much asthey did in Europe.

I m mi

This grapi i 'immigration to NewFrance from the beginning tothe virtual end of the colonyin 1760. Examine the chartcarefully and make astatement about the male-to-female ratio of immigrants.During what two periodsdoes immigi ation peak?Read the text for reasons toaccount for these peaks.

- Immigi ation to New Fiance,' 1608-1759

Period Men Women Total

Before 1630 15 6 211630-1639 88 51 13911640-1649 141 86 2271650-1659 403 239 6421660-1669 1075 623 16981670-1679 429 369 7981680-1689 486 56 5421690-1699 490 32 5221700-1709 283 24 3071710-1719 293 18 3111720-1729 420 14 4341730-1739 483 16 4991740-1749 576 16 5921750-1759 1699 52 1751unknown 27 17 44

Total 6908 1619 8527

XcTnvifi'T?

1. Describe life on a seigneury on the St. LawrenceRiver, perhaps during the Iroquois wars.

2. Reread the feature on page 241 and decidewhether you would have preferred to stay inFrance and live in a feudal-style farm or move toCanada and live as a habitant. Make a list of prosand cons for each option. Consider criteria such as

familiarity of surroundings, physical labour, andtaxes.

3. Like the Jesuits, the women of the Ursuiine Orderof Nuns were some of the first Europeans to cometo Canada. Why are people who are attached toreligious orders ideally suited to leave their homecountry and take up. residence in a new land?

244 CHAPTER 8