September 4-5, 2008 Nr. 5-6 Volume I - economice.ulbsibiu.roeconomice.ulbsibiu.ro/revista.economica/archive/Nr 5-6vol 1.pdf · Au fost, pe urmă, descoperirile geografice,marile descoperiri

REVISTA ECONOMICÃRevistă de teorie şi practică

economico-financiarănr. 5-6 (42-43)/2008

Work Papers of the III-rd Edition of International Scientifical Conference„Economic Growth in Conditions of Internationalization”,

September 4-5, 2008Nr. 5-6

Volume I

ADRESA REDACŢIEI «REVISTA ECONOMICĂ»

COLEGIUL REDACŢIONAL

Iulian VĂCĂRELAcad.prof. dr. - Academia Română

Dan POPESCU,prof.dr., D.H.C., redactor-şef, România

Lucian-Liviu ALBUprof.dr. - director Institutul de Prognoză al Academiei Române

Gerd BEHNKE,Germania, subsecretar de stat

Robert LABBÉ,prof.dr. Universitatea din Rennes 1 Franţa

Anatol CARAGANGIU,prof.dr.hab., redactor-şef, RepublicaMoldova

Viorica CĂRARE,prof.dr.hab.

Andrei COJUHARI,prof.dr.hab.

Tatiana MANOLE,prof.dr.hab.

Liviu MIHĂESCU,conf.dr. - secretar general de redacţie

Andrian MOROŞAN,lector dr.

Lector: Victoria TIMUŞ, Adrian MOROŞAN

Universitatea “Lucian Blaga” din Sibiu,bd. Victoriei nr. 10,

cod 550024, România,tel./fax: 40-269-235 879

G.P.E. «Continent»Str. dr. I. Raţiu NR. 2, Sibiu,

cod 550012, România,tel.: 40-269-210 077

Centrul de Cercetări Economice U.L.B.S.Cl. Dumbrăvii nr.10

cod 550324, România,tel./fax: 40-269-210 375

CICRE Centrul Internaţional deCercetare a Reformelor Economice

str. Ginta Latină, nr. 17/1, ol. 98or. Chişinău, Republica Moldova,

tel.: 24-45-18; c/d 2251304011263,BC MAIB, fil. «Miron Costin»

MFO 280101710, cod fiscal 336422,index poştal PM 31368

«Revista economică» continuăpreocuparea şi activităţile din

«Economie şi Finanţe» seria clasicăISSN 1582-6260

SIBIU - CHIŞINĂU, 2008

[email protected]://economice.ulbsibiu.ro/revistaeconomica.php

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Revista economică

CuPRINSSection i. Politics and models of economic growth

Dan PoPeSCu Revoluţiile industriale şi globalizarea................................................4

S.J. ComIloV, Abdujalil muminovici RAhmANoVИнновационное развитие как условие снижения уровня бедности.......................................19

maria GAf-DeAC, George TeSeleANulivia IlIAS,Constantin NIColeSCu, Valer uNGuREficienţa utilizării resurselor naturale în economia de piaţă.........................................................................24

Natalia PeRCINSChI, Alexandr Işcenco,Alexandr GRIbINCeAImitational Models of the Innovation Development of the Country in Conditions of the Internationalization of the Economy....................33

Section ii. Financial support for sustainable growth

oana mihaiela VăsIoIuInvestment Banking...........................................................................42

Tatiana mANoleFinanţarea învăţământului – o strategie importantă a statului........55

elena fuIoR, Veronica mîRzACForeign exchange risk mitigation techniques in microfinance industry....................................................................74

Ivan luChIAN, Stela CIobu, Alina BîrlădeanuBanking innovations risk – profitability relationship in the banking system of the Republic of Moldova...........................86

Alina DINCapital market under the impact of globalization...........................96

Natalia CoDReANuInflation Targeting...........................................................................103

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Section iii. Social policies and labour market

Gabriel VASIleSCu, Angelica drăghIcINicolae IlIaş, Inga cIoară, Establishing the acceptable risk level considering the formal analysis of the function related to the structure of costs involved by occupational accidents and diseases....................................................................109

Silvia GheRGhelLa politique de l’emploi de la Roumanie dans le contexte de l’adhésion à l’Union Européenne......................................................................119

Cristina cotruţaSocial policies and their influence on the tenant’s rental contracts.......................................................128

Veronica DolINeANSChIThe link between organizational culture and social performance..................................................................138

Section iV. economic and social policies for european integration

Giorgio TeSeleANuThe role of small and medium-sized enterprises in the process of internationalization..................................................................................143

budiono GATuT l., TRIwIDIASTuTyWorld economy globalization: Indonesia’s phenomena, achievement its risk and problem solving.................................................................151

Sandra TeoDoReSCu The Romanian reform of pension system versus the reforms of pension system in EU countries....................................................................164

Alexandrin CARAGANCIu, Roman ANDRoNICIntegrarea şi globalizarea economiei..............................................171

Daniel hAGeANuThe destruction of conventional weapons in Romania – a requirement of the Euro-Atlantic integration.....................................................185

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Section i. Politics and models of economic growth

Dan PoPeScu, PhD.,University „LUCIAN BLAGA”, Sibiu,

REVOLUŢIILE INDUSTRIALE şI GLObALIzAREA

- CâTEVA COORDONATE şI DETALII ALE RApORTULUI CONSTRICŢIE – SEDUCŢIE

„Sunt doar neputinţele noastre care ne irită”Joseph Joubert

...Atuncicândvorbimdeglobalizare,îicăutăm,trebuiesă-iaflămgeneza,„valurile”de-a lungul timpului. Esteglobalizareaun„procesnou”sauîşiaflăeaobârşiaîntimpuridemulttrecute,evoluândpânălaformeleeideastăzi?

1.Suntempartizaniiceleideadouaipostaze.Iată,maimultchiardecâtGreciaantică,Imperiulroman.Prinîntindereasa,prinmişcarealiberă,maibinespusrelativliberă,încadrulsău–având,totuşi,învedere, şi restricţiile vremurilor de atunci - a capitalurilor (banilor,înspiritulvremii),aoamenilor,amărfurilor,avândînvederepoliticicomune, imperiale, faţă de parteneri, având în vedere promovareafrumoaselorşiînţeleptelorperceptelatinedecivilizaţiepe3continente(Europa,Asia,Africa) Imperiul roman poate fi privit ca o reuşităîncercaredeglobalizare,demondializare,deceeaceînţelegemnoi,astăzi,prinacesteprocese.Afostmaimultoglobalizareprin„seducţie”şinuprin„constricţie”,statutulsuperioralromanilorfiindafirmatmaimultcaexempluşinucafactordeîmpilare.Imperiulromanadispărutîntimp,darefecteleextinderiisaleaurămas,aupersistatşipersistă,beneficiemşiastăzideeleşi,separe,căvomputeabeneficiaîncămulţiani de aici înainte ...

Aufost,peurmă,descoperirilegeografice,mariledescoperiri–şivalorificări–geograficeîncepândcusecolulalXVlea.CuoacceptareaproapeunanimăEuropaafost„punctuldepornire”,iar„puncteledesosire”aufostrăsfirate,practic,peîntregmapamondul.ŞiînAsia,şiînAfrica,darmaiales,caelementparţialinedit–dacăvomdacreditteorieidupăcarevikingii,cuErikcelRoşuînfrunteaufostprimiicareaucălcatpecontinentulamerican,cucevadeceniiînaintealuiColumb–

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şiîn„Americi”,promovându-seaiciprincipiidecivilizaţieşireligioaseeuropene,dezvoltându-secolonii, configurându-seun feldeEuropăîntinsăpestemărişioceane.„Seducţia”afostaicimaipuţinmanifestă,„constricţia”afirmându-şiuncuvântmultmaigreu.Desigur,şibătrânulcontinentareceptat„noutăţile”pecareileaduceau,cuminteaşifapta,maridescoperitorişiexploratori,oameniilor,dinSpaniaşiPortugalia,din Italia, apoidinFranţa,Anglia,Germania, etc. Îlputem încadra,aici,-estedrept,cuceva„greutate”-şipeMarcoPolo,călător„perpedes”şiunnavigator.ŞichiarpeSpătarulMilescu.Setindea,într-unanumefel,spreolumemareşirelativunică,chiardacă„sfâşiată”denenumărate„conflicteinterne”(războaie),dintrecelemaisângeroaseşiparadoxale.Semureamasiv,deexemplu,înnumelepromovăriicuforţaarmelor,aunor„idealurisfinte”,a„obiectiveloeregale”înbunămăsurăcompromise,înspiritullordivin,prinmirajul,nudepuţineoricriminal,alaurului,prinascuţişulspadelorplinedesânge,prinarmaotrăvirilor(vestita„currara”nuafostnicipânăacumdesluşită),prinintrigişicomploturi,prinalteconfruntăridetotfelul...

Este drept că, în toate aceste privinţe, vorbimmai puţin deeconomie.Implicit,însă,demulteorichiarexplicit,economiaîşivădea,totuşiloculşirolul,esenţiale,marilesaleinfluenţeînsocietate,înlume.Producţiaşiproductivitateasemanifestaureal,darînplanulteorieieraumaimultintuite,eraupuţinafirmateînmăsurăsăinfluenţezedecisiv–înspeţăconceptelerespective,definitecuincertitudinişitimiditate–mersuleconomicalomenirii.Şcoalamercantilistă,şcoală„frumoasă”,cujudecăţiinteresante,cucele2etapealesale,mercantilismultimpuriuşimercantilismuldezvoltat,„vedea”chiarcreareaplusprodusuluidoarîncirculaţie,domeniucare,defapt,îlsublimacaatare,înceamaimareparte plusprodusul realizându-se în producţie.Distinşii şi rafinaţiifiziocraţi,primiiteoreticieniallibertăţiieconomiceşiprimiieconometriiailumii(celebrul„TablouEconomic”alluiFrancoisQuesnay),înţelegoricummai bine lucrurile,mersul ca atare al dezvoltării. Se pare,însă,cănusuficientpentruaimprimaadâncEuropeişilumiicrezul,implacabilpentruprogres,alcreşteriiproductivităţiişialproducţieiastfel.Estedrept,căşimercantilismul,şifiziocraţiaaucontribuit,înmăsurăînsemnată,prinţinteleloreconomice,laexpansiuneasistemuluicolonial,dupăpărereanoastrăunavansrelativ,daravans,pedrumulglobalizării...

Cevapaşiînainte,faţădeceiamintiţi,arealizat,dinacelaşipunctdevedere,mareleAdamSmith.Încarteasa„Avuţianaţiunilor.Cercetareasupranaturiişiacauzelorei”,publicată,înpremieră,laLondra,în1776

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şirepublicatămasivdupăaceadată,astăziînmaitoateţărilelumii,însuteşisutedemiideediţii,Smithdemonstreazămaijudiciosprimatuleconomicalproductivităţii.Elsereferălaamplificareabineluiuman,ca o condiţie sine qua non, prin amplificarea ca atare a producţiei.Proceseleeconomiceerausurprinse,deci,încărţi.Într-unfelsaualtul,maimultsaumaipuţinmulţumitordinperspectivagânduluinostrudeastăzi,darerausurprinse.NuîntâmplătorSmith,denumit,poate,preagrăbit,decătreMarx,„economistulperioadeimanufacturiere”,ascrisesenţialnupentrumanufacturi,cipentrucapitalismulindustrialceaurmat,depăşindu-şi,astfel,prinviziuneasaprospectivă,epoca...

Viaţaeconomică,practicaeconomică,nupreaţineau,deci,pasul.Se intuiau, totuşi, necesitatea, realizarea unei veritabile revoluţiiîn producţie, în activităţi, o revoluţie care avea sămodifice lumeaeconomică,şi,deasemenea,lumeasocială,ceapolitică,ceaculturală,etc.Orevoluţiecarevaprindemaigreuconturşivamaitrececevatimppânăvafiînţeleasăcaatare.Estevorbadeceeacenumim„Revoluţiaindustrială”,(practic,maimulte„Revoluţii”,saumaimulteetapealeaceleiaşi„Revoluţii”privităîndesfăşurareasacontinuă,încontinuitateasa).Estevorba,defapt,decelmaiimportanttimp,prinefectelesale,pentru globalizare, pentru chiar globalizarea noastră de astăzi,maialesînceeaceeaarebun.Estevorbadetimpulcareamodificatşivamodifica,deatunci,esenţial,configuraţiaşistructuraeconomicăalumii,atunci,acumşiînviitor.Estevorbadeetapacarevafaceapelşilamuncăbrută,darşilainteligenţe,tehniceşieconomice,lainteligenţaumanăîngeneral,împletită,deaiciînainte,înmodfundamental,cumuncaaşacumfuseseea,înbunămăsură,consideratăpânăatunci,înbunămăsurămuncăbrută.Laacestelucrurinevomreferipemaideparte.Maiestevorbaşideevoluţiaraportului„seducţie”–„constricţie”cuamplificareageneraldezirabilăaponderii„seducţiei”şidezvoltarea,maiales,aunei„constricţii”generalseducătoareîntimp,urmatădeuneleefectepozitivepalpabile.Deoarece„constricţie”–doar„constricţie”caatarenupreasemaipoate...

2. Aşadar,„Revoluţiaindustrială”catemelietrainicăaglobalizăriimoderne.Cumsesizamîncursulmeude„Istorieeconomică–Istoriaeconomiei naţionale”, „Revoluţia industrială” reprezintă procesultrecerii lamaşinism şi la dezvoltareamarii producţiimecanizate,înlocuindu-semuncamanualăprinmaşini–unelte.Revoluţiaindustrialăvageneraschimbăriprofundeînstructuraeconomicăalumii”.Desigur,avemde-afacecuoevoluţiedeosebitdecomplexă,dinamică,puternicascendentă,desfăşuratăînmaimulteetape–definiţiaînspeţăreferindu-

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selaoprimăetapă-,sauputemsesizaprezenţamaimultor„Revoluţiiindustriale”.

În prima ipostază, „Revoluţia industrială”, în general, ar puteafi definită drept progresul amplu şi conti.Ar puteafi definită dreptrealizareaunormodificăriampleînsusţinereaenergeticăşilogisticăadezvoltăriiindustriale,desigurcăşiadezvoltăriiîngeneral.Ceeaceafăcutşiface,dinceîncemaimult,calumeaeconomică„săvorbească”,întotmaimaremăsură,aceeaşilimbă–unaspectcadrufundamentalal globalizării.Ca lumea economică să aibă aceleaşi obiective, săurmăreascărelativunitar,omogen,şinudiscrepant,aceleaşifinalităţideansamblu.Estenatural,logic,caoastfeldechestiunesăfievoluatdelasimpluladinceîncemaicomplex,peodirecţiedelasectorulprimarlacelsecundar,lacelterţiar,lacelcuaternarşiceomaiurmamaiapoi.„Erainformaticii”nuacăzutdincerciarelabazăacumulărisuccesiveîndomeniulproducţieişiproductivităţii,altehnicilor,alenergiei,alinfraşisuprastructurilorindustriale,mutaţiiimportanteîndesfăşurareaprocesuluideînvăţare,etc.,înstructurasocială,înstructurasocietăţiicaatare,toateacesteainterferându-seşipotenţându-sereciprocunelecu altele.

În a doua ipostază, care nudiferă de primadecât în formă, înce priveşte „aranjarea” cunoscutelor şi necunoscutelor din „ecuaţiadezvoltării”,oprimă„Revoluţieindustrială”arficeaatreceriidelamanufacturilamaşinismşiladezvoltareamariiproducţiimecanizate.Oadoua„Revoluţie”caatares-adesfăşurataproapeparalelşiampluinterferatăînplanenergeticşialunorsusţineriindustrialeesenţiale,înspeţă,trecereadelalemnlacărbuneşimetal”.Oatreia„Revoluţieindustrială”vaficea „a electricităţii”, iar înplanul infrastructurilorindustriale,cea„acăiiferate”,„aautomobilului”.Peurmăamputeaconsemna„eraţiţeiului”,cuterminalileei,dinpăcate,încăşiastăziînplinăexpandareşiexplozie,„eraaviaţiei”,„eranucleară”,ş.a.Fărăaputeafacedelimitărifoartenete,relevant,deopotrivă,„erainformaticii”,cu crearea acelor infra şi suprastructuri industriale şi economice îngeneral,avândde-aface,cuprecădere,cueconomiiindustrializateîntr-ungradmaimultsaumaipuţinreprezentativ,oricumcuunpotenţialînsemnatdeindustrializare,era„postindustrială”,delocdesprinsă,cidincontră,deinformatică,ş.a.m.d.

Cumspuneam,estevorba,pânălaurmădeunprocescomplex,fieabordatetapizat,fieabordat segmenţial,fiecaresegmentpurtânddefinitoriu, ca titlu, o trăsătură esenţială a sa.Globalizarea ca atare„s-aaşternut”firesc, treptat, şidince înce înmaimaremăsură,ca

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unnumitorcomun,detipulcauză–efectşiefect–cauză,altuturoracestor transformări.Chestiunea, întârziată temporal, este rezibilăfoartedistinct–desigur,cuîmpletireaunorelementepoliticeînsemnate-, pentru estul şi centrul european, deşi în această frământată partea „Bătrânului continent”, comparativcu„Vestul”,de launmomentdatuneleevoluţiiaufostmaiconfuze,maipuţinline,auexistatmaimulte reculuri, poticneli, ş.a. Pentru a ajunge, însă,mai limpezi laacesttimpşipentrua-lputea„vedea”,înţelegemaibine,săexaminămmai îndeaproapeprocesulprimar,procesul „innuce”al „Revoluţieiindustriale”şiefectelesaleînsemnateînplanulglobalizării.Peoastfeldebazădeexaminareatrecutului,vomputeadesluşimaibineceeacesepetreceînprezentşiceprefigureazăviitorul.Şi,caîntotdeaunaînistoriasocială,cusiguranţăcăvomputearelevaoliniegeneralădecontinuitate,desigur,nulipsitădeanumiterupturi,care,însă,nuaufostesenţiale,nuaufostcovârşitoare.

3.Anglia,deci,primajumătateasecoluluialXVIII-lea.„Revoluţiaindustrială”vaîncepeîndomeniulindustrieiprelucrăriibumbacului.DardeceAngliaşideceacestsector?ÎncădepeatunciAngliaaveaoindustriemanufacturierădezvoltată,alecăreiproduseerauconsistentceruteatâtpepiaţainternăcâtşiînafară,unrolimportantastfelavându-lsistemul de colonii alAngliei, în formare.Deopotrivă,Anglia aveaconstituitunînvăţământdefoartebunăcalitate, încontinuuprogresşi cu tradiţii dintre celemai frumoase.Universităţile de laOxford,Glasgow,Cambridge, ş.a. vădeau nu doar străpungeri teoretice deseamă, ci activităţile relevau şi o veritabilă propensiune către real,către practic, către aplicaţii ale ştiinţelor tehnice şi exacte.Tot înAnglia,existauspecialiştidefoartebunăcalitate,pasionaţidemuncalor,devotaţimeniriilor.Aici,înAngliaseaduceaumaialesdincolonii–unsistemînplinădezvoltare–,materiiprime,materialelapreţurifoarte scăzutepentruproducţii cusolicitări importante–ne referimcuprecăderelaindustriauşoară,latextile,„aproapedeconsum”,cupotenţial,cuoportunităţidedezvoltare,deprogres,foarteînsemnate.Ceicupretenţii,bărbaţisaufemei,doreauhainedinstofefine,croitelarg,cufaldurişi„cute”rafinatproiectate.Producţiemaimultă.Eraomodăcareprinseseşicareseextindea,dobândeatotmaimulţiadepţi,înAnglia,înEuropa,înAmerici…

…Eradoar nevoia.Rapid se vor constitui şi instrumentele deîndeplinirea ei. În 1733, JohnKay va inventa suveica zburătoare.MaşinadetorsvaficonceputădeJohnHargreaves,circatreizecideanimaitârziu,în1765.Doardupăcâţivaani,în1869,R.Arkwright

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vaconcepemaşinamecanicădefilat.Însfârşit,în1804,vaficonceputdecătreCartwrightşivaintraînfuncţiunerăzboiulmecanicdeţesut.Descoperiri,invenţiicare,cumulate,aufăcutposibilăfolosireauneimaricantităţidefire,respectivsatisfacereamariifoamedeţesături.Unmarepasînaintepentruatrecedelamanufacturilamaşinismfusesefăcut.Îivorurmarapidalţii.Erau,acum,necesaremaşinipentruproducereamaşinilor,maşini dinfier apte să utilizeze energii pretenţioase, cuputerimaimari, pe potriva capacităţilor create.Nici transporturiletractateanimal,relativpuţineşidemictirajnumaiputeausatisfacecererearespectivă.Aparconcentraţiiurbane,centreminiereşicentreindustrialeimportante.Or,cumaifiputut,oare,transportaminereuldefier,cărbunele(carevaînlocuilemnulcasursădeenergie),acesteaîncantităţi industriale,cucăruţa?Saucu„spatele”?Răspunsurilelaacesteîntrebărivorfişielepepotrivă.

Aşadar, structurile şi infrastructurile. Franţa, 1680.Un rege–Ludovic alXIV–lea, autoritar şi care a făcutmulte lucruri bunepentruţarasa.Înplanultehniciişialconstrucţiilor,numeroasepoduri,viaducte,conducte,canale,peurmălaboratoarecubunerezultate,ş.a.Eraunrege,eraosocietatecarepreţuiainteligenţa.Olungădomnieceseapropiadecapăt.Unremarcabilfizician,mecanicdeopotrivă,DenisPapin (1647–1714), devine, în anul 1680, inventatorul „cazanuluicuabur”,numitlavremearespectivă„oalaluiPapin”.Inventeazăşipompacentrifugăşidescrie,cumultăaplicaţie,„ciclutermodinamicalmotoruluicuabur”.Începutulerafăcut...EnglezulJamesWatt(1736–1819)vaperfecţionaconstrucţia,înzestrând-o,chestiuneesenţială,cuo„camerădecondensare”menţinutălatemperaturaambiantă.Practic,FranţaşiAnglia,mânăînmână,deschidzorinoidezvoltăriiindustriale,progresuluiîngeneralallumii.Vafifurnizatăonouăforţămotriceîndezvoltareaproducţieiindustriale,sevoramplificaputernicproducţiaşiproductivitateamuncii.

Începeconstrucţiamaşinilorcuajutorulmaşinilor,cualtecuvinteoveritabilărevoluţionareaindustrieiuşoareşipropagarearevoluţieitehniceînindustriagrea.Cum„utilizareaforţeiaburuluivapretindemaşinidefiercapabilesărezisteunorpresiunimaimari,metalurgiavadobândinoidimensiuni.Separareaminereuluidefierîncepesăsefacăcuhuilătransformatăîncocsşi,nucapânăatunci,cucărbunidelemn.ProcedeulfabricăriicocsuluifusesedescoperitdeAbrahamDarby,totacumfiinddescoperite şi procedeele care permiteau fabricareamaiieftinăaoţelului–pudlajul,cepermiteatranformareafontei,rigideşicasante,înfierpurşimaleabil.”Încâtevazecideaniserealizase,înEuropa,unimensprogres,carevacontinua...

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4....Oţeluldevineesenţial.În1856,HenryBessemerinventeazăconvertizorul,cei-apermisobţinereadeoţelînstarelichidăşiînmaricantităţi.Însăabiaîn1878,ThomasGilchristdescoperăposibilitateadeafolosiminereulcufosfor,înlăturând,„scoţând”fosforulprincăptuşireaconvertizorului cumagneziu.Efectele descoperirii asupra industrieiextractive sunt impresionante.Câtevacifre: înAnglia, cantitateadecărbuneextrascreştedela5milioanetoneîn1750,la10milioane,în1800şila16milioanetoneîn1829.Iarextracţiademinereudefiervaajunge,în1890,la15milioanetone,necesarulfiindasiguratşiprintr-unimportde3–4milioanetoneminereudefier.Odatăcuindustria,cinecontribuiseoarelaînregistrareaunorastfeldedinamiciuluitoare?Amamintitdeja,transportulpe„drumuldefier”.Acesttipdetransportdevenise,adevenitfactoruldecisivîndezvoltareaeconomicăaAnglieişinunumai.Transportultractatanimalnumaierafezabilînniciunfel.În1830,arelocinaugurarealinieidecaleferatăLiverpool–Manchester.Unmareeveniment,surprinsadmirabildepresaşiliteraturatimpului.„Rezistenţele”,atâteacâtefuseseră,eraudefinitivînlăturate.

Înfapt,utilizareaaburuluisolicitamultcărbune:elexista,erapusla„dispoziţie”,„acopereanecesarul”.Cerea,totodată,utilizareaaburului,şicereadinabundenţă,fier,oţel,pentruaputeafifabricatemotoareleşiplatformele.Existauşiacestea,„acopereaunecesarul”.Dealtfel,înAnglia,preţultoneidefontăscadedela17lireîn1728,la6lire,în1802.Eraunecesareutilajepentruprelucratmetalul,maşini,piese,darşiacesteasevădeautotmaimultlamomentulpotrivit,revoluţionându-setehnologiileîntr-omanierădeneconceputatâtavremecâtprincipalamaterieprimădelucrufuseselemnul.„Apar”astfelbormaşina(în1774),raboteza(în1776),maşinadefabricatcuie(1790),maşinadefabricatcabluri (1792), fierăstrăul circular (1780), presa hidraulică (1795),strungulcumicrometruşimaşinadefiletatcucărucior,ambelerealizatede inginerulHenryMaudslay între 1797 – 1800, etc. „Revoluţia”,„Revoluţiileindustriale”înplinădesfăşurare...

Înasemeneacondiţii,şiintercondiţionat,producţiadefieraAnglieivacreştedela700miitoneîn1830,lapeste2,2milioanetoneîn1835,dinamicilefiindşimaiabrupteulterior.Dealtfel,transportulpecaleaferatăvacunoaşteo„veritabilăexplozie”,şiînAngliaşiînlume.În1850,înlumedejafuseserăconstruiţi35miikmdecaleferată,dincareAngliadeţinea10miikm.În1914,însă,reţeauamondialădetransportpecaleferată,reţeaextinsăşiampludezvoltatăîntimpşiînaltestateeuropene,înStateleUnite,înCanada,înţăridinAmericadeSud,înRusiaasiatică,înalteţări(încăcolonii)dinAsia(Indiadeexemplu),

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Revista economică

înAfrica,etc.–vaatinge1miliondekmdecaleferatădincareAngliacaatare,însăextinsă,relativ,şiladimensiunileMariiBritanii,deţineanumai38demiidekm.Amamintitmaiales–şiînuneleprivinţe–deAnglia,dartoateacestea„seîntâmplau”pestetot.

...Oricum,limbajulindustrial,caracteristiccapitalismuluimodernînplinăafirmare,devenisecomunpentrumaitoatestatelecuaspiraţiişiveleităţiînacestsens:minereu,cocs,furnale,transport,locomotive,vagoane, substanţă utilă pentruminereuri, energie, eficienţă, profitbrutşinet,tehnologii,forţădemuncă,organizare,conducere,etc.Neîndreptămsprezărieminamentenoi,care,însă,seerodaurapid,„noul”caatarefiindmereuşitotmairepedeîntruchipatdealtceva.Defapt,bazele „globalismului”, ale „mondializării”, ale „internaţionalizării”dezvoltăriieconomice,fuseseră,evident,puse.(vaurma)

5.Aşadar, spre 1800, în condiţiile „Revoluţiilor industriale”,Anglia,Franţa,Germania,StateleUnite,Japonia,Rusia,etc.vorbeaucamaceeaşi„limbăeconomică”,dezvoltând,fiecaredintreeleînraportcucelelalte,înfoartemaremăsură,interesegeneraledeacelaşitipşiţintegeneraledeacelaşitip,procesegeneraledeacelaşitip.Producţia,productivitatea, profitul, structuri economice, alături de cele dejaarătate,deveniserăşielecuvintedeordine.Avândun„numitorrelativcomun”,deşi„numărătorul”eradiferit,esteneîndoielniccăs-aufăcutpaşimariînaintespreceeaceastăzinumim„globalizare”.ÎnFranţa,maşinileunelteserăspândescîntre1815–1870în industria textilă,apoi,rapid,înmetalurgie,producţiademaşini,industriazahărului,ahârtiei,aimprimeriei,-cesplendidăindustrie,ş.a.În1839eraufolosite2.450demaşinicuaburicuoputerede33miiC.P.,iarîn1870erauutilizate27miiasemeneamaşini,cuoputere330miiC.P.Coeficientulde amplificare este grăitor,Cărbunele era, însă, atunci, puţin şi secalitateinferioară.Chiarşiîn1913,înFranţaseexploataunumai41milioanetonecărbune(puţin,foartepuţinîncomparaţiecuAnglia,cu279milioane tonecărbune), îngeneraldecalitate inferioară.Faptulobligacaaproape60%dinproducţiadecărbunefrancezăsăfieutilizatăînmicifurnalecefoloseauşicărbunedelemn,cocsuldeveninduzual,cuprecădere,după1860.

Pentruextracţiaminereuluidefier,progreselesevădeaunuprearapide,aferentsiderurgieiFranţaurmândsăreprezintedoarcevamaitârziuoforţăînacestdomeniu.Deexemplu,spre1890,Franţaobţinedoar500miitoneoţel,învremeceAngliareuşea3,5milioanetone,SUA–3milioanetone,Germania1,9milioanetone,ş.a.Toatăaceastăproducţiefrancezăeramarcată,esenţial,deprogresulsusţinutalreţelei

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Revista economică

decaleferatădinFranţa...DinperspectivaindustrializăriiFranţei,adezvoltăriiputerniceşicalitativeaindustrieiînţaracocoşuluigalic,seimpunamintitecelpuţin2nume:a)mareleNapoleon,unspiritdeschisşi foarte stimulativ faţă de inteligenţe, acele inteligenţe vădit, însă,nudoarcuprilejul„BlocadeiContinentale”de lafinelesecoluluialXVIII-leaşidemaiapoi;b)nepotulluiBonaparte,împăratulNapoleonalIII-lea,careadusopoliticăsusţinutădeconstrucţie,desprijin,deprotecţie, de stimulare a dezvoltării şi creşterii industrieimodernefranceze.Deopotrivă, la fel ca şi pentruAnglia, respectiv ImperiulBritanic,imperiulcolonialfrancez,aldoileadinlumedupăcelbritanic,prezintăşielimportanţasa,facilitândprocurareademateriiprimeşimateriale la preţuri scăzute şi consolidarea unor puternice debuşeepentruproduseleprelucratedinmetropolă.Şi,caoparanteză,şiFranţa,darmaialesAnglia,respectivImperiulBritanic, înperioadaîncareauurmărit dezvoltarea, consolidarea, înflorirea, afirmarea puternicăaindustrieinaţionale,auformulatşiaplicat,cuargumentedintrecelemai judicioase, irefutabile, politici protecţioniste.Au schimbat însărapid„macazul”şiaudevenit„liberaliste”atuncicândproduselelorprelucrateaveaunevoiedeintrărifacilepepieţelealtorstate.Tocmaideaceea,unistoricfrancezdetalialuiAndréMaurois,scriaîncelebrasacarte„IstoriaAngliei”,că„principiulpoliticiienglezeesteaceladeanuaveaprincipii”.Şiacestaesteunprincipiu:sănuaiprincipii.Nuarmaifinimicdecomentat...

Germania,impulsionatăîndezvoltareasaeconomicădeZollvereinul(UniuneaVamală)luiFriederichList,iniţiatîn1819şifinalizatîn1836,printrealteleîşidezvoltăputernicindustriametalurgică,semnificativepentruamploareşidinamicăfiindastfelîntreprinderileKruppdinEssen.ProducţiadecărbuneaGermanieivacreştedela3milioanedetoneîn1840,la26milioanedetoneîn1870şila270milioaneîn1913.Pefirmamentuleconomieilumiiapăreaostea...

EconomiaStatelorUnitecunoaşteevoluţiiasemănătoare.Fondulpolitic, generat de cerinţe şi comandamente economice esenţiale,stimulaînaceastădirecţie.În1782,TratatuldelaVersaillesconsfinţeşteexistenţa StatelorUnite.Dar în statele din sud, precumVirginia,CarolinadeSud,CarolinadeNord,Georgia,seproduceau–maiales,peplantaţii,cusclaviaduşi,într-untrecutrelativapropiat,dinAfrica,cu„corăbiilenegre”–tutun,bumbac,lână,indigo,seextrăgeaucupru,fier,seexploatalemnpentruconstrucţiinavale,setăbăceaublănuri.Iarînstateledinnord,precumPensylvania,New–York,New–Jersey,Connecticut,Massachusetts,„averile”seobţineau,cuprecădere,din

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Revista economică

comerţ, investiţii înmanufacturi textile, activităţi constructoare demaşinilegatededezvoltareaindustriei,pielărie,cherestea,topitoriidefier,şantierenavale,ş.a.Cuonevoiemaredeforţădemuncăliberăşideplasamentedecapital,„Nordul”sevaimpune,vacâştigapartida,sclavia vafi abolită, industriamodernă şi demare performanţă, înmodpronunţatprotejată,vaavea„porţiledeschise”.Estesemnificativcăîn1900,înStateleUnitelungimeacăilorferateerade263miikm,jumătatedinreţeauamondială.Sedezvoltă,deopotrivă,construcţiadedrumuri,canalenavigabile,sevădesc,înmoddeosebitluminoşi,zoriiindustrieideautomobile…

Un factor important, vital chiar în impulsionarea desfăşurării„Revoluţiilorindustriale”şialindustrializăriiînSUAîlvareprezentaimigraţia.Deexemplu,între1847–1852aimigratînStateleUnitea7–apartedinpopulaţiaIrlandei,în1854numărulgermanilorimigranţiajungea la 127mii, etc.Mai este de relevat că dupăprimul războimondial şiSUA„schimbămacazul”, nu semai temde concurenţă,diminuează,înaparenţă,protecţionismulşivorînmoddeschislibertate,darmaialespentrupătrundereaproduselor,amărfuriloramericanepealtepieţe…

Japonia,cutradiţiiizolaţionistedarcu„zidul”faţădeVest„spart”în1854decătreoescadrăamericană–optvasederăzboi,Franţa,AngliaşiRusiafiind apoi şi ele „agreate”,- va „introduce” şi va beneficiaderoadelecelemaifrumoaseale„Revoluţiilorindustriale”.Nuaveamaterii prime Japonia, avea, cuprecădere, „materie cenuşie”.Totulsedesfăşurapefondul,însăşi,alereiMeiji,timpalunorsubstanţialemodernizări.Dezvoltareaindustrieijaponezevabeneficiadesprijinulinstituţieistatului,vautilizamânadelucruieftinăaţăranilorsărăciţi,va beneficia de o strălucită inteligenţă japoneză aptă, printre altele,săînţeleagăşisăaplice,cumarerandament,realizărilegenerale,deansamblu,ale tehnicii industriale.Prindeceniile8–9alesecoluluialXIX-leadejasevorconstituiînJaponia,marioligarhiifinanciare,chiardacăcutrăsăturifamilialefoarteputernice:Mi–Tsou–Y;Sumi–Moto;Mi–Tsou-Bechi,etc.Seremarcă,înspaţiulnipon,industriasiderurgicălaYamata,iardupărăzboiulruso–japonezdin1905,câştigatdeJaponia,aicisevadezvoltaşioindustriedearmament,bazată,înbunămăsură,pefierulşicărbuneledinManciuriaşiCoreea.Inteligenţa,însădinJaponia...

AltestatedinEuropavestică,dinEuropacentrală,Rusia,stateledinAmericaLatină,vorurma,înbunămăsură,acelaşidrum:economieindustrială,infrastructuri,pecâtposibilprotecţieeconomică,învăţământ,şcoli,universităţi,urbanizărişiurbanism,etc.

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Revista economică

CeefectepentruglobalizaredezvoltăacestprocesdedesfăşurareînVest,procesalunorample„Revoluţiiindustriale”?Iată,sedezvoltăsensibilpiaţamondială,privităca totalitatea relaţiilordeschimbdemărfuriîntreţăricaurmareaadânciriidiviziuniiinternaţionaleamuncii.Esteorealitate,seadâncescdecalajeledintrestateledinvestşirestulţărilorlumiicareerau„opace””Revoluţiilorindustriale”,daracestfaptnudiminueazăci,practic,laetaparespectivă,adânceşteschimbuldemărfuri,nupromoveazăeconomiiautarhice,cimaidegrabă,„economiicomplementare”.Totodată, relaţiile economice promovate astfel,chiardacă„subpălăriastatelor”,apoliticiloreconomicepromovate,se constituie esenţial, uneori primordial, întremari trusturi şi firmeeconomice,interesele,„legile”loralepieţelorfinanciare,alepieţelorde capital începând săpredomine,maimult saumaipuţin esenţial,comparativcunivelulnaţionalaluneiţărisaualteia,cuuneleinteresenaţionale,etc.Superioritateapepiaţamondialăsevădeşte,întotmaimaremăsură, dependentă puternic de superioritatea în dezvoltareaindustriei.StateleUniteabolescdefinitiv„sclavia”,în1862,dând,prinaceasta,unputernicimpulssprelibertateşialtorstate,şialtoroameni.Chiardacăsemodificăraportuldeforţe–întotalulproducţieiindustrialemondialeAngliavacoborîdelacirca32%în1870la14%în1913,darSUAvorurca,înaceeaşiperioadă,dela23%lacirca36%,Germaniadela13%la16%,Rusiadela3,7%la5,5%,etc.–legităţilecaatarealedezvoltăriiindustrialesevădesctotmaiputernice,punctullorcentral,de gravitaţie, reprezentându-l „creşterea productivităţiimuncii” şi,desigur,esenţial,„profitul”.Undesevădeaaceasta,eraprogres,undenu,nu.Urbanismul,însensulluimodern,estecuprecăderelegatdedezvoltareaindustrială…

Cu alte cuvinte, pe baza „Revoluţiilor industriale” se relevăimportantereperedeglobalizare,însensuleideastăzi,chiarlazonădeinterferenţădintre„liberaconcurenţă”şi„dezvoltareamodernă”.Lumeadevinetotmaimică:amurmăritcaleaferată.Darsuntreprezentativeşimarilecanaledenavigaţiealelumii,caresuntinaugurateînacesttimpdemarimutaţii:CanaluldeSuez(1869),CanalulCorint(1893),CanalulKiel (1895),Canalul Panama (1914), etc.Cu greu s-ar fipututgândicineva laeledacă industrianuarfi furnizatmijloacele,elementele necesare astfel, dacă nu ar fi fost acumulări financiare,obţinutetotastfel,înacestsens.Sevădesc,maimultsaumaipuţinîngermene,uneorichiarînexpresiiavansate,elementevitaleşigeneralealedezvoltăriimoderne:automobilul,avionul,navigaţiaspecializată(cargourifrigorifice,petroliere,submarine),telegrafiafărăfir,telefonia,

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Revista economică

peurmă,sectorulterţiarşielsăseafirmeputernic,ş.a.Toateacesteasprijină,vorsprijiniglobalizareaînsensurileeibenefice.Era„vizibil”astfel,maialespentruspaţiuldinEuropadeVest,celaferentSUA,Japonia,etc.DarînEuropadeEst,acolocesepetrecea?

6.Încentrulşiestuleuropeanlucrurilesunt,înmodrelativ,diferite.Pedeoparte,existăcercetătoriicareau„trasat”şi„trasează”,încă,ofrontierăfoartepronunţatăîntre„est”şi„vest”.CuprecăderepentruperioadadedupăalII-learăboimondial,darşidemaiînainte.Caşicumarfivorbaderasediferite,decontinentediferite,decapacităţiintelectuale inferioare în est, de o spiritualitate inferioară aici, deesenţăconsistentdiferităfaţădeceadinvest.Caşicum„Estul”arfifundamentalşiexclusivvinovatpentrutraseelesaleistoriceconcepute,totuşi,înbunămăsură,dealţii.

Toateacesteaconstituie,fireşte,exagerări,deoamplitudinemaimaresaumaimică.Consider, însă,căsunt realeoseriedeevoluţiidiferite,funcţiedeaşezărişiîmprejurăriistorice,deeforturidiferite.Aucontatdesigur şi religiile.Suntevoluţii care, cuprecăderedupăsecolulalXVIII-leaşimaialesdupăcevestuleuropeanaîmbrăţişatşifinalizat„Revoluţiileindustriale”,augeneratdecalajeeconomiceîndezvoltareînestfaţădedinamicaaccentuatăavestului,formemaipuţinevoluatedeeconomiecomparativcuceeaceeraînvest,uneleatitudinişicomportamentespecificeunorîntârzierişimaipuţinacomodatecudecolărileesenţialealevestuluispreperformanţă,spreproductivitate,spre cerinţele unor pieţemature.Oricum, lucrurile sunt cevamaicomplicate,însăastfeldetrăsăturipotfipunctate.

Desigur,centruleuropean–cuCehia,cuMoravia,cuSlovacia,Polonia,Ungaria,ş.a-afostmaiaproapedevest,ceeaceafăcutşifaceca,înuneleprivinţe,diferenţelefaţădeacestasăfiemaipuţinpregnante.Darşiestulveritabil–cuGrecia,România,Bulgaria,Turcia,maimultedinstatelefosteiYugoslavii,ş.a–inteligentşipriceput,iscusit,pus,adeseori,înfaţaunorconfruntărişiîmprejurăridificile,aurmăritsălupte,„oţelindu-se”înanumiteprivinţe.Ceeace,fireşte,căîncompetiţiamondialăadevenitşidevinefinalmenteunavantaj.

Referindu-ne, concret, la problemele „Revoluţiilor industriale”,putemafirmacăproceseleamintite,dedezvoltareaînestuleuropean,audemaratşimaitârziu,şimaigreoi,şicumaipuţinăforţă.Unmareeconomistromân,P.S.Aurelian,fostprim–ministruşipreşedintealAcademieiRomâne,deşieraunomdeacţiuneşiunantifatalistconvins,afirma,pela1870–1880,căeraurealepentruestuleuropeanşilipsacapitalurilor,aunorresursefinanciareimportantenecesaredemarării

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Revista economică

unei dezvoltări industriale de calitate, şi lipsa unei forţe demuncăcalificate,şilipsaunoratitudininaţionaleşiindividualemaiofensivepeopiaţăinternaţionalăundeuncuvânthotărâtorîlaveau„ceiputernicieconomiceşte”. Înpofidaunor împrejurări,demulteori,potrivnice,se constituie „curentul industrialist”, al uneiburghezii emergente şieducate economic. Se înscriu, în acest cadru, înRomânia, desigur,P.S.AureliandarşiDionisiePopMarţian,Al.D.Xenopol,GeorgeBariţiu,LazloKövary,MihailKogălniceanu,etc.Cutoţiisusţineaunecesitateadezvoltăriiindustriale,posibilităţileastfel,explicauşipromovau–uneoriprinforţapropriuluiexemplu-,modalităţileconcretederealizareaunuiastfeldeobiectiv.Curentulindustrialistsevădeştecuvalenţeesenţialeşiînaltestateest–europene.Oricum,„curentulindustrialist”sedezvoltăgeneral–susţinut,areaplicaţiipracticeremarcabileşiaducepentruestnupuţinedinefectelepozitiveale„Revoluţiilor industriale”caresevădeaupentruvest.Maşiniledevinprezenteîn industriaalimentară,înmorărit, în industriahârtiei, în industriauşoară, înmetalurgie, înminerit,înindustriaextractivă.Transporturilepecaleferatăcunoscoputernicăefervescenţă,etc.Sevădescpunctedevederejudicioaseîncepriveşteraporturiledintrecapitalulnaţionalşicelstrăin,posibilitateacaresurselenaturaledintr-oţarăsaualtasăfieexploatateşidecătrecapitalulautohtonşinudoardecătrecapitalulstrăin,structuraproducţieiindustrialeşicelebrachestiunea„foarfeceluipreţurilor”înrelaţiiledecomerţexteriorsuntbineaşezateînecuaţie,iarunelerezolvăripoliticerăspundnemijlocitintereselornaţionalespecifice.

Primulrăzboimondial,maimultun„războicivileuropean”,„rupe”maimulte din „ţesăturile” globalizante evidente ale „Revoluţiilorindustriale”.Este, de fapt, un serios pas înapoi. Lupta de interesepotrivniceestedusălaapogeu.Sevădeşte,însă,înacestsens,allupteideinterese,unmareeconomistromân,profesorulMihaiManoilescu.Specialistulcaresusţinecuargumenteirefutabilenecesitateadezvoltăriiindustrialeatuturorstatelorlumii,industriilenaţionaleînstatelemaislabdezvoltatefiindiniţialprotejate,iar,apoi,desigur,expuserigorilorpieţei internaţionale, calitatea eforturilor şi amanagementuluifiindceacarevagenera,deacum,câştigulindividualşisocialcaatare.Nutoate,însă,sedesfăşuraucumtrebuie.Acel„apogeu”deconfruntăriperdantedinprimulrăzboimondialafost,dinpăcate,lesneîntrecutdeconfruntările,demaimultetipuri,dincelde-aldoilearăzboimondial,confruntărideosebitdesângeroaseşicares-aufinalizatprinîmpărţirealumii în„douăsistemeparaleleşiopuse”,prin„războiulrece”,princonsecinţeeconomicedeosebitdenefaste,etc.Aproapetotuleraastfelîmpotrivaglobalizării.

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Revista economică

În„formatulsăumare”,deglobalizarecaatareprecumşica„teren”al desfăşurării pozitive a „Revoluţiilor industriale”, a început să sediscutemaievidentdupăceauizbândit„Revoluţiileizbăvitoare”delasfârşitulanilor'80dinstateleEuropeicentraleşideest.Revoluţiiceaurespinssistemeledictatoriale,împilatoare,darcareaureclamatşi instituţii, reglementărimenite să acomodeze statele respective încontextura globalizantă europeană, nord – atlantică, internaţională.Porninddeaicisevădescelementerelativcunoscuteşivominsistamaipuţinînaceastădirecţie.

***

Aşadar, „Revoluţiile industriale” au generat, au determinat, audezvoltat, au consolidat terenul pentru globalizare. Practic, pentruo lume economică care „a trăit”, „trăieşte”, se desfăşoară potrivita numeroase reguli, reglementări comune, cu pieţe economiceinternaţionale, potrivit unor obiective comune, legate cu precăderedegestionarea resurselor, a fenomenelor de supraîncălzire aTerrei.Desigurcă,înacestcadru,sevădesc,seafirmăinstituţiide„gestiuneplanetară”cuatribuţiicuprinzătoareşicaresăaibe„puterededecizie”şi „recunoaştere” internaţională, globală, sunt funcţiuni şi atribuţiiprogramative,stimulativesaurestrictivecetrebuierecunoscute.

O„lumenouă”,dar,şisubacesteaspecte.Olumecareasociazăreglementări,autoreglementăridepiaţăreglementărilorinstituţionaleînsuşitedetoţiagenţiieconomici,respectate,îndeplinitecaatare.Seconturează,dinceîncemaimultunstatutde„cetăţeanalTerrei”,unstatuteconomicşipolitic,cudrepturişiobligaţiigeneraleşiînmoddeosebiteconomiceconcrete,oanumeacomodare,pecăivariate,adiferitelorinteresespecificealemarilorşimaimicilorfirme,alemarilorputeriîntreele,aleunormariputericucelelaltestate,alestatelorcaatareîntreele.Socialul,religiileaflă,voraflanoicăidecomunicare,deînţelegere.Nuintuiesc,înafaraacestei„noilumi”încursdeconstituire,oaltălumecaresăpresupunăforţaînţelepciuniişiadreptuluimaimaredecât„dreptulforţei”.Nuintuiescoaltăcale,altecăidesupravieţuireşiprogrespentruPlanetanoastră.

Procesulnuesteuşor,estechiardeosebitdedificil,presupunenudoararmonii,cişi–poate,maiales–uneledezarmonii,confruntări,negocieri, cedări reciproce, înţelegeri şi, înmod sigur, prelevanţatermenuluilungasupraceluiscurt.Poatecăaiciseaflă„formulasacră”:viitorulPlanetei noastre abordat pe termen lung şi nu neapărat din

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perspectiva„suficienţelor”caracteristice,deseori,termenuluiscurt.Iată,dece,încercetareaeconomică,nudoarechipedeeconomişti,ciechipemulti,interşitransdisciplinare–economişti,darşibiologi,tehnicieni,ingineri, fizicieni, chimişti geografi,medici, jurişti, sociologi, etc.Credcădoarastfeldeformaţiunisepotocupaeficientdeproblemelecomplexede tipulcelorarătate. Înaceastă spargereaunui„turndefildeş”deoanumeesenţăsepoatevădisuccesulnostru.

bibliography:MichelBeaud,Histoireducapitalismede1500ànosjours,1.Edit.DuSeuil,Paris,1990JonathanHughes,AmericanEconomicHistory,Scott,Foresman2. andCompany,Dallas,Texas...London,England,1983CostinMurgescu,ÎnAngliarevoluţieiindustriale,Ed.Ştiinţifică,3. Bucureşti,1971DanPopescu,IstorieEconomică–IstoriaEconomieiNaţionale,4. Ed.Continent,Bucureşti–Sibiu,2002DanPopescu, JurnalEconomic,Ed.Continent,Bucureşti –5. Sibiu,2007

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comilov S.J., PhD., Rector of the Institute of Economics of Tajikistan,Rahmanov А. М. , PhD., Director of the Research Institute

of the Ministry of Finances of the Rep. Tajikistan

ИнновацИонное развИтИе как условИе снИженИя уровня бедностИ

Экономика РеспубликиТаджикистан вступила на новый,сложныйипротиворечивыйпериодразвития, гдебольшее зна-чениеприобретаютновыетенденциисоциально-экономическихпреобразований.В этих условиях объективно всталапроблемапроведенияглубокойструктурнойперестройкиэкономикистранывцелом.Преждевсего,этоотноситсякразвитиюимодернизациипромышленностисцельюустранениязависимостиотимпорта,особеннопоступленияэнергииизвне.

Ходсоциально-экономическихпреобразованийговоритотом,чтонашастрананеимеетправаоставатьсявсторонеотглобаль-ныхтенденцийразвития современногомира.Но такжеследуетуказать,чтоТаджикистаннеможетслепокопироватьсоциально-экономическуюстратегиюразвитых стран.Таджикистанимеетиныемасштабы,особоегеографическиеположение,уникальнуюисторию, традициии особоенаследие, доставшего емуотСо-ветскогоСоюза.ЭкономикаТаджикистанавесьмаспецифичнаидлянеежизненноважно,чтобыоднимизосновныхнаправленийдолгосрочнойсоциально-экономическойстратегиистранысталпоискпутейминимизациииздержекимаксимизацииэффектаотеевключениявглобальныепроцессы.

Помереразвитияпроцесса глобализациинашастранавсеболеесталкиваетсяспроблемамипреодолениябедности,котораяоказывает значительное воздействие на экономический рост вцелом.Вопросыбедностипредставляютсобойглобальныйвызовмеждународномусообществуитребуюткомплексногоподходакихрешениюсучетомдолгосрочныхпоследствийпринимаемыхрешений.

Внастоящеевремярыночныереформынаправленынаре-шение возможностейдостижения устойчивого экономическогоростаисокращениябедностивстране.ДляреализацииДокументаСтратегииСниженияБедностивстраневажноеместодолжноот-водитсясозданиюблагоприятнойпредпринимательскойсредына

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основеиспользованияинновационногопотенциаланациональнойэкономики.

В долгосрочнойперспективеТаджикистан должениметьстратегиюсоциально-экономическогоразвития,соответствующуюрешениюследующихглавныхзадач:

1) повышение геоэкономической роли страны в будущеемира;

2)достижениерациональногоиспользованиясырьевого,тру-довогоинвестиционного,топливно-энергического,инновацион-ногоирекреационногопотенциаловстраны;

3)обеспечениепроцессапроизводстваконечныхпродуктовпередпроизводствомсырьяиматериалов,полуфабрикатов;

4) обеспечение хорошего образования населения страны,вхождение вмировуюобразовательную,инновационнуюиин-формационнуюсреду.

5)определениеприоритетовгосударственнойинновационнойполитики,согласованныхсзадачамиобеспеченияэкономическойбезопасностистраны;

6)созданиеблагоприятныхусловийразвитияфинансово-кре-дитныхинститутовинновационнойдеятельности,совершенство-ваниезаконодательногоинормативно-правовогорегулированияинновационнойдеятельностивнаучно-техническойсфере.

В современной экономике ключевую роль играют такиеактивы, какинформацияи знания, поэтомухорошее образова-ние-этофундаментальнаяценностьиважнойфакторконкурен-тоспособности.Аэкономическаямощьстраныибогатствонацииопределяются,преждевсегоразвитиемеепроизводительныхсилиуровнемихзнаний.Впоследниегоды,ученыеразделяястранынабогатыеибедныевнезависимостиотсоциально-экономиче-скогоустройства,подчеркиваютпреждевсегорольинновацион-ногопрогрессавопределенииуровняразвитияэкономики.Этотмоментприсутствуетвтеоретическихположенияхисторическойшколы.Какизвестно,основоположникисторическийшколыФ.ЛистещевсерединеХIХвекаблагополучиенацииигосударстваопределялнеколичествомбогатства,астепеньюразвитияпроиз-водительныхсил,создающихэтобогатство.Онвсвоейосновнойработе«Национальнаясистемаполитическойэкономики»писал:«Способность создавать богатство бесконечно важнее самогобогатства».ПоэтомуглавнуюзадачуэкономикиФ.Листвиделвсозданииусловийдляразвитиянаукиитехники.Нововведения,

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каквнутреннийисточникифакторразвитияэкономики,всеболеестановятсяхарактеристикойнациональнойэкономики.1

Поэтомумысчитаем,чтоименнововнутреннейструктуреилогикеразвитияинновационногопредпринимательствазаключенисточникфункционированияидвижениясоциально-экономиче-скойсистемы.Признаниеинновационныхотношений,какосновыразвитияинновационногопредпринимательства, заставляетнассделатьвывод,чтовконечномитогеэтоединственнаяисходнаяинепрерывноизменяющаясубстанция,котораяиможетобеспечитьразвитиеэкономикиинаучнотехническийпрогресс.

Анализинновационныхпроцессовпозволяетпонятьперво-очередные задачи государственнойполитикив социально- эко-номическойсфере.Этоявляетсяразвитиенациональныхпроиз-водительныхсилобщества,формированиересурсов,повышениенаучно-техническогоуровняпроизводства,адекватныетребова-ниямрынка.Нампредставляется,чтозадачалюбогогосударствав экономической сфере не заключается простымнаполнениемвнутреннегорынкатоварами,авбольшейстепениявляетсясовер-шенствованиенациональныхпроизводительныхсил,способныхобеспечитьинновационноеразвитие.Этотемболееважно,чтовсовременныхусловиях главныммотивомлидерствапередовыхстранявляетсяразвитиеинновационноймощипроизводственногопотенциала.Например.Р.Солоуприанализедолговременныхря-довдинамикикапитала,нормынакопленияивыпускапродукцииСШАпришелквыводуотом,что87%ростапроизводительноститрудаобеспечивалосьприменениемтехнологическогопроцесса,итолько13%новымиинвестициями.2Другиеисследованияпо-казывают, чтона современномэтапенеменее sприростаВНПобеспечиваетсязасчетновейшихтехнологий.3

Вусловияхглобализациидлявсехстран,независимоотихсоциально-политическогоустройства,определяющуюрольначи-наютигратьобщиетенденцииинновационногопрогресса.Мироваяэкономикастановятсярезультатомнепрерывноуглубляющегосяразделения труда, специализацииинтернационализациипроиз-водства.Вхождениевмировоехозяйствоневозможныбезусвоениянациональнымиэкономикаминаучно-технических,организаци-онно- экономических нововведений.Таким образом, развитиелюбойстраныпредполагаетиспользованиенаучно-техническихнововведений.Вусловияхрыночнойэкономикирешающееместоотводитсяосвоениюнововведений,стимулированиесобственноинновационнойдеятельности.

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Привыборестратегииэкономическогоразвитиянельзясбрасы-ватьсчетовискладывающуюсяситуациювинновационнойсферестраныожидаемыетенденцииееизменения.Общеекачественноесостояниенаучно- техническогопотенциала, ориентированногопреимущественнонаконсервативнуюнаучно-техническуюполи-тику,непозволяютпокавэкономикеТаджикистанарассчитыватьнамассовоепоявлениенововведений.Следовательно,требуетсясозданиеединогоорганизационно-экономичногопространстваиблагоприятныхусловийдляинновационногопрорываисозданиеразвитогомашиностроительного,жилищного, строительногоидругих комплексов.В свете этого усиливается необходимостьвключенияинновационногопотенциаластранывреальныепро-цессыглобализацииэкономики.Приэтомследуетотметить,чтоповышениеинновационногопотенциалаозначает,вчастности,чтодалеконевсевидынововведений,необходимыедляудовлетворе-нияинновационнойпотребностинациональнойэкономики,целе-сообразносоздаватьнаместе.Здесьнадоиметьввиду,чтокакиетовидынововведенийможнополучатьчерезвнешнеэкономическиеканалыпосредствомкооперированияврамкахмеждународногоразделениятруда.Поэтому,приоритетнойзадачейдлянашейстра-нынаданномэтаперазвитиядолжнобытьсозданиевидовново-введений,которыерасширилибывыходместныхпроизводителейнавнешниерынки.КаксправедливоотмечаетД.Паккардановаяпродукцияэтота,«припроизводствекоторойсделанреальныйвклад в технологию, ане та, чтопросто копируютдругие».4Аэтоглавнаязадачаинновационностииразвитияинновационногопредпринимательства.

Как показала практика последнего десятилетияХХ века,реформирование странпереходной экономикинеимеет доста-точностройнойилогичнойконцепцииперспективнойстратегииразвития.Таккакпервостепеннойзадачейявиласьстабилизацияэкономики,чтозаслонялодолговременныеаспектыразвитияпред-принимательства,втомчислеиинновационногопредприниматель-ства.Такимобразом,кнастоящемувременистратегияразвитияинновационногопредпринимательства только зарождаетсяипотомуноситещефрагментарныйхарактер.Всеэтоактуализируетнастоятельнуюнеобходимостьопределенияосновныхусловийинаправленийстановленияиразвитияинновационногопредпри-нимательства.Мыосознаем,чтосампосебепроцессстановления

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эффективного инновационного предпринимательства являетсядостаточно сложными,по видимому, длительным, требующимрешениякомплексаорганизационно-правовыхисоциально-эко-номическихзадач.

Становлениеинновационногопредпринимательстванедолж-нобытьплодомкакой-тоимпровизации,арезультатомреализа-циипродуманной стратегииинновационногоиперспективногоразвития страны.Апока к сожалению, современныеподходык выработкеи реализацииоснов становленияинновационногопредпринимательства не адекватны требованияминновацион-ного типа экономического развития. Развитиеинновационногопредпринимательстваможет быть эффективными только в техслучаях,когдатаилиинаястранарасполагаетинновационнымиресурсамиипотенциальнымивозможностиихиспользованиянаданномэтапеэкономическогоразвития.Главноежевпониманииосновинновационногопредпринимательствазаключаетсявтом,чтоонипридаютнациональнойэкономикеопределеннуюдина-мичность,позволяющуюмаксимальноэффективноиспользоватьимеющийсяинновационныйпотенциал.Вконечномитогеразвитиеинновационногопредпринимательстваприводит к повышениюконкурентоспособностииэкспортногопотенциаластраны.

Безсозданияусловийразвитияинновационногопредприни-мательстваневозможнопреодолениеструктурно-технологическойотсталостистраны,ивозникающихсложностейвсозданиимате-риальныхпредпосылокдля эффективногопроведения социаль-но-экономическихпреобразований.Поэтомуоднимизведущихнаправленийдеятельности в областиформирования рыночнойэкономикиисниженияуровнябедностивстранедолжностатьпод-ключениеинновационногофакторакдостижениюэкономическихиполитическихцелейгосударства.

References:1 См: Лист Ф. Национальная система политической экономики. –СПБ 1891. с. 51-209.2 См. Solov R. M. Growth Theory. An. Expozition – Oxford, 1998.3См.ЛенчукЕ.Б.,СимановскийС.И.,СтрапетоваМ.П.НаучнотехническоеразвитиепостсоциалистическихстранЦентральнойиВосточнойЕвропы:про-блемыиперспективы–М.1998,с.5.4См.ЛенчукЕ.Б.,СимановскийС.И.,СтрапетоваМ.П.НаучнотехническоеразвитиепостсоциалистическихстранЦентральнойиВосточнойЕвропы:про-блемыиперспективы–М.1998,с.5.

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Lecturer dr. eng. maria Gaf-Deac, Bucharest, RomaniaProf. dr. eng. George teSeleanu, Italy

Eng. livia iliaS, Petrosani, RomaniaDr. ec. constantin nicoleScu, Tirgu Jiu, Romania

Eng. valer unGuR, Deva, Romania

EFICIENŢA UTILIzĂRII RESURSELOR NATURALE

ÎN ECONOMIA DE pIAŢĂ

In this paper are being analyzed the following important issues: the necessity to elaborate a Document for natural resources management, fluctuation and changes registered in the natural resources market, political instruments of efficient exploitation and utilization of resources.

1. Preliminarii privind necesitatea elaborării şi aprobării unui Document de Management a Resurselor Naturale

MediulînconjurătorînRomâniareprezintăoparteimportantăainfrastructuriideviaţăapopulaţieiţării.Comunitateadeansambluaremenireadeaimpunemenţinereauneisituaţiiechilibrateîntre1) nevoi (cerinţe) de resurse naturale şi2) păstrareamediului în formula saintrinsecă,accentuândpecaracteristicasade„valoarepentruviitor”.

De altfel, este recunoscut faptul că bunurile şi serviciile dinresursenaturalenucuprindadecvatînpreţurilelorexpresiacosturilorde afectare amediului.Mecanismul formării preţurilor bunurilor şiserviciilordinresursenaturalenuestearticulatcorespunzător,-pentruevidenţierearealităţii-cufuncţionareapieţei.

Sededucecăpiaţavehiculeazăresursenaturale,careînsinenusuntpurtătoaredepreţuricepotdovedieficienţareală,profundăaexploatăriişivalorificăriibunurilorşiserviciiloraferente.[1]

Internalizarea costurilor externe se dovedeşte a fi propunereaoriginalăînprezentalucrarespreadeterminaluareaînconsiderareaparametrului„protecţiamediului”.

ÎnRomânia,aproape40%dinteritoriu(sol)esteafectatdeacţiuneaumană,tehnico-economicăprin:

-creştereacontaminăriiapelorcurgătoaresaustătătoare;-intensificareaactivităţilor(acţiunilor)denaturăbiologicăînape

şiasuprasolului;-creştereasuprafeţelordesolsupuseeroziunii;-defrişărireconcentrăriartificialedeflorăşifaună;-afectărialehabitatuluiprinmodificăriproduse înecosistemul

zonal,regionalşinaţional.

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Pentru reglementarea, respectiv organizarea şi conducereaactivităţilordeexploatareşivalorificarearesurselornaturalepeplaninternaţional, în numeroase ţări (Australia,NouaZeelandă,S.U.A.,ţăriledezvoltatealeU.E,ş.a)seavanseazăpropunereadeelaborareşiînsuşireaunuiDocument privind Managementul Resurselor.Acesta,s-arputeadovediunimportantinstrumentdeformulareastrategieişitacticilorînsferaexploatăriişivalorificăriiresurselornaturale.

Degradareamediuluitrebuieperceputăcaoproblemăpreponderenteconomică.

2. Oscilaţiile şi modificările înregistrate în piaţa resurselor naturalePiaţaareroluldearealizaalocaţia,respectivdistribuţiaderesurse

naturale în raport cu cererile pentru consum.Piaţa ca sistem,poatedeterminamodulcumsăfiemaximizatăeficienţautilizăriiresurselornaturale.(fig.1)

Controlulguvernamentalasupramoduluidealocarearesurselorînsituaţiamanifestăriipieţelorlibereseregăseşteîn1)permisivitatealargăpentrumanifestarea liberă a pieţelor; 2) întărirea dreptului deproprietate.Entitateastatalămaipoateinterveniprincreareade„cvasi-pieţe”cepotavearolderaţionalizareadistribuţiei(alocaţiei)deresursenaturaleîneconomianaţionalăsauregională.Înunelecazuri,Guvernulpoatedecidesingularasupraalocăriidirecteaunorresursecătreanumiţiconsumatori.

Pentrubunurilepublice(cazulgeneralalresurselornaturale)suntnecesareînprocesuldistribuiriipoliticiişistrategieiadecvate.

Fig.1 - Maximizarea eficienţei utilizării resurselor naturale în economia de piaţă

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3. Instrumente ce aparţin politicilor de exploatare şi utilizare eficientă a resurselor

Clasificareainstrumentelorîntr-opoliticăsaustrategieesteîncănedefinită,urmareagameideosebitdelargideposibilităţi,deadiţionaresaureformulareaacestora.

Într-oviziuneactualizată,pentruRomâniainstrumenteledepoliticipentruresursenaturalesepotgrupaînurmătoarelecategorii:

dreptullaproprietate,careoferăprioritateşiîndreptăţesccu �privire la decizia de exploatare şi valorificare a resurselornaturaleaferenteproprietăţii;educaţiacuprivirelafeluldeutilizarearesurselornaturale; �capacitatea,respectivdisponibilitateadeanegociaînprivinţa �exploatăriişivalorificăriieficienteşioptimearesurselor;sistemuldereglementări,obligaţiişiimpunerilegislativeîn �domeniu;sarcini oficiale (cerinţe, impuneri) şi taxe referitoare la �mediu;gradul de permisibilitate sau restricţionare a activităţilor �comercialecuresursenaturale;subvenţiişiefectelelor; �altemijloaceşiinstrumentedemodelareapoliticilorşitacticilor �pentruînfăptuireastrategieiconvenţionalacceptată.

În continuare, se prezintă succint caracteristicile definitorii alemulţimiideinstrumentemenţionatemaisus,înperspectivaintegrăriioriginale a acestora într-unmodel instrumental, parametric care săserveascăformalizăriirealisteauneistrategiipracticepentruRomâniaîndomeniulexploatăriişiutilizăriieficientearesurselornaturale.

a) Dreptul la proprietate şi activităţile cu resurse naturale ce decurg din acesta

ÎnRomâniaestenecesarăimperiosclarificareasituaţieititlurilordeproprietateasupraterenurilorcare,implicit,suntcelececantoneazăresurselenaturale.

Definireadreptuluideproprietateasupraresurselornaturalerezidădinexpresiaclarăasupradreptuluidedeţinerepetermennelimitatsaulimitatasuprafeţelorceauacumulăriderezerve/resurseutile.

Consecinţelenegativeasupramediului,destructurareacantitativăşicalitativăabiodiversităţii,pierderilederesurseş.aprovindinincoerenţadreptuluideproprietate.

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Undreptdeproprietateinconsistenteliminăvoluntarismulpozitivalproprietaruluiînprivinţaechilibruluiacţionalceartrebuiinstauratînexploatareaşiutilizareaeficientăşiraţionalăaresurselor.

Pierderea voluntarismului pozitiv este însoţită de decizii la felde voluntare de exploatare intensivă, neraţională a acumulărilor deresurseutile.

Încompletare,dreptullaproprietatepoatefiînsoţitderegulişinormedemanifestare a acestuia care inducproprietarului comportamentulneafectantasupramediuluiînplannaţional,zonalşiglobal.

Acţiunile non-guvernamentale asupra deţinătorilor de drept aproprietăţilorcuresursenaturalefacpartedinvoluntariatuldecizionalspecificsocietăţiicivilecare,modeleazăprincerinţevoluntareatitudinilefaţăderesurseşimediu.

b) Educaţia şi negocierile privind utilizarea resurselor naturaleOcâtmaisemnificativădiseminareainformaţiilordesprepoliticile

şistrategiiledindomeniulresurselornaturaleconducelaconştientizareaacţională,printr-o nouă cunoaştere în domeniu.

Reducereadegradăriimediului,limitareaatitudiniloregocentriceasupraresurselorderivatedindreptuldeproprietateprecumşiînfăţişarearealistăacosturilorcaresă închidăciclulprotectiv.Pentruresurselenaturaleservesceducaţionalşiînprocesulnegocierilorsprealuadeciziicoerentelegatedemanagementulutilizăriiacestorresurse.

Cunoaşterea geologică, tehnologică şi economică, regăsită încunoaşterea naturală fundamentală contribuie la ridicarea nivelului educaţionalgeneratordeatitudinifaţăderesurselenaturale.

Birocraţia şi limitările (restricţiile), extrapolarea consecinţeloracţiunilor hazardate, empirice în imaginea complexă a posibilelorconsecinţenegativecesepotiviîndomeniulresurselornaturale,lacareseadaugăcunoaşterealegislativăşiînţelegereasensurilorevoluţiilorglobale în domeniu reprezintă parametrii instrumentali în practicaexploatăriişiutilizăriiresurselornaturale.

c) Instrumentul intervenţiilor reglementativeÎnuneleţări,guverneleintervindefinitivsautemporarînprocesul

complexdeexploatareşiutilizarearesurselornaturale.Reglementărileemiseînregimguvernamentalsuntînsoţitedupă

caz,demăsuripunitive.În context, sunt posibile: controlul economic al preţurilor,

contingentăridevolumedeproducţie,impunerideratederecuperare

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ainvestiţiilor,limitărisaufluidizărialeintrărilorsauieşirilorderesursenaturalepepieţe.

Problemeledeafectareasănătăţii,dereglărisocialesaupracticiproductive ori economice neadecvate pot sta în atenţia organuluiexecutiv, prin iniţiative legislative, reglementări administrative,liberalizări,prohibiţiişilimitărisauordineexecutivepentrucirculaţiaşiutilizarearesurselornaturale.

Reglementările în domeniusuntconsiderateinstrumenteex ante pentru anticiparea situaţională şi prevenţia apariţiei problemelorconvenţionalneacceptate.

Răspunderile în domeniu sunt considerate instrumenteex post, care devin acţionale atunci când problemele deja au apărut sau semanifestă.

Deexemplu,moduldefolosireaterenurilor,afectarearezervelorsubteranesaudesuprafaţăaapelor,ocupareasuprafeţelorcudeşeuri,permisiunea de acces şi operaţii la coastele (ţărmurile)marine ş.areprezintătotatâteaobiectedepotenţialăacţiunereglementativă.

Monitorizarea companiilor ce exploatează şi utilizează resursenaturaleintră,circumstanţial,însarcinileguvernamentalecevizeazăeficienţaşiraţionalitateaîndomeniu.

Comportamentulmanagerial inadecvat în domeniul resurselornaturaleestesupusrestricţionăriişipenalizărilor.

d) Taxele în domeniul resurselor naturalePentru activitatea umană, biologică şi demediu se identifică

întotdeauna un cost marginal estimatcarepoatefiacceptatpentruaşanumita„creşterezero”,respectivpentrufuncţionareaobişnuităcu venit marginalasistemelorînauto-reproducţialorfărăsurplusdevaloareadăugată.(fig.2)

Uzual, tendinţaoperaţională independentădeexecutanţiestecaveniturilesăsemanifesterezistentlacreştereiarcosturilesăexpan-deze.

Managementul resurselor naturale determină inversarea tendin-ţelordemai sus,prinorganizareaşiconducereaspreeficienţă,careestemăsurăaveniturilorînraportcucheltuielileefectuate,respectivmărimeacosturilor.

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PmC = costmarginaldeproducţie; mC =costmarginaltotal;mmC =costmarginaldemediu;P

mV = venit marginaldeproducţie; tmV = venit marginal total

Fig.2 expresia tendinţelor costurilor şi veniturilor marginale la exploatarea şi utilizarea resurselor naturale cu afectarea

mediului

Acestecosturipotfiafectate(însensulconvenţionalnegativ,alcreşteriilor)delipsamăsurilorproductiveraţionaleşioptimizate.Deaceeaminimizareacosturilorestelegatădemaximizareaefectelormă-surilorproductive(Mp)precumcelecevizeazăcreştereaproductivităţii,inovaţia,progresultehnicşitehnologic,ş.a.

Afectareamediuluiprinexploatareaşifolosirearesurselornaturaleimplicăapariţiadecosturipentrua) remedieresaub)menţinereane-afectării.Măsuriledeneafectareamediului(Mm)larândullortrebuiesă aibă efectelemaximizate pentru a obţineminimizarea costuriloraferente.

Sintetic,tendinţeleauurmătoareaexprimarecomplexă:

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Expresiaparametrului( tmC )poatefiasimilatăcucostul marginal

extern, iarexpresialui( PmC )cucostul marginal intern.

Eliminareacostuluidemediuşialimiteisalemarginale( mmC )se

poaterealizapemaimultecăi:-prinpropriadecizieaoperatoruluicarepreferăsănuînregistre-

zecosturisuplimentarefaţădecosturileuzualedeproducţie.Înacestcaz,exploatareaşiutilizarearesurselornaturaleurmeazăunalgoritmoperaţionalfaţădemediu.

-princuprindereavaloriicosturilordemediuîncosturiledeproduc-ţie,intrândsubincidenţaminimizăriigeneraleaelementelordecost.

-prinalocareadecheltuielisuplimentarepentrucosturiledemediuacărorsursăestedinvenituripropriisausubvenţii.

-printaxeimpusedeadministraţiastatală,careîntregescbugetulceurmeazăafirealocatrefaceriisaumenţineriimediului.

5. Libertăţi de comercializare a resurselor naturaleAcceptareadiferitelormărimidecosturimarginalepentruacelaşi

produs(aceeaşiresursănaturală)regăsităînlocaţiidiferiteestelegatăde influenţa agregatăaexploatăriişivalorificăriiasupramediuluişiintereselordepiaţă.[7]

Unuiagenteconomic i sepermiteunanumitcostmarginal, iaraltuianuisecreeazăcâmpdeacţiune.

Înesenţă,esteafectatălibertateadeoperaţie,chiarceacomercială,înţelegândprinacesttipdeatitudiniefortuldeinstaurare a echilibrului acţional.

Agenţiieconomicifrecvent încearcăsă transforme,respectivsăredistribuieanumitemărimidinelementeledecosttotalspreaatingeuncostmarginalpermisibil.

Totodată,aceiagenţieconomicicareînregistreazăne-permisibilităţileamintiteprocedeazăfrecventlaredistribuirearesurselor(încredinţarealor)intermediarăcătreceiceîntrunesccondiţiiledepersmisibilitate.Operaţiaestepurtătoaredecomision,respectivdereducereaprofituluitotalfinal.Înacestcazseurmăreşteînregistrareaunorcosturi minimale de transfer.

Permisivitateaexploatăriişivalorificăriiresurselorpoatefiafectatăşidesituaţiajuridică,înfaptconstatată,prininstituireaadouăconcepţiidediferenţiere:1)„proprietarul plăteşte”pentruafectăriledemediuoripiaţă;sau2) poluatorul (cel ce „deranjează”) plăteşteconsecinţeleacţiunilorsale.

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Formulareaunuisistemcuelementecheiedegenerareşisusţinereaavantajelor,practicândcosturi minimale de tranzacţiirămâneînsarcinaelaboratorilordepoliticişistrategiiîndomeniulresurselornaturale.

Dealtfel,oficialităţileoricăreiţări,aumenireadeaidentificaşiimpunesistemedelibertateoperaţionalăproductiv-economicecaresuntpurtătoaredepermisivităţidedezvoltare.

6. Influenţa acţiunilor de subvenţionareÎncurajarea unei direcţii sau alta pentru acţiuni în domeniul

resurselornaturaleînseamnă,succesiv,evaluareapotenţialuluideacţiunerealăaoperatorilorspreaîndeplinicerinţeproductiv-economice.

Asimetriile operaţionale, în contextul impunerii atingerii unorobiectivesauaunuiorizontdedezvoltaresunteliminatecuajutorulinstituţiiloroficiale(guvern,bugetuldestat,băncidedezvoltare)caresuportădiferenţeledecostprovenitedinexploatareaşivalorificareaunor resurse naturale ce se dovedesc la rândul lor de „importanţăstrategică”.

Subvenţionarea poate fi1) definitivă sau2) temporară (curecuperareavaloriidesprijin).

Imperfecţiunilepieţei,preferinţeendogenenecontrolabile,riscurile,standardelelimitativesaunevoiadeaatingeînmodobligatoriuanumiteniveledestandardaproduselorşiserviciilordinresursenaturaleş.a.potficontracarateprinoperaţionalizareasubvenţiei.

7. Concluzii şi contribuţii propriiInternalizareacosturilorexternereprezintăocontribuţieproprie

aautoruluiînprezentalucrare.EsteavansatăpropunereadeelaborarepentruRomâniaaunuiDocument privind Managementul Resurselor (cuparticularizareaexploatăriişivalorificăriiresurselornaturale).

Piaţa-casistem-reprezintăarealulcepoatedeterminamodulcumsăfiemaximizatăeficienţautilizăriiresurselornaturale.

Într-oviziuneoriginalăaautorului,actualizată,pentruRomâniainstrumentele aferente politicilor ce vizează resursele naturale suntgrupateavândînvederefaptulcăîncăestenedefinităpeplanmailarg,internaţionaloclasificareposibilădegeneralizat.

Seavanseazăpropunereacăestenecesarăelaborareaunuimodel instrumental al politicilor şi strategiilor în domeniul resurselor naturale.

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Pemăsuraadiţionăriidenoiinstrumentelamulţimeafinită,aflatăîncontinuăextindereaprocedeelordeoperaţionalizareaexploatăriiresurselor naturale, în fapt se construieşte o clasificare care poatedobândirelevanţădinceîncemairidicată.

Cunoaştereanaturalăfundamentalăcontribuielaridicareaniveluluieducaţional(aculturiiorganizaţionale)generatoaredeatitudinifaţăderesurselenaturale.

Înlucrareesteredatăînmodoriginalexpresiatendinţelorcosturilorşiveniturilormarginalelaexploatareaşiutilizarearesurselornaturaleceafecteazămediul.

bibliography:Parminter, T., Policy Strategies for Natural Resource1.Management,-MAFTechicalPapers,NZ,No.2003/1,2003;Howlet,M.;Ramech,M., Studying Public Policy: Policy2. Cycles andPolicySubsystems, -OxfordUniversityPress,Ontario,1995;Meister,A.D.,EnvironmentalRegulationanduseofEconomic3. InstrumentsforEnvironmentalPlanningandManagement,-AnOverview;Nakamura,RT.;Samllwood,F.,ThePoliticsofPolicyImple-4. mentation,-St.Martin’sPress,NewYork,1980;OlsonM.,TheLogicofColectiveAction:PublicGoodsandthe5. TheoryforGroups,-HarvardUniversityPress,USA,1971;Weimer,D.L.;Vining,A.R, PolicyAnalysisConcepts and6.Practice,-PretinceHall,USA,1992;Tietenberg,T.,EnvironmentalandNaturalResourceEcono-7.mics,-Addison-WesleyLongman,USA,2000.Gaf-DeacMaria,Tehnologiimoderne,FRMBucuresti,20058. Gaf-DeacI.Ioan,Bazelejuridicesieconomicealesistemelor9.deresurseinnouaeconomie.Ed.INFOMIN,2007

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natalia PeRcinSchi Ph.D., Institute of Economy, Finance and StatisticsAlexandr GRibincea Ph.D., Free University of Moldova

Alexandr IşCeNCO Scientific researcher, Institute of Economy, Finance and Statistics

IMITATIONAL MODELS OF ThE INNOVATION DEVELOpMENT OF A COUNTRy IN

CONDITIONS OF INTERNATIONALIzATION OF ThE ECONOMy

The article reveals the characteristics and differences of the innovation process in the countries-leaders and countries-outsiders in innovations. Also the contents of the innovation process of the leaders in innovations are displayed here. In the end there are proposals for using the most perspective models of the innovation development for the Republic of Moldova.

Imitational modelingallowstheformingofaconditionalmodeloftheinnovationprocessincountries–leadersininnovations,whichcanbethenusedforthecountries–innovationoutsiders,includingtheRepublicofMoldova.

ThebasisoftheimitationalmodelingisthecreationoftheeffectivesystemformonitoringtheglobaltransformationsoftheWorldEconomy,nationalResearchandDevelopment(R&D)progressandchangesintheglobalinnovationsphere.

Nowadays the imitation of the innovation process should beprimarilybaseduponthequalitativeestimationduetohighvarietyofcountriesandconditionalcharacterofthecomparisonofquantitativeparameters.

Goalsoftheimitationalmodelingoftheinnovationprocessarethefollowing:

Definitionofattributesandfeaturesoftheinnovationprocess1.ofcountries–innovationleaderswiththehighestreliability;Selectionofuniversalandcharacteristictrendsoftheinnovation2. processofcountries–leadersininnovations;Developmentofthealgorithmofusingthemacroindicators3. intheimitationalmodel;Definitionofthei4. nputandoutputparametersoftheinnovationprocessanditsimitation;Creationofthesetofparametersforestimationofattributes,5. features,etc.

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The imitationalmodel should reflect the quantitative and qualitative sides of the national innovation process; include the mechanism of adapting to certain socio-economic conditions of a country – innovation outsider.

Thusthefollowing1. stages of the imitational modeling can bedisplayed:Structuralanalysisoftheprocessandestimationoftheroles2. ofitselements;Collection of information and definition of the basis and3. momentofmodeling;Classificationandsystematizationofthemodelingfactorsand4. conditions;Selection of criteria and indicators and forming their5. interrelations;Comparison of the trends in changing of the indicators6.on the global scale, in countries – leaders andoutsiders ininnovation;Definitionofthecommonanddifferenttrends,attributesand7.characteristicsoftheinnovationprocess;Descriptionandcreationofthemodel;8. Interpretationofthemodel;9.Modificationofthemodel,predictionofchangesandelaboration10.ofmethodsofrealizationoftheimitationalmodel.

The imitationalmodeling can be represented in the followingconsecutivecircuit:

Settinggoalsandobjectivesoftheimitationalmodeling;1.Collectionofinformation;2. Definitionoffactors,conditionsandattributesoftheinnovation3. processinthecountries–leaders;Organizationandclassificationoffactorsandconditions;4. Characteristicoftheinterrelationsoffactorsandconditions5. asasingleitem;Selection of criteria and indicators that characterize the6.innovationprocessincountries–leaders;Creation of the quantitative andqualitative components of7.the imitationalmodel and itsmodificationaccording to theconditionsinthecountry.

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Imitationalmodelingofthenationalinnovationprocessisrelatedtomodeling of complex systems consisting of a great number ofinterconnectedelements.Theconditionofoptimization–theeffectivefunctioning of the innovation sphere and the development of theinnovationprocess– is introduced in thiscase.Thepresenceof themanagement of the innovation process, its structure and hierarchycreatethepossibilityofitsimitation.Multiplepossibleconditionsandcharacteristicsofthestudiedphenomenonareinvestigatedandmodeledaccordingtothescopeoffunctioning–intensificationoftheinnovationdevelopmentofacountry.[3,p.230]

The imitationalmodel being created should be included in theanalytical kind ofmodels. In otherwords, it is a set of functionalparitiesandlogicconditionsdescribinglinksbetweentheelementsandfunctioningoftheprocess.

Thecriteria of the imitational modelingarethefollowing:1)economic criterion – It estimates the functioning of the

innovationprocess as aneconomic system, economic resultsof theinnovationprocessandincludestheeconomicindicatorsandparameters(volumeofmanufactureandexportinR&Dproducts,R&Dexpenses,investment efficiency, share in the global volume of innovations,etc.);

2)Socio-economic criterion–Itconsiders thesocio-economicaspects of the innovation process;may include the ecological andculturalelements;isrepresentedbytheindicatorscharacterizingthesocialsphereofR&D(numberofresearchers,theshareofresearchersengaged in the national innovation process in their total number,etc.);

3)Criterion of stability and balance of development – Itestimates qualitative elements (indicators) of the socio-economicdevelopmentonthebasisofintensificationoftheinnovationprocess(economicsystem,culture,education,publichealthservices,ecology)withconcentratingonthesocialparametersofdevelopment;

4)Institutional criterion – Itworkswith the indicatorsof theinstitutionalmaintenance of the innovation process (intellectualproperty protection, effectiveness of legislation, presence ofinstitutionsoftheinnovationinfrastructure,etc.);

5)functional criterion–Itestimatestheindicatorsandattributesofrealizationof theinnovationprocessandinterrelationsamongitselements,andalsointeractionofthestateandtheprivatesector;includes

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variousindicatorsreflectingthequalitativesideoftheinnovationprocess(partnershipbetweenthestateandcorporativestructures,aspectsoforganizationandmanagement,developmentoftheinnovationmarket,motivationandadaptationoftheeconomytoinnovations,etc.).

Thecharacteristicfeaturesanddifferencesoftheinnovationprocessincountries–leadersandoutsidersininnovationsarerepresentedintheTable1below.

Table 1 – The characteristic features and differences of the innovation process in countries – leaders and outsiders in

innovations.

main Attributes Countries – leaders Countries – outsiders

management of scientific and technolog-ical develop-ment.

Realization of the sys-tematicpolicyonscienceandtechnologyontheba-sisofthestrategyofsci-entific,technologicalandinnovationdevelopment.

The policy on science andtechnology is not realized inthesystematicmanner.Thestrategyoftheinnovationdevelopment is implementedrelativelyweak.

economic characteristics of the innova-tion process.

Innovation process hashigh profitability andsocio-economic effec-tiveness, along with thegrowth in resource ex-penditures.

Innovation process has highprofitability, but the socio-economiceffectivenessisnotsosignificant.

Social aspect of the innova-tion process.

The intellectualizationof thepopulation,prepa-ration and mobilization of high quality stuff arestressedhere.The immi-grationisstimulated.

Level of the population’s in-tellectualization is falling.Preparation of high qualitystuff is not progressing. La-bour force mobilization islow.Thereisanoutflowofthelabourforce.

main sources of innovations.

They are the states andlarge corporations, allelementsofthescientificinnovation system, andthehigh-techcomplex.

The state sector and largecorporate entities are charac-terizedbylowinnovationac-tivity.TheR&Delementsareweakly integrated and func-tion mostly apart from eachother.

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financing of the innovation process.

The sources are diversi-fied, but the dominatingone is the private financ-ing. State financing is re-alized both in direct andindirectforms.Amountoffinancing from the majorsourcesisquitelarge.

The diversification of thesourcesisnotsignificant.Themain sources are the statesand large corporate entitiesfromthetraditionalbranches.Theamountoftheirfinancingisrelativelysmall.

Development of the innova-tion structure and mecha-nisms of R&D integration.

Institutions of the inno-vation infrastructure arecharacterizedby thehighlevel of functional effec-tiveness. Various mecha-nisms of integration ofthe R&D elements arerealized (administrative,market,etc.).

Thenumberofinstitutionsoftheinnovationinfrastructureissmall,andtheyarecharacterizedbylowleveloffunctionaleffectiveness.Mostlytheadministrativemech-anisms of the R&D integrationare realized,which do not pro-videcloseinterrelationsbetweentheelements.

Distribution and imple-mentation of innovations.

Distribution of innovationstakesplace through the in-novationmarketandbythechannels of large corpora-tions and clusters with thestate’s participation. Imple-mentation of innovationsisintensifiedandhasasys-tematiccharacter.

Distributionof innovations isdone by the channels of thestate sector and large corpo-ratestructureswiththestate’sparticipation. Implementationof innovations is not system-atic.

Role of the state in the innovation process.

Activecreationofvariousconditions for supportingtheinnovationprocess.Regulatingonthebasisofa large number of instru-mentsandmechanisms.

Active creation of conditionsislimited.Regulatingandsup-portingtheinnovationprocessisnotveryefficient.Thenumberofmechanismsislimited.

functioning of the state sector.

Developed scientificand innovation spheresare actively engaged inthe innovation processin various forms (as thesource of innovations,participant of coopera-tion,resourcebasis).Theeducation system is paida lot of attention and isusedastheinstrumentofthestatecontrol.

Developmentofthestatesec-tor is limited. The presentinstitutes are not actively in-volvedin the innovationpro-cess.Theeducationsystemisdevelopedslowlyandweaklyengagedinthestatecontrol.

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Interrelations between the state and the private sector.

Close partnership in allspheres and on differentlevels is realized. Thevolumes are expedientin certain moments. Themarket mechanisms aredominating.

Is characterized by specula-tive aspects. Is registered oncertainstages.Canberealizedincontradictiontothemarketmechanisms.

economic activity of the state in the innovation sphere.

Hasacomplex,effectiveandsystematiccharacter.Thestatemechanismsareeffectiveandarerealizedin different forms (stateorder, technology trans-fer,partialparticipation).

Do not have a complex andsystematic character. The ef-fectivenessofthemechanismsis limited. Small number ofreformsisimplemented.

Regional policy on the micro and macro levels.

The innovation orienta-tionisfocusedbothonthemicro and meso levels.Economic developmentand competitiveness aredetermined by the inno-vationactivity.

The innovation orientation isthe main one neither on themicro nor on the meso lev-els. Economic developmentand competitiveness are de-terminedby the resourceandlabourforcecapacity.

Character of interrelations between R&D and the global innovation and economic environment.

Active participation inthe global competitiveenvironment, internation-al programs of scientificand technological devel-opment,andinternationalcooperation.

Weakparticipationintheglob-al competitive environment,as well as the involvementin the international programsandthecooperationsystemintheinnovationsphere.

Impact of innovations on economic development.

Theexpendituresandef-fects from innovationsare in constant growth.The innovations of eco-nomic growth are domi-nating. High correlationdependence among theindicators of innovationand economic develop-mentisrealized.

The innovations of redistri-butionaredominating,whichleads to economic decline.The correlation dependenceamongtheindicatorsofinno-vationandeconomicdevelop-mentisveryvague.

Themacroindicatorsusedintheimitationofimplementationanddistributionintheinnovationmodelingcanbeconditionallydividedonseveralgroups:socio-economic, financial and economic, and situational and economic indicators.Theycomprisenumericalcharacteristicsofthemajorattributesofthecountries–leadersininnovations.

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1)Socio-economic indicators:Specificweight of the number of researchers in theworld �indicator;Gradeofinvolvementofhighqualitystuffintotheinnovation �process;Quantityandrateofchangingofpersonnel involved in the �scientific,innovationandmanufacturingdomains;Volumeandqualityoftheintellectualresourcesofactivity. �

2)financial and economic indicators:Shareof theR&Dexpenditures in theGDPin theabsolute �amount(capacityofscienceintheeconomy)andincalculationpercapitaofthepopulation;ShareofthenationalR&Dexpendituresinthenationalamount �offinancingtheinnovationprogress;EffectivenessofinvestmentsinR&D. �

3) Situational and economic indicators (structural,conjectural):

Numberoftheregisteredpatentsingeneral,abroad,state,and �cooperativeones;Share of innovations andhigh-tech products on the global �market;Quantityof themanufacturedand realized innovations and �high-techproducts;Volumeofexportofinnovationsandhigh-techproducts; �Numberofcompaniesandenterprisesactiveininnovations; �Quantity and effectiveness of institutes of the innovation �infrastructure;Self-provisionwithinnovations; �Number of publications per 1million of the country’s �population;Developmentofsmallandmediumbusiness(quantity,division �bytypes);Numberoftherealizedstateprograms. �

Whilecreatingtheimitationalmodelof theinnovationprocess,themostimportantthingthatshouldbeconsideredistheevaluationofthesituationandtrendsofthesocio-economicdevelopmentofthecountry–leaderininnovationsandofthecountry,whichthemodelisusedfor.

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Current conditions require that the imitation of the innovationprocessmustbeprimarilybasedonthequalitative criteria evaluation, whichisconditionedbysignificantdifferencesofthestates,difficultyoftheanalyzedphenomenonandconditionalcharacterofcomparingthequantitativeparameters.

Nowadays in Economics threemain types ofmodels of theinnovationdevelopment of the industrially developed countries aredefined:

1) Orientation on the reserves in scienceandrealizationoflarge-scaleprojectscomprisingallstagesofthescientificandmanufacturingcycle(France,theUnitedKingdom,theUSA);

2)Orientation on the spreading of innovations, creationof thefavourable innovation sphere and rationalization of the economicstructure(Germany,Sweden,Switzerland);

3)Orientation by the development of the innovation infrastructure, ensuringofthereceptivityoftheR&Dachievementsandcoordinationofdifferent sectors in the sphereof scienceand technology (Japan,SouthKorea).

Conclusions and proposals:In conclusion, we consider themost perspectivemodels of

the innovation development for theRepublic ofMoldova are thefollowing:

1) model of the centralized management of the investment activity in the innovation sphere.Themodelisaimedontheusageof thebest technologies formanufacturingcheaperand in thesametimemorequalitativeproducts.Themainresponsibilityof the localauthoritiesinthedevelopmentofthismodelwillbethecontributiontoincreasingthescientificandtechnicalpotentialofthecountryandits adapting to the amount that can be compared to the developedcountries.

2)model of the regional priorities of the innovation development. Before the development of the regional innovation programs thereshouldbethedefinitionoftheregionalinnovationprioritiesthatwouldnotcontradictthestateonesandconsidertheregionalpeculiaritiesoftheindustrial,resourcefulandscientificpotential.Thustheconcretizationof the structure and expected results of the implemented programsshouldbedonebyincludingintheprogramstheprojectswithconcreteexecutorsonthecompetitivebasis.

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3) model of the effective usage of concentration of the innovation development.Themodelconsidersthattheinnovationdevelopmentin theRepublicofMoldovabeginsnot fromthezero level.Certainindustriesarecharacterizedbysignificantconcentrationofthescientific,manufacturing,financialpotential.

4) model of the international cooperation in the innovation sphere.TheconceptofthemodelisitsorientationontheMoldova’sactive participation in the international scientific and technicalcooperation andwide exchange of scientific results andmoderntechnologies.

5) model of the single innovation space of the CSI.Itisbasedonthescientificandtechnicalcooperationamongthestates,manufacturersandorganizationswithintheCSIoncommonprogramsandorders.

However, considering the specific situation and developmenttrendsoftheinnovationpotentialofMoldovanowadaysitisadvisableto implement themodel of the international cooperation in the innovation sphere together with the model of the single innovation space of the CSI.

bibliography:ВодопьяноваЕ.КонцепцияЕвропейскогоисследователь-1.скогопространствакакзеркалонаукиновогосвета.Миро-ваяэкономикаимеждународныеотношения.№11.2004.МарцинкевичВ.Экономическиймэйнстримисовременное2. воспроизводство11 Мироваяэкономикаимеждународныеотношения.№2.2003.МэнескуМ.Экономическаякибернетика:Пер.срум.–М.:3. Экономика.1986.ЧернегаО.Б.,МиньковскаяМ.В.Инновационныепроцессы4. какфактортехнологическогоразвития /Тр.Донец. гос.техн. ун-та.Серия: экономическая. –Bып. 5 –Донецк:ДонГТУ,1999

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Section ii. Financial support for sustainable growth

oana mihaela VăsIOIu, PhD., Lecturer,Ecological University of Bucharest

INVESTMENT bANkING

The economic, financial and monetary changes had serious consequences not only on the level of providing the finance necessary for the development process but also on the level of providing the finance required for importing the basic food needs and rendering necessary production inputs.All these problems show the importance of “Banks” generally and “Investment Banks” particularly in the emerging and underdeveloped countries. Banks as financial institution or intermediary mobilize either national or foreign savings through accepting deposits and then use these mobilized savings in financing or funding any kind of economic activities, whatever they are production activities of goods or productive services or social and private services.Theoretically, and practically as well, some type of Investment Banks may effectively participate in pushing the wheel of development in order to overcome the difficult circumstances that these countries are going through. This effective participation might shown in providing an encouraging investment climate necessary for creating a powerful private sector that is capable to actively participate in establishing an agricultural, industrial and productive base as well as a service base of a new economic structure that contributes to facing the economic crisis and in the same time relieving the huge burdens shouldered by the governments of those countries.In fact, the Investment Banks can play a vital role in the development processes if they execute their main functions by providing finance to the private sector as well as expertise and knowhow in the field of economic feasibility studies, international contracting and market studies, as it will be presented in this paper.But whatever the differences and variations between Investment Banks themselves or between the economies all over the world, the Investment Banks practicing three principal functions; developing, financing and controlling functions. And the performance of the Investment Banks for these functions is affected by some factors and determents related to the banks’ policies and managements, and to the positions of the national economy; its applied regime, its operating and administrating systems and the nature of its witnessed growth stage, as well as the economical and financial climate through which said banks perform.

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1. investment bankingThe importance of“investment banks” appeared through its

effectively participation in pushing thewheel of development byarranging stablemediumand long-termsourcesof funds tofinanceinvestmentprojectandprovidinganencouraginginvestmentclimatenecessaryforcreatingapowerfulprivatesectorthatiscapabletoactivelyparticipateinestablishinganagricultural,industrialandproductivebaseaswellasaservicebaseofaneweconomicstructurethatcontributestofacingtheeconomicandsocialdevelopment’srequirements.

Investment banks play an important role by providingfinanceto theprivatesectoraswellasexpertiseandknow-howin thefieldof economic consultations,market studies,marketing surveys, andinternational contracting, in addition to providing various servicesnecessary for projects evaluation andmanagement. Taking intoconsiderationthatthesetypesofbanksarefinancialinstitutionsthathaveseveralcomprehensivefunctionswhichanyinvestmentprojectcouldlack,beingaprematuresectorthatstillmakingitswayuptowardsprogressandprosperity.

Theimplementationof investmentprojectsneedsprovidingthemediumorlongtermfinancewhetherinformofcapitalorloansforacquiringtheirfixedassetssuchaslands,buildings,machineriesandequipments.Basically,thefinancialmarketprovidessuchfinancetotheprojectswhichtheirvolume,legalnature,financial,economicandtechnicalfeasibilityenablingthemtoreceivethenecessaryfinancefromthismarketthroughissuingstocks,bondsandloans.

Sinceithasbeenobviousthattheshorttermdepositsreceivedbythecommercialbanksdonotenablethesebankstograntitinformofmediumorlongtermloans-exceptwithincertainlimits-becauseofliquidity, reserves, saving and consumption functions, inflation andeconomiccycleconsiderations[7], itbecamenecessaryforthebankingsystems,inlightoftheincreasingneedforthemediumandlongtermfinancetomeetrequirementsofcontinueseconomicgrowth,toseektheproperwaytocoincidebetweensaidconsiderationsasfollows [5]:

1-Establishinginstitutionsspecializedinextendingthemediumand long termfinance.Said institutionsmustenjoystableresourcesreceivedfromitscapitalandthroughissuingbonds,borrowingforlongperiodsand/orallowingbankswhichextendashorttermcredittoissuesuchbondswiththepurposeofreceivingfinancialresourceswithpropertermstobeusedinthemediumandlongtermfinance.

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2- Supporting themonetary and financialmarkets’ potentialsandfacilitatingoperationsofdiscountsandtradingofdifferentcashassets.

During the secondhalf of the 19thCentury,manybankswereincorporatedtoworkinthefieldofinvestment.Someofsaidbanksspecializedinfinancingindustry,agricultureortherealestateprojectswhile others havefinanced different sectorswithout specializationunderthenameofinvestmentbanks.Theinvestmentbankscomeontopofthefinancialsectorswhichhelpinthedevelopmentprocessesas theyparticipate in discovering and implementing the investmentopportunitiesandfinancingprojectsinadditiontoitsroleinmobilizingsavingsanddevelopingexperiences for thesakeofestablishing theproductiveinvestments.

The20thCenturywitnessedveryimportantdevelopmentsinthebankingsystemsstructuresasexpansioninestablishingthecentralbankswhichcameaftertheFirstWorldWar.Thegreatdepressionattheendof1929hasledtomanybanks’bankruptcywhichfollowedbyissuanceofmanybankinglegislationsaimingatorganizingoperationsofthecommercialandspecializedbanksespeciallyinconcerningextendingdifferenttypesofcreditandparticipatingintheprojectssharecapitalsthusguaranteeingprotectionofdepositorsanddirectingcredittofulfillneedsofthenationaleconomies[4].

However,theInvestmentBankshadclearlyappearedinanumberof underdeveloped countries after theSecondWorldWar aiming atacceleratingtheprocessesofeconomicgrowth,buttheirsuccesswasdifferentfromonecountrytoanotherduetomanyreasons;suchas:

weaknessofinitiativesofthesocietytosearchforinvestment•opportunitiesandtobuildupprojects;lackofbenefitingoftheforeigntechnologicalexperience;•unavailability of enough savings for achieving the targeted•growthrate;shortageofavailablechannelstotransfersavingsintofields•ofproductiveinvestments;theabsenceofdevelopedcapitalmarketsinterpretedintoweak•knowledgeoftheprogressivemeansoffinancinginvestmentsandattractingexternalfunds.

TheInvestmentBanksdidnotadoptthesamenameindifferentcountriesassomehavecalledthemthe“investment corporations” and “Development banks” andsometimestheywerecalled“Development Finance Institutions” or “Industrial Development Banks”.

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Regardlessofthenamesortargets, thebasicroleofsaidbankswastheparticipationinfinancingandmanaginginvestmentsinordertoachievetheeconomicdevelopment.

Nomination of the“investment banks” is derived from theirbasic function in practicing the investment operationwhile theirnomination as the “Development banks” comes from the target ofpracticing such function to realize development.The State or thePublic Sector participates in the ownership ormanagement of the“Development banks”assuchbanksintroducethefinanceaccordingtocertainfacilitatedconditionsandinterestratesonthecontrarytothe“investment banks” whichworkaccordingtocommercialbases.

ItisworthilymentionedthatsomeoftheUnitedNations’studies[3]havedefinedthe“Development bank” as“Any institution focuses, as its first priority, on introducing the long term loans”,while the“Development corporation” focuses basically on participating in the share capitals of projects, their development and management and introducing support to them.

Thisdistinguishisuselesspractically;assomeofthedevelopmentbanks and corporationswhichwere established to practice the twotypesofinvestmenthavedirectedtofocusononeofthemwhilesomeotherswhichwereestablishedtopracticeacertaintypehaveextendedtheiractivitytotheothertypeaccordingtovariouscircumstancesandpolicies.

ButitisnecessarytodistinguishbetweentheInvestmentBanksandsomecorporationsconcernedwiththegovernmentalinvestmentswhichappearedinsomecountriestoimplementtheprogramsforthegovernment andwork as transferring channels from the investmentprovisions in theState budget to the governmental projects,whichwasthecaseintheformerSovietUnionandnumberofsocialistandunderdevelopedcountries[7].

Inthisregard,itisworthilymentionedthatsomeoftheinvestmentand development banks have started their activities as agents forthegovernments in implementing investments toavert faultsof thegovernmentalmanagement,butinothercasestheyfailedtoperformtheir duties due to interferenceof the governmental bodies in theirwork.

2. Functions of Investment BanksManyoftheInvestmentBankswereincorporatedduringthesecond

halfofthe20thCentury,especiallyintheunderdevelopedcountriestoachievedifferenttargets,whereaseachofthemwereincorporated

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according tocertainneedsand in theframeofsocialandeconomicclimatedifferedfromacountrytoanother.

Numberofsaidbanksdevotedeffortstoservethegovernmentalprojectsandsomeothers introducedservices toboth thepublicandprivatesectors.Whiletheroleofsomebankswasrestrictedtolending,someotherscombinedbetweenlendingandparticipatinginthesharecapitalofinvestmentprojects.

Insomecases,accordingtoasetpolicy,anumberofInvestmentBanksfocusedtheiractivitiesonfinancingmediumandlargeindustries,whilesomeotherspecializedinsupportinganddevelopingthesmallindustrial projects.Also, a number of investment banks concernedaboutallthenationaleconomy’ssectors,whileotherinvestmentbanksconcentratedontendingspecificsectorsorcertainareas.

Onotherhand,someofInvestmentBanksplayedakeyrole insearchingforinvestmentopportunitiesandprovingtheirfeasibilityandthenpromotingsaidopportunitiesamongbusinessmenandinvestors,while other banks have established andmanaged the projects as apreliminarysteptowardsmarketingwhenavailable.

Someof saidbanksgivedue attention todevelop thefinancialmarketandtoseriouslyexpandthebaseofproductivepropertythroughsellingtheirportfolioinvestmentsandpledgingtocoverissuanceofsecurities.

TherearecasesinwhichtheInvestmentBankbecomesresponsibleforfinancingand followingupsomeprograms in theState’spublicplan.Thus,itplaysanimportantroleinexpressingrecommendationsandexecutingthenecessaryproceduresforfacingproblemshappenduringimplementationandoperation,inordertosettlesaidproblemsandaccomplishthetargets.

TheroleofInvestmentBanksmayextend,undercertainconditions,tointroducethetechnical,financialandadministrativeconsultationfortheprojectstheyfinanceandmayexceedthistosellsuchconsultancyservices to the projects they do not finance through subordinatedadvisoryenterpriseswhichtheinvestmentbankparticipatedin theirestablishmentandmanagement.

However,differencesinrolesandpurposesofinvestmentbanksconfirmsthenonexistenceofaunifiedmodelsuitableforallcountriesorevenalittlenumberofthemwherethematterisrelatedtotheneeds,theeconomicconditionsandsocialcircumstancesofthecountry.

Butwhateverthedifferencesandvariationsbetweeninvestmentbanks themselvesorbetween theeconomiesallover theworld, the

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investment banks practicing three principal functions; developing,financing and controlling functions.And the performance of theInvestmentBanksforthesefunctionsisaffectedbysomefactorsanddetermentsrelatedtothebanks’policiesandmanagements,andtothepositionsofthenationaleconomy;itsappliedregime,itsoperatingandadministratingsystemsandthenatureofitswitnessedgrowthstage,aswell as theeconomicalandfinancialclimate throughwhichsaidbanksperform.

2.1. Developing FunctionConceptsThe InvestmentBanks play an important role to develop the

nationaleconomythroughattractinginvestorsandorganizersaimingatreachingtheprojectswhichprovethetechnicalintegrity,realizepositiveresultsandenjoypotentialsofsoundimplementation.

The decision of finance is based on the evaluation of thefinancial,economicandtechnicalfeasibilityoftheprojectaccordingtothestandardsappliedinthisregard.TheInvestmentBanksput,forthemselves,policiesandregulationsinthefieldofselectingtheprojectsofferedforfinance.

Depending on their developmental role, the InvestmentBanksestablish andpromote the projects in order to complete the capitalstructureastheirparticipationinaprojectencouragesotherstocovertherequiredsharecapitalandaccelerateitsimplementation.

TheInvestmentBankspracticeakeyroleforthesakeofimprovingtheinvestmentclimatethrough:

• studying the financial and economic positions, laws andregulationsrelatedtoplanningandinvestment;

• introducing proposals aiming at encourage investment anddevelopsavings;

•supportingthemoneyandcapitalmarketsandelaboratingforeigntrade;

• increasing technology usage, production enhancement andproductivityrising;

•expandingmarketscapacitiesandeliminatingobstaclesfacinginvestorsindealingwiththedifferentstatebodies.

DeterminantsThe roleof the InvestmentBanks indirecting theirdeveloping

functionisaffectedbythenatureandstructureofthenationaleconomy

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andbythestageofeconomicgrowthaccordingtotheappliedeconomicregime.IncreasingtheimportanceoftheInvestment

Banks’ developing function is reflected on theirfinancing role.Hence,successofthebanksinestablishing,developingandparticipatingin the investment projects lead to increase the volume of financeextendedtotheminformofmediumandlongtermloans,takingintoaccount that thefinancial structure of anyproject includes loans inadditiontothesharecapitaltoaccomplishitsfinancialneeds,sincetheentirevolumeofinvestmentcostsisusuallynotfinancedonlythroughthesharecapital.

TheGermanbankingexperimentclarifiesthetightrelationbetweenthe stage of economic development and the developing functionof banks; as the desire in acceleratingdevelopment of theGermaneconomywhilearelativelyexpandedcapitalmarketdidn’texist,whichledtheGermanbanksto introducetheirstrongsupport,encouragedbythestate,toestablishandfinanceindustriesandprovidethemwithconsultations,technicalandadministrativeservices.Thesebankswerelookingforinvestmentideasandopportunities,preparingthefeasibilitystudiesanddirectingallproceduresneededtoestablish,financeandsupervisetheinvestmentprojects,inadditionofparticipatingintheirsharecapitals.Thus,Germanbankershaverelatedtoindustriesastheyweretheplanners,organizers,financersandmanagersofmostimportantinvestmentprojects.SaidrelationsprovedpositiveresultsindevelopingtheGermaneconomy.

In the emerging and underdeveloped countries, incorporationofalargenumberofInvestmentBanksfollowingtheSecondWorldWarcoincidedwiththeincreaseofgovernments’interferenceintheeconomicactivitythroughsettingandimplementingthedevelopmentsplans,owningandmanagingsomemajorindustrialprojects.Functionsofsaidbanksdifferedfromacountrytoanotherassomeofthemwereresponsiblefordevelopingthepublicprojectswhileothersheldthetasksofdevelopingtheprivatesector,searchingforinvestmentopportunities,expandingthecapitalmarketandstudyingproblemsfacingtheindustry.However,someofsaidbanksplayedanimportantroleindevelopingboththepublicandprivatesectorsatthesametime.Thus,reflectstherelationbetweenthedevelopingfunctionofInvestmentBanksandthenationaleconomyoperatingsystem.Hence,thetransformationfromtheabsoluteliberaleconomictothestageofdirectedeconomyinordertoacceleratetheeconomicdevelopment,theimportanceoftheroleofInvestmentBankshadstartedtoappearclearlyandtheneedfortheaid

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introducedfromtheinternationalfinancial institutionstosaidbanksin theunderdevelopedcountrieshadraised inorder tosupport theirpotentialsindevelopingthenationaleconomiesandpavingtheproperinvestmentclimate.

ItisworthilymentionedthatthedevelopingfunctionofInvestmentBanks in theemergingeconomies is related to themethodsused tooperate the general productive enterprises as for their flexibility inorganizingaffairsandprocuringtheinvestmentresourcesthroughthefinancialmarket,andisaffectedbythestatusandpositionoftheprivatesectorinthesociety,inadditiontotheimportantroleindevelopingandsupportingtheprivatesectorespeciallyinthefieldofsmallandmediumindustriestoreachtheoptimumeconomicvolumewhichrealizetheeconomicandadministrativeabundances.

TheInvestmentBankalsoplaysaneffectiveroleinparticipatingintheestablishmentofthejointventureprojectsandsupportingthesyndicationoftheirfinancialneedsfromdomestic,regionalandglobalmarkets,andbenefitingfromthetechnologyavailableattheadvancedindustrialinstitutionsthroughvariousformulasofpartnershipand/ortechnicalcooperationwhichthebankparticipatesintheirarrangementsandadoptions.

2.2. Financing FunctionConceptsTheInvestmentBanksextendfinancetotheprojectsreposingon

abaseoffinancialresources;mainlytheirsharecapital,mediumandlong terms loans received, deposits attracted in different currenciesfrombothlocalandforeignmarketsandissuanceofbondsofferedforpublicsubscriptionandcoveredbythecommercialbanksandotherfinancialinstitutions.

Thefinancing function is themost important functions of theInvestmentBankswhereastheyextendfinancetodifferentpurposesthusenablingprojectstoobtainthefixedassetselementsincludingbuildings,machineries,andequipments,andalsothenecessaryworkingcapitalrepresentedinrawmaterials,operatingrequirementsandformingthefull-manufacturedwarehoused.

Financemay take a direct formor indirect one through eitherthe guarantees introducedby the bank to anotherfinancial instituteextendingtheloanfortheprojectortothesuppliersofmachineries,equipmentsandcontractors.Saidindirectfinanceisrelatedtothebank’sissuanceofdocumentarycreditsandacceptanceofbills,chequesandothersecurities.

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Thefinancingroleextendstothegrantingofcreditfacilitiesagainstdiscountingbills,purchasingdebts,financialleasing,financingforeigntrades andproviding the temporary needs of liquidity for coveringdeficitsthatmayarisesometimesintheproject’scashposition.

DeterminantsTwobasicmethodologies appeared in the progressed capitalist

communitiesaboutmediumandlongtermbankingfinance;•the first methodology representedtheBritishbanksconceptsby

whichthecommercialbanksactivitieswererestrictedatextendingtheshorttermloansasthemainportionoftheirresourcesformedbycurrentandsavingdepositswhichbanksmustnothazard in the investmentfieldsavertinginterestratefluctuationseffectsthatmayhappenonthelongrun,sinceincreasinginterestratesleadstodecreasethesecuritiesvaluesiftheirreturnislessthansuchaninterestrate,andviceversa;decreasinginterestratesleadstoincreasethesecuritiesvaluesiftheirreturnismorethantheinterestrate[7].Also,banks’investmentsinstocksofindustrialprojectsconnectdestinyofsaidinvestmentstotheperformanceandsuccessofsaidprojectsaswellastheconditionsoftheindustry,whereifsuchindustrywitnessedacrisis,thefinancialassetsacquiredbyinvestingpartofdepositors’fundswouldberegressed.

•The second methodology adoptedgenerallybythemajorityoftheEuropeanbanks,whichallowedbankstoparticipateinfinancingthelong-terminvestmentsonthecontrarytotheBritishbanks,henceitisattributedtodifferenceofstageofeconomicgrowth.InBritain,eventhoughtheindustrywasestablishedearlierthanotherEuropeancountries,volumesofprojectsweredevelopedslowly, thusenabledtheseprojectstoreceivethelongtermfinancingrequirementseasilybasedontheirself-resourcesandtheavailablereservesandaccumulatedprofits. It also helped the existence of a banking system extendedprojectswith theworkingcapitalneeded tofinance their increasingactivities.Hence,theneedformedium&longtermslendingspecializedinstitutionsdidnotappearexceptattheendof19thCentury,whenthevolumeofindustrialunitsenlargedandtransferredfromtheindividualinstitutionsintothejointstockones.ThisdevelopmentwasfollowedbyappearanceoftheInvestmentBanksandIssuanceIncorporationstoextendthefundsnecessaryfortheinvestmentpurposestotheinvestmentprojectsthroughissuingstocksandbonds.

On the difference of the economic development stage and itsrelationtotheroleofbankingfinance;inGermany,FranceandBelgium,the industrialgrowthcameafterBritain,and thematterwasclearlyreflectedonthefinancingroleoftheirbanksascomparedtotheBritish

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banksrole.TheEuropeanBanksdidnotcomplywiththebankingsysteminBritainasforrestrictionofthecommercialbanks’short-termfinance,buttheyexpandedtheirrolesinextendingthemediumandlong-termfinancetothegrowingindustries.

InGermany,whichdevelopeditsgrowingindustrythroughapplyingthecustomprotectionasseemedasuitablearrangementfordevelopingtheGermannationaleconomy,theexplanationofthedifferenceoftheeconomicdevelopmentstageappearedthroughouttheGermanbanksrushedtosupporttheindustrialunitsinordertofinanceconstructionsandexpansionstoacceleratethedevelopmentprocess.

AsforthetightlinkagebetweenthefinancingroleofInvestmentBankswithinliberalmarketeconomyandmethodsofitsoperation,itisnotedthatattheprimarystagesofcapitalismdevelopments,allowedtheeconomicunitstopracticeitsactivitiesandcompetewithoutdirectinterference of the government.Thiswas the general policy of theBritisheconomyduringthe19thCenturyuntil theFirstWorldWar,whichreflecteduponbanksactivitieswhichwentintocompetitionstoattractdepositsandrequiredhighlykeennessontheliquidityfactorandfurtherconcentrationonthequick-liquidatedshorttermlending.

AstheBritishcapitalismhaddevelopedfromlibertycapitalismtoarestrictedoneunderinfluencesoftheeconomiccrisis,thegovernmentalinterferenceincreasedandmethodsofoperatingtheBritisheconomywas changed.The changewas reflected on the banks’ investmentpolicies as fromconsidering the “loan liquidity” its ability of self-liquidation,tothepossibilityoftransferringsuchaloantotheCentralBankoranyotherfinancialinstitution.Hence,therelativeimportanceoflongtermlendingincreasedfortheBritishBanksasaresultofsaidnotions,whichdominatedthefinancialmarketandallowedrealizationofassetsliquidityuponneeded.

Ontheotherhand, it is remarkable that thecrisiswitnessedbytheEuropeanBanksreflectedtherelationbetweentheirfinancingroleandmethodofoperatingthenationaleconomy.Casesofinsolvencyfacedbysomebankswerenotonlyattributedtoexpansioninextendingcreditsbutalsotolackofsupportbythecentralbanksandabsenceofactiveeconomicpolicies.Therefore,thegreatdepressionwasfollowedbytransformationofthefreecapitalismintoarestrictedonewhenthegovernmentinterferedintheeconomicactivities.ThisroleextendedtothefinancingroleoftheEuropeanbanksactivitiesaslegislationswereissuedtoorganizetheirparticipationsinthelongterminvestments.Alargenumberofspecializedandinvestmentbankswereincorporatedandpracticed their activities in thefield ofmediumand long termlending.

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2.3. Controlling FunctionConceptsThisfunctionistobepracticedthroughfollowingupprojectswithin

theimplementationstageonboththefinancialandmateriallevels,inordertoconfirmthatprojectimplementationisappliedaccordingtothesettimetable,planedstandards,andwithinfinancialcreditslimitsmentionedinthestudiespreparedabouttheproject.

Saidcontrolaimsatdiscoveringanyproblemsmayfacetheprojectduringitsimplementationstageinordertosuggestmeansofsettlementwhicheliminatebarrierswithoutcausinganyharmfuleffectsontheproject.The followingupprocessalsoaimsatconfirmingsafetyofimplementing agreements of loans and reducing risks of the creditextendedtotheproject.Moreover,theproject’sfollowupcontinuesduring the stage of operation to assure its capability to fulfill itsobligationseasily.

Also comes under the controlling function; settlement of theproblemsthatmayexposetheprojecttofailureordestructionifnotsolved,throughprovidingthesoundmanagementandproperliquidity.Thissupportshapedindifferentdimensionsandmethods,toppedbysupporting themanagement, reschedulingdebts,alleviatingburdensofinterestandintroducingthefinancial,technicalandadministrativecooperationtoprotectitagainstinsolvency.

DeterminantsThecontrollingfunctionofInvestmentBankunderthefreemarket

economy regime is deeply related to the philosophy and operatingmethodsofsaidregime,sincethegoverningbehaviorsofallprivateestablishmentsaswellasbanksaimatrealizingthemaximumavailableprofitrateinadditiontoassuringitsfundssafety.Accordingly,thelongtermloansextendedaccordingtothefactorofcommercialprofitability,afterconfirmingtheeconomical,technicalandfinancialfeasibilityoftheproject required tobefinancedaswellas itsability to fulfill itsobligations.ThecontrollingroleoftheInvestmentBankistofollowuptheextendedfinancetillrepaymentisfinalized.

In addition to confirming the financed project ability to facerepaymentofloansinstallmentsandinterests,performanceofthefollowupprocessaimsalsoatdoingconsequentevaluationtotheprojecttoavertaggravationofaccidentalproblemsandtocontroltheseproblems.ThecontrollingfunctionofInvestmentBankontheextendedfinancerequiresthecontinuedassureoftheproject’scommitmenttothedrawnbases,useofresourcesaccordingtosetpurposesandthatthefinancial

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resultsaresatisfactoryandreasonable,inadditiontodiscoveringanyshortageinimplementationoroperationandlookingforthecorrectiveprocedures.

Thus, targets of practicing the controlling function at the banklevelunder the freemarketsystemdidnotgobeyondprotectionofitseconomicinterest,thematterwhichcoincidedwiththephilosophygoverningbehaviorsofestablishmentsinthisregard.

ThecontrollingfunctionoftheInvestmentBankinthesocialistsystemrelatedtothemethodofplanningandoperatingtheeconomicregime.Thegeneral planswere divided intomaterial andfinancialdetailedplansandtheeconomicproductiveunitswerecommittedtotheirimplementation.Thus,theInvestmentBank,undersuchregime,hadpracticeditscontrollingfunctiononperformanceoftheprojectstowhichitextendsfinanceasforitsshareofthegeneralfinancingplan,inadditiontoitsplannedfinancingfunction,whichvariedaccordingtomethodofoperatingthesocialistregime.Iftheappliedsystemwasthecompetitivesocialism,participationofeachbankinimplementingthefinancingplanissubordinatedtothenon-centralizedmethod,whileiftheappliedmethodwastherulingsocialism,afinancialplaneshouldbepresentedforeachprojecttocommittoitsimplementationundercontrolofthebankwhichextendsonitsbasistherequiredfinance.Hence,thebankbecameresponsibleforthedirectcontroloverperformanceoftheprojectwiththepurposeofassuringtargetsrealizationofthematerialplanattheduetimes.

Coincidingwith themethod of non-centralization in realizingthe total targets of thefinancial and economicplans, control of thebankingfinanceaimingatachievingthenationaleconomycamethroughaffectingthevolumeofcreditextendedbyotherbankstotheprojects.TheCentralBankobtaineditsabilityindirectinfluenceonthetotalcreditofferedfromitsdistinguishedlendingposition.Bank’scontrolover theprojectsdealingwith it,was limitedandpracticed throughconcentratingdealingsoftheprojectwiththebankwhichfolloweduptheuseofcreditinitspurposesinordertoknowandtoovercomeanydifficulties.

Successandefficiencyofbanks,aswellasthefinancialmarketingeneral,dependonmanyotherfactorsratherthananefficientbankingsystemandactivefinancialsector;suchas:

theexistenceofproperlevelofsaverswhoareabletolendthe•varioustypesofsavingchannelsagainsttheproperreturnoffundstheyarecollecting;

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the availability of suitable investment climate, including•efficiency of the national economy infrastructure and theadequacyofinvestmentlegislations;theexistenceofsecurityandsafetynecessaryforencouraging•organizerstoinvestwithincleartargetsrequiredtobeachievedfromthenewinvestments;the availability of scaled employment and sufficient•experience;thesufficientlevelofthedemandofthenewproducts.•

bibliography:DiamondW.,DevelopmentBanks,AWorldBankPublication,1.The JohnsHopkinsUniversity Press,BaltimoreMaryland2004.FrostJ.,HagerD.J.;AGeneral Introduction toInstitutional2. Investment, Institute&Faculty ofActuaries, 3rdEdition,Heinemann,London,UK,2002.Georgescu–GolosoiuL.;BusinessofBanking,Partone&3. two,EdituraASE,Bucharest,Romania,2003.GitmanL.J., JoehnkM.D.; Fundamentals of Investing, 74. th Edition,AddisonWesleyLongman,Inc.,2000.HicksJ.;CapitalandGrowth,OxfordPress,UK,1965.5. KochT.W.,MacDonaldS.S.;BankManagement,4thEdition,6.TheDrydenPress,HarcourtCollegePublishers,USA,2006.Mishkin F. S.; The Economics ofMoney, Banking, and7.FinancialMarkets,6thEdition,AddisonWesleyWorldStudentSeries,USA,2004.***;TheLawoftheCentralBank,theBankingSector,and8. MoneypromulgatedbyLawNo.88for2003.***;TheExecutiveRegulationsoftheLawoftheCentralBank,9.theBankingSector,andMoney,promulgatedbyPresidentialDecreeNo.101for2004.***;TheFormationoftheCoordinatingCouncil,promulgated10.byPresidentialDecreeNo.17for2005.

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tatiana manole, PhD., Technical University of Moldova

FINANŢAREA ÎNVĂŢĂMâNTULUI – O STRATEGIE IMpORTANTĂ A STATULUI

In this article the author examines the problem of financing of public education. Several factors are indicated here, such as the demografic, economic, political and social factors, which lead to the drawth of the public expences for education. There can be identified the soures af financing of the public education: financing from the state , s budget and from the local budgets, and from other sources as well. The money spent on education are considered to be intelectual investments. This article treats the problem of calculation, the efficiency of spending money in the field of education.

Instituţiiledeînvăţământgeneralsuntbazasistemuluiînvăţământuluipublicalţării.Elepunfundamentulcunoştinţelor,careserveştedreptbazăpentruridicareademaideparteaniveluluidecunoaştereşiamăiestrieiprofesionale a tineretului în instituţiile superioare de învăţământ şiînşcolileprofesional-tehnice.Delacalitateaînvăţământuluigeneraldepindenunumaisuccesulînvăţământuluiînşcoalasuperioarăşimediedespecialitate,darşiutilizareaeficientăainvestiţiilorbugetareînsferaînvăţământului.Deaceiasferaînvăţământuluipublicesteundomeniuprioritaralstatuluicareestecointeresatsăcreascăogeneraţiecultă,înaltcalificatăcarearficapabilăsăseincludăînviaţasocial-economică.

Dezvoltarea învăţământului se realizează în concordanţă cucerinţelediferiteloretapedeevoluţieeconomico-socialăşicuaccesulegal la instruirea tuturormembrilor societăţii. Învăţământul estechematsăcontribuieîntr-omăsurădinceîncemaimarelaprogresuldeansamblualsocietăţii.

Creşterea cheltuielilor publice pentru învăţământ se datoreazăacţiunii a maimultor factori: demografici, economici, sociali,politici.

Factoriidemograficiconduclacreştereapopulaţieiaantrenatînmodfirescsporireapopulaţieişcolare.

Dezvoltareaeconomică,sporireaşidiversificareacapitaluluifixşi circulant, ca urmare amodernizării şi perfecţionării proceselortehnologice,aureclamatoforţădemuncăînaltcalificată.Aceastasepoateobţineînbazaunuispordevolumdecheltuielipentruînvăţământ,orientatecătreperfecţionarea forţeidemuncă.Creştereaeconomică

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oferă posibilităţimaimari de finanţare a învăţământului. Factoriisocialişipolitici suntşieioforţăinfluentăasupraspoririifinanţăriiînvăţământului.

Instituţiileînvăţământuluipublicaparţininstituţiilorbugetare.Ele,deregulă,nuauvenituripropriişitoatemijloacelebăneştinecesarepentru acoperirea cheltuielilor sunt finanţate din buget, care esteprincipalasursădefinanţareaînvăţământuluipublicgeneral:învăţământpreşcolar,primar,scolideculturăgenerală,licee,gimnazii.

Dezvoltareaeconomieicaurmareamodernizăriişiperfecţionăriiproceselor tehnologice, reclamă forţădemuncăcalificată, carecerepregătirecomplexă.Încondiţiileactualesecertotmaimulteinvestiţiiîncapitaluluman.

Finanţareaînvăţământuluiseefectueazăînfuncţiedestructuralui.Înconformitatecu„Clasificaţiafuncţionalăacheltuielilorbugetare”sistemul învăţământului în RepublicaMoldova are următoareastructură:

Grupa principală Grupa învăţământul

6 01 Învăţământpreşcolar6 02 Învăţământprimar6 03 Învăţământsecundar6 04 Învăţământsuperior6 05 Învăţământpostuniversitar

6 06 Cursuri şi instituţii de perfecţionare acadrelor

6 07 Instituţiişiserviciiîndomeniulînvăţământuluineatribuitelaaltegrupuri

6 08 Învăţământmediudespecialitate6 10 Organeadministrative

Potrivit clasificaţieiUNESCO, diferitele niveluri şi tipuri deînvăţământ se grupează astfel: preşcolar, primar, secundar superiorşi alte tipuri de învăţământ. La rândul său învăţământul secundarcuprinde: învăţământ secundar general (gimnazii,licee), învăţământsecundartehnic,profesional,pedagogic,postliceal.Înafarafinanţăriidiferitelorunităţişigradedeînvăţământ,încadrulacestorcheltuielisecuprindşiuneleacţiunipeliniaeducaţieideînvăţământ,cumarfi:

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doctoratul, acţiuni pe linia educaţiei permanente,concursuri,tabereşcolareşiexcursiiş.a.

Finanţareacheltuielilorpentruînvăţământserealizeazădindiferite surse şianume:bugetulstatului,taxeleşcolare,împrumuturile,donaţiile,subvenţiiledinparteaunorsocietăţicomerciale,veniturileprovenitedinexploatareaproprietăţiloraparţinândinstituţiilordeînvăţământsaudinactivităţiprestatedeterţi.

Resursele publicepentruînvăţământpotfialocateatâtdinbugetulstatului,câtşidinbugetelelocale,înfuncţiedeorganizareacentralizatăsaudescentralizatăaînvăţământuluişidesubordonareainstituţiilordeînvăţământ.

ÎnRomânia,cheltuielilepentruînvăţământsefinanţeazădinbugetuladministraţieicentraledestat,deregulăprinintermediulMinisteruluiEducaţiei,CercetăriişiTineretuluişidinbugetelelocaleprinintermediulconsiliilor judeţene, precum şi a primăriei generale amunicipiuluiBucureşti,primăriilormunicipale,orăşeneştişicomunale.

S-au experimentat opinii potrivit cărora întreprinderile, cabeneficiarealecadrelorpregătite înşcoli, săparticipecuunanumitimpozitlaformareafondurilordestinatefinanţăriiînvăţământuluidecătre autoritatea publică.Dar indiferent de subiecţii participanţi lafinanţareaînvăţământului,statultrebuiesă-şiasumeroluldeorganizatoralînvăţământului,darşisăpreiaasuprasasarcinaacopeririicheltuielilordeînvăţământnecesare.Înacestecondiţii, instituţiiledeînvăţământprivate ar putea beneficia de subvenţii de la buget şi s-ar afla subcontrolulnemijlocitalstatului.CercetăriledinRomâniaauînregistratşi soluţiidemijloc,conformcăroracheltuielilepentru învăţământulelementarsăfiesuportateintegraldinresursepublice,iarcelepentruînvăţământul secundar şi superior, precum şi pentru alte forme depregătireacadrelorsăfiesuportateîntr-oanumităproporţiedesectorulparticularprinintermediulunuiimpozitcuafectaţiespecială,carevafidimensionatînfuncţiedenumărulpersonalului,graduldecalificarealacestuiaşiroluleconomicalîntreprinderii.

Înprezent,bugetulstatuluireprezintăprincipalasursădefinanţarea învăţământului înRepublicaMoldova, ca de altfel în toate ţărilelumii,ceeacereflectăimportanţadeosebităacordatăacestuidomeniualvieţiisociale.

Edemenţionat,căîneconomiadepiaţăexistădouătipurideunităţideînvăţământ:publice,finanţatedelabugetuldestatşibugetelelocale,precumşiinstituţiideînvăţământ particulare sau private,carepotfiindependentesauparţialsubvenţionatedecătrestat.

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ÎnRepublicaMoldova,înperioadatranziţieilaeconomiadepiaţă,pelângăînvăţământulpublicaluatamploareînvăţământulprivat,înspeciallanivelulînvăţământuluisuperior.

Astfel, în Republica Moldova, în anul de studii 2006/2007 au activat 31 de instituţii de învăţământ superior, inclusiv publice – 17 şi private – 12, trei fiind de altă natură ( cu finanţare mixtă).

Populaţia participă la finanţarea învăţământului înmoddirect,prinintermediultaxelorşcolare,darmaiefectueazăşialtecheltuielipentruîntreţinereaextraşcolarăaelevilor,studenţilor,respectivpentrutransport,chiriiş.a.

Întreprinderileefectueazăcheltuielipentruînvăţământatuncicândorganizeazăcursuridepregătireprofesională,decalificareasalariaţilorsauviitorilorangajaţi.

De fapt, politica statului în învăţământ trebuie să ţină cont de faptul că cadrele pregătite se pot angaja în întreprinderile private, de aceea un impozit de şcolarizare pus asupra venitului întreprinderilor trebuie să existe. statului îi rămas să decidă asupra cotei de impozitare.

Cheltuielilepentruînvăţământmaipotfifinanţateprindonaţiisaualteformedeajutorcepotfiprimitedeunităţiledeînvăţământdinparteaunor întreprinderi, firme, fundaţii, societăţi de binefacere.Ajutorulexternîndomeniulfinanţăriiînvăţământuluideţineooarecareponderedintotalulsurselordefinanţare.Aceastaîmbracăformasubvenţiilordirecte,avemînvederebursepentruceicarevorplecasă înveţe înaltestate,aîmprumuturilor,afinanţărilorsausereferălatrimiterideexperţi,cadredidactice, tehnicieni,orichiaruneleresursematerialenecesareînvăţământului.

O altă sursă de finanţare a învăţământului poate fi obţinută prin Cooperarea internaţională, care a luat în perioada contemporanăo mare amploare. organizaţiile internaţionale şi principalele statedezvoltate consacră omare parte din bugetul lor asistenţei tehnice.În ciuda acestui efort, rezultatele sunt totuşi limitate, exact ca şi îndomeniuleconomic.Cooperareapoatefimultilaterală,organizatădeoinstituţieinternaţionalăsaubilaterală,delaţarălaţară.Sursafonduriloresteîngeneralguvernamentală,deoareceinstituţiileinternaţionalesuntfinanţateprincontribuţiilestatelormembre.

ÎnRepublicaMoldova,cheltuielilepentruînvăţământcapondereînPIBauevaluatdupăcumurmează:

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În2004–10,2%dinPIB;În2005-11,5%dinPIB;În2006-11,7%dinPIB;În2007-12,8%dinPIB;În2008-13,0%dinPIB;În2009-13,1%dinPIB;În2010-13,5%dinPIB.Dacă ne referim la total cheltuieli socio-culturale în PIB ele

alcătuiesccorespunzător:2004-22%;2005-24%;2006-25,8%;2007-27,5%;2008–27,9%;2009–27,9%;2010-28,0%.1

ÎnRomânia ,înperioadadetranziţie,cheltuielilepentruînvăţământdeţincirca25%încadrulcheltuielilorpentruacţiunisocial-culturale,lucrucereflectăloculînvăţământuluiîncadrulacestoracţiuni.

Datoritănecesităţiloractualedereorganizareaînvăţământuluidinstatulnostru,pelângăcheltuielilefinanţateprinbugetulMinisteruluiEducaţieişiTineretului,serecomandăacreafonduribăneştispecialeanuale pentru învăţământ, alimentate din venituri ale instituţiilorde învăţământ: taxedeadmitere, regiedecămin şi cantină, taxedeşcolarizaredelacetăţeniistrăini,venituridinactivitateaînvăţământului,cucercetareaştiinţifică,producţiaşiprestareadeserviciietc.ÎnRomâniaacestefondurisuntcreateîncepândcuanul1993.

Înconcluzie,învăţământulfiindunserviciudeinterespublic,estefinanţatpeseamaîncasărilorgeneralealestatului,înspecialpeseamaimpozitelorşimaipuţinpeseamaîmprumuturilor.

Nivelul resurselor alocate învăţământului depinde de mai mulţi factori:niveluldedezvoltarea ţării,urgenţaaltornevoieconomiceşisocialeetc.Încadrulunuibugetdat,creştereacheltuielilorpentruînvăţământpoateavealocnumaiîndetrimentulaltorsectoare,cumsunt:sănătatea,serviciisocialeş.a.,caresuntdeasemeneaimportante.

Uniiautoriaupropuscaînalocarearesurselorpentruînvăţământsă aplice criteriul obişnuit al investiţiei intelectuale, şi anume, ratarentabilităţii.Investiţiaînînvăţământsefaceînmanieradeamaximizaraportuldintrebeneficiişicosturipetermenlung,înaşafelîncâtacestraport săfiesuperioraltor investiţii economiceşi socialeEvaluareacosturilorridicăproblemepuţineînraportcuevaluareabeneficiilor,iardinpunctdevederepractic,statisticilenuoferădatedespreacesteevaluări,ceeacelefaceinutilizabile.

Alţiautorisugereazăafireţinutdreptcriteriuînalocarearesurselorpentruînvăţământ,unanumitprocentdinprodusulinternbrut.Ideea

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estecă,ţărilesituatelaunanumitniveldedezvoltarepotsăfacăunefortmaimarepentrudezvoltareaînvăţământului;limitaminimăaacestuiefort,recomandatăpeplaninternaţional,estede4%.

Cheltuielile de educaţie în raport cu PIB în Republica Moldova în anul 2006 constituie 8,10%. În Ţările europei de sud est – 3,80%; În Ţările europei Centrale şi Ţările Baltice – 5,580%.2

Comparaţiile internaţionale sunt foarte dificile din cauzaeterogenităţiistatisticilor.Întreproblemelecareintervinînacestsenssenumărăşifaptulcănivelulcheltuielilorpentrueducaţienuestecunoscutcuprecizie,ignorându-seîngeneralsumainvestiţiilorînînvăţământulprivat.Deasemenea,definireacheltuielilorpubliceesteeaînsăşiincertă.Îngeneral,nuseţineseamadecâtdebugetulMinisteruluiEducaţieişiTineretului,daracestanureprezintăsingurulbugetpentruînvăţământ.Alteministereauresponsabilitateaşcolilorsaucentrelordeformarespeciale,cumsuntMinisterulSănătăţii,MinisterulMunciişiProtecţieiSociale,MinisterulAgriculturii şiAlimentaţiei Publice,MinisterulApărăriiNaţionale etc. În plus, bugetulMinisteruluiEducaţiei şiTineretuluinucuprindeaceleaşiposturiîntoateţările.

Oaltădificultateacomparaţiilorinternaţionaleoreprezintăajutorulextern.Existenţaacestuia,permite(teoretic)uneiţări,săalocemaipuţineresursepentrueducaţie;defapt,ţărileîncauzăefectueazăcheltuielianexecarepotfilafeldeimportanteprecum:contribuţialacheltuieliledeasistenţătehnică,cheltuieliledefuncţionareauniversităţilor.Înuneleţări,ajutorulexternesteînglobatînbugetulnaţional,iaruneorinusecunoaştesumaexactăaacestorcheltuielidindiverseraţiuni.Comparaţiaestedeformatădacăoţarăindicăsumatotalăacheltuielilornaţionalepentruînvăţământ,iaraltanumaiajutorulexternprimit.

Dificultăţilenusuntmaipuţineatuncicândseraporteazăprodusulinternbrutşipondereapecareoaucheltuielilepentruînvăţământînacesta.Modeleledecalculdiferă,demaimulteori,delaoţarălaalta,înmoduldedeterminareaprodusuluiinternbrut.

Având în vedere toate aceste considerente, putemafirma că, laoraactualănuexistăuncriteriugeneralpentruadeterminaproporţiaoptimădinPIBdestinatăînvăţământului.Procentulde4%pecarel-auindicatconferinţeleinternaţionalealeUNESCOnusemnificăabsolutnimic.Înacelaşitimp,nuputemsăafirmămcăsuntinutilecomparaţiileinternaţionale.Elesemnificătotuşiposibilităţilefiecăruistatînparte.Fiecare stat trebuie sa-şifixeze în funcţiede condiţiile saleproprii,limitelefinanciare ale bugetului său şi repartiţia dorită între efortulpublicşiefortulprivat.

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Cheltuielile pentru învăţământ reprezintă de fapt, investiţii intelectuale. Investiţia intelectuală derivă din existenţa capitaluluiintelectual.Capitalul intelectualnu se realizeazăprinprocurareademijloacedeproducţie,ciprinacţiunideînvăţământcaredauindividuluiposibilitateasă-ivalorificeîncondiţiimaibunemoştenireasagenetică,aptitudinile,capacitateademuncă.Perioadadeobţinereaefectelorîncazulinvestiţiilorintelectualecoincidecuviaţaactivăaomului(35-40ani),pecândinvestiţiilematerialedureazămaipuţinde10ani.Înprezent,înRepublicaMoldova, ca şi înRomânia, în afarapregătiriirealizatelanivelnaţional,prinşcoală,foartepuţineîntreprinderiacordăimportanţacuvenităformăriiprofesionalelaloculdemuncă.

Privite ca investiţii, cheltuielile pentru învăţământ, fac necesitatea calculării eficienţei lor .Pentruaceasta,estenecesarsăcunoaştemelementelecareodetermină:efortul şi efectele, respectiv costul şi beneficiile.

Costurileconţinresurselealocateînvăţământuluidinbugetsaualtefonduri,cheltuielileindirecte,lipsadecâştig,cheltuielilefamiliilorş.a.

Beneficiile aduse de învăţământ (evaluate cu ajutorulmetodeiprofilulvîrstă-câştig,conformcăreiaseconsiderăcăpemăsuracreşteriigraduluideinstruireşicalificare,anumăruluideanideşcoală,crescşicâştigurilerealizate),suntechivalentecusumaveniturilorsuplimentaredatorateînvăţământului,calculatepetoatăperioadavieţiiactive.Cualtecuvinte,eforturilesuntidentificatecucheltuieliledeinvestiţiicareincludatâtcheltuielilepropriu-zisedeînvăţământ,câtşicheltuielilepentruîntreţinereaşifuncţionareaunităţilordeînvăţământ(cheltuielicurente)alăturideeforturilefăcutedeagenţieconomici,deorganizaţiisaudepopulaţiepentruînvăţământ.

Dimensionareacheltuielilorpentruînvăţământsefaceînfuncţiedeoseriedeelementespecificereferitoarelacontingenteleşcolare(copiii,elevii,studenţiicuprinşiînsistemuldeînvăţământalanuluirespectiv),costulunitarpeformeşiunităţideînvăţământ,norme,normativeşialteinstrumentefinanciare cu ajutorul cărora se fundamentează anumitecategorii de cheltuieli (burse,salarii,contribuţii).Cu caracterorientativse foloseşte şi execuţia cheltuielilor pentru învăţământdinperioadaprecedentă,înscopulevidenţieriielementelorşisituaţiilornoi,specificeperioadei prezente. ÎnRepublicaMoldova laplanificarebugetară seutilizeazăCadruldeCheltuielipeTermenMediu(planificareacheltuielilorbugetarepetreianiconsecutivi,ultimiidoianifiinddeprognoză).

Expresiaceamaisinteticăaeficienţeieconomiceacheltuielilorpentru învăţământ o reprezintă contribuţia acestora la creştereaeconomică.Celelalte efecte sociale, culturale, politice, umane sunt

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practic incomensurabile.Aceste efecte vizează judecata şi poziţiaoamenilorfaţădefenomenelepoliticeşieconomice.

Eficienţaeconomicăacheltuielilorpentruînvăţământsedeterminăatâtlanivelmacroeconomiccîtşilanivelmicroeconomic.

Pentru determinarea unui coeficient al eficienţei economice a cheltuielilor pentru învăţământ, câtmai corect şi real, trebuie caîncalcule să se ţină seamadeconcordanţa între sferaefectelor şi aeforturilor,derespectareadecalajuluiîntimpcareexistăîntreperioadaefectuăriicheltuielilorpentruînvăţământşiperioadaobţineriisporuluidePIBcaefectalacestorcheltuieli.Acestcoeficientpoateaveaunnivelsubunitar(cazîncareindicăefectuareaunorcheltuielimaimaridecâtrezultateleobţinute)sausupraunitar,arătândcălaounitatemonetarăcheltuităpentru învăţământ s-aobţinutunPIBmaimare.Creştereaeficienţeieconomicesepoateconstatacomparândastfel,coeficienţiicalculaţiladiferiteintervaledetimp.

Un alt indicator de eficienţă îl reprezintă şi” termenul de recuperare al cheltuielilor de învăţământ”.

Termenulderecuperarearatăperioadadetimp(ani,luni),încarecheltuielileefectuatepentrupregătireacadrelorsuntreconstituitedinsporuldevenitnaţionalobţinut.Calcululacestuiindicator,respectândcondiţiilearătateconduce laobţinereaunuinivel redusalperioadeiderecuperareacheltuielilorpentruînvăţământ,comparativcucelalinvestiţiilormateriale.

Eficienţacheltuielilorpentruînvăţământpoatefiurmărităcubunerezultate şi lanivelulmicroeconomic, în acest caz indicatoriifiindreprezentaţide cheltuielile medii pe indicator specific.

Calcululşianalizaacestorindicatoripefelurideînvăţământşiladiferiteunităţideînvăţământdeacelaşifel,conducelauneleconcluziicaresădirecţionezeactivitateadeplanificareacheltuielilor.

Înactivitateadestabilireaniveluluicheltuielilorpentruînvăţământ,organeleMinisteruluiFinanţelorutilizeazăastfeldecheltuielimediipeindicator,maialesînfazadeanalizăapropunerilorprezentatedeunitateadeînvăţământ.Folosireaacestuiindicatorpermiteidentificareaacelor cheltuieli care au un nivel exagerat, ceea ce dovedeşte şi oplanificarenaţionalăşineeconomicoasăalor.

FinanţareaînvăţământuluiînRepublicaMoldovacaşiînRomâniaînperioadacontemporana,dezvoltareasaridicăproblemecumarfi:resursele alocate învăţământului trebuie săfiemaibineutilizate iarcreşterealornuesingurulmoddearealizaobiectiveleeconomiceşisocialealepoliticiinaţionale.

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Învăţământulnueoindustriecaresperă,dupăuntermenmailungsaumai scurt, să reintre înposesia fondurilorde peurmavânzăriiproduselorsale. în învăţământ, cheltuielile au un caracter definitiv, iar investiţia intelectuală are o viaţă mult mai lungă decât investiţia materială.Beneficiile obţinute de pe urma investiţiei intelectualeaducavantaje colectivităţii,dacănumaimult, celpuţin la fel ca şiindividului.

Concret,finanţareaînvăţământuluisefacepegradedeînvăţământ,potrivitstructuriiînvăţământului.

ÎnRepublicaMoldova fondurile bugetare sunt îndreptate cuprecăderecătreînvăţământulprimarşisecundar.

Deşicostulestemairidicatînînvăţământulsuperior,elestefinanţatînproporţiemaimică,deoarecesuntintrodusetaxeşcolare.Aceastăpracticăesteutilizatădemajoritateaţărilorlumiilaetapacontemporană.Totodată,înmultestatesuntînfiinţateuniversităţiparticulare,careseîntreţinexclusivcutaxeplătitedestudenţi,astfelcăinstruireasuperioarăşispecializareaprofesionalăsunttotmaimultcondiţionatedevenituripropriialefamiliilor.Deregulă,resurselepublicesuntdestinatepentruacoperireaintegralăsauînparteacheltuielilorcurentealeinstituţiilordeînvăţământ.Împrumuturilesuntfolosite,îngeneral,pentrufinanţareainvestiţiilordeînvăţământ.3

Cheltuielile pentru învăţământ în Republica MoldovaSituaţia recentă a finanţării învăţământului în Republica Moldova

este redată în tabelele de mai jos.Înbazainformaţieidintabelul1constatămcăcheltuielilepentru

serviciilepublice capondere înPIB sunt în creştere, îngeneral, petoatetipurile.EdemenţionatcăpondereaceamaimareînPIBodeţincheltuielilepentruînvăţământ,alcătuinddela4,7%în1999la8,44%înanulbugetar2006.Aceeaşitendinţăestemenţionatăşilacreştereaponderiicheltuielilorpentrusănătatedela2,9%înanul1999la3,84%înanulbugetar2006.Această tendinţă seobservă şi la alte serviciipublice(vezitabelul1).

Cheltuielilebugetuluiconsolidatpentruasigurărisocialeşisecuritatesocialăînanul1999aualcătuit3,8%dinPIB.Înaniiurmătoriseobservăoscădere,ajungândla2,8%în2004,camaiapoisăseînregistrezeocreşteresubstanţialăpânăla3,46%înanulbugetar2006.

Analizacheltuielilorpublicedupăcategoriaeconomică(ca%înPIB)nedemonstreazăcacheltuielileBugetuluiAsigurărilorSocialedeStatreprezintăceamaimarecontribuţielacheltuielileînacestsector,ajungândla8,25%dinPIBîn2007(vezitabelul3).

64

Revista economică

che

ltuie

lile

Bug

etul

ui d

e st

at şi

Bug

etul

ui u

at(a

nual

e) p

entr

u se

rvic

ii (c

a %

din

PIb

)Ta

belu

l 1.

Nr.

Indi

cato

ri

1999

2000

2001

2002

2003

2004

2005

2006

2007(estimat)

2008(progn.)

2009(progn.)

2010(progn.)

1.Serviciipublice

1,8

1,9

1,8

1,9

1,8

1,9

2,44

2,38

2,36

xx

x

2.Apărare

0,5

0,4

0,4

0,4

0,4

0,4

0,41

0,49

0,45

xx

x

3.Ordinepublicăşi

securitate

1,7

1,6

1,6

2,1

1,9

1,7

2,02

2,28

2,30

xx

x

4.Educaţie

4,7

4,5

4,8

5,5

5,4

6,8

7,28

8,44

7,84

8,4

7,9

7,7

5.Sănătate

2,9

2,9

2,8

3,5

3,4

4,2

3,48

3,84

3,60

5,8

6,1

6,0

6.Asigurareso

cială

şisecuritatesocială

3,8

3,8

2,6

2,9

2,7

2,8

3,44

3,46

3,55

xx

x

7.Cultură,artă,sport,

şitineret

0,5

0,5

0,5

0,6

0,6

0,7

0,84

1,16

0,87

xx

x

8.Agricultură,

silviculturăşiape

1,1

1,0

0,3

0,5

0,4

0,5

1,85

1,58

1,63

xx

x

9.Protecţia

mediuluişi

Hidrometeorologia

0,1

0,0

0,0

0,0

0,0

0,0

0,14

0,25

0,24

xx

x

10.

Transpotr,drum

uri,

comunicaţiişi

informatica

0,6

0,6

0,5

0,5

0,5

0,5

0,58

1,36

0,93

xx

x

Surs

a: M

inis

teru

l Fin

anţe

lor

(Dup

ă: E

valu

area

Che

ltuie

lilor

Pub

lice

şi R

espo

nsab

ilită

ţii F

inan

ciar

e: R

apor

t asu

pra

Perf

orm

anţe

i Man

agem

entu

lui

Fina

ncia

r Pub

lic. I

unie

200

6, p

ag.9

).Pe

ntru

ani

i 200

5, 2

006

şi 2

007

calc

ulel

e su

nt e

fect

uate

de

auto

r în

baza

info

rmaţ

iei d

e la

Min

iste

rul F

inan

ţelo

r al R

epub

licii

Mol

dova

.

65

Revista economică

Aceeaşi tendinţă de creştere este şi la Cheltuielile FonduluiAsigurărilorObligatoriideAsistenţăMedicală,reprezentând2,9%dinPIBîn2004,iarînaniiurmătoriavândtendinţădecreştere,ajungândcătreanulbugetar2006la3,44%(vezitabelul2.)

Bass şi FaoaM în republica Moldovaca pondere în PIB

Tabelul 2

Indicatori 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007(estimat)

Venituri:BASS 6,3 6,8 7,3 7,2 7,8 9,86 9,99 9,91

FAOAM x x x n.a. 1,0 3,42 3,58 3,87

CheltuieliBASS 8,3 7,2 8,4 7,9 8,6 10,58 10,06 10,15

FAOAM x x x n.a. 2,9 2,95 3,44 3,87

Sursa: Ministerul Finanţelor (După: Evaluarea Cheltuielilor Publice şi Responsabilităţii Financiare: Raport asupra Performanţei Managementului Financiar Public. Iunie 2006, pag.9).Notă: Pentru anii 2005-2007, calculele, sunt efectuate de autor în baza BASS şi FAOAM, la venituri şi cheltuieli pentru anii respectivi.

Dindateletabelul2constatămcăveniturileBASSnupotacopericheltuielile, care suntmaimari decât veniturile.Astfel, pondereaveniturilorBASSînPIBînanulbugetar2000aualcătuit6,3%,iaracheltuielilor–8,3%,fiindcudouăpuncteprocentualemaimaridecâtveniturile.DeşipondereaveniturilorşiacheltuielilorcapondereînPIBesteîncreştere,totuşidiscrepanţadintreaceştidoiindicatoriexistăîndinamicaanilor2000-2007,fiind, totuşi,maimică.AstfelpondereaveniturilorBASSînPIBînanulbugetar2006aualcătuit9,99%,iaracheltuielilor–10,06%.VeniturileşicheltuielileFAOAMsuntaproapeechilibrate.

Sursa principală a veniturile înBASS şi în FAOAMsunt dincontribuţiileplătitedeangajaţişiangajatori(patroni)şidintransferuridin partea Bugetului de Stat, avândmenirea pentru acoperireacheltuielilorcarenusuntacoperitedinFondurilerespective.

66

Revista economică

che

ltuie

lile

Publ

ice

în r

epub

lica

Mol

dova

du

pă c

onţin

utul

lor

econ

omic

ca

pond

ere

în P

IB, %

Tabe

lul 3

.

Indi

cato

ri20

0020

0120

0220

0320

0420

0520

0620

07(e

stim

at)

2008

(pro

gn.)

2009

(pro

gn.)

2010

(pro

gn.

Plăţisalariale(%

)7,7

8,1

9,5

9,6

7,8

8,0

9,5

9,5

9,7

9,6

9,6

Bunurişiservicii(%)

6,0

6,1

6,9

6,2

7,8

7,7

8,2

10,3

10,3

10,6

10,5

Subvenţii

întreprinderilor(%

)2,1

1,4

1,4

1,6

2,0

2,6

2,4

2,1

1,7

1,6

1,7

Transferuri

persoanelor(%)

8,7

7,9

9,1

8,8

9,7

10,7

11,1

12,2

12,3

12,5

12,9

Dincontribuţiide

asigurărisociale(%

)8,1

7,0

8,1

7,6

8,4

7,82

8,72

8,25

xx

x

Altele(%

)0,6

0,6

0,6

0,5

0,6

0,7

0,8

0,7

0,6

0,6

0,6

Capital(%)

5,0

3,5

5,0

4,6

5,0

6,2

8,0

6,2

5,8

5,0

4,4

Surs

a: M

inis

teru

l Fin

anţe

lor

(Dup

ă: E

valu

area

Che

ltuie

lilor

Pub

lice

şi R

espo

nsab

ilită

ţii F

inan

ciar

e. R

apor

t asu

pra

Perf

orm

anţe

i Man

agem

entu

lui

Fina

ncia

r Pub

lic. I

unie

200

6, p

ag.9

). C

alcu

lele

pen

tru

anii

buge

tari

200

5,20

06,2

007

au fo

st e

fect

uate

de

auto

r în

baza

dat

elor

din

BAS

S pe

ntru

ani

i re

spec

tivi.

Un

inte

res d

eose

bit p

rezi

ntă

anal

iza

chel

tuie

lilor

pub

lice

din

punc

t de

vede

re a

l con

ţinut

ului

lor e

cono

mic

, efe

ctua

tă în

baz

a ta

belu

lui 3

.

67

Revista economică

Edemenţionat,căplăţilepentrusalariiaucrescutanualdin2000cacotăînPIBlafelcaşicheltuielilepentrubunurişiservicii.Transferurilecătrepersoanelefizice(încadrulasigurărilorsociale)constituieadouacategoriedupămărime(cuexcepţiaanului2000cândafostceamaimare).Întabelul3prezentămîndinamicătendinţăacestorplăţi.

DindateletabeluluiconstatămcăplăţilesalarialecapondereînPIBsuntîncreşteredela7,7%înanul2000la9,5%în2006.Menţionămocreştereponderatăşiacheltuielilorpentrubunuri şi serviciide la6,0%înanul2000la8,2%în2006,planificându-seocreşterepentruperioadele următoare. La fel sunt în creştere şi transferurile cătrepersoanedela8,7%în2000la11,1%în2006,cuocreşterelentăînperioadeleurmătoare.

OanalizadetaliataafinanţăriiînvăţământuluipublicpeniveledeinstituţiiprezentămmaijosînbazainformaţieidinsectorulBotanicamun.Chişinăuîndinamicaanilor2003-2007.

Analiza tabelului 4În instituţiipreşcolare (grupa funcţionalădecheltuieli§051din

sector.Botanicamun.Chişinău)cheltuielilepentruRetribuireamunciilaart.111.00,112,116.01aualcătuitcapondereîntotalulcheltuielilorreale/pentruuncopilpentruperioadeleanalizatedupăcumurmeazăîntabelul 4.

Dindatele tabelului constatămcăcheltuielilepentruRetribuireaMuncii(art.111)şicontribuţiileînBASS(art.112)şiprimeledeasigurareobligatoriedeasistenţămedicală(art.116.01)alcătuiescpondereaceamaimareîntotalulcheltuielilorrealeanualpentruuncopil,avândotendinţădecreşteredela43%în2003la48%în2006.

Peloculdoicaponderesuntcheltuielilepentruplatamărfurilorşiserviciilor(art.113şialiniatelecorespunzătoaredinclasificaţiaeconomicăacheltuielilorbugetare),careaualcătuitînanul200336%încheltuieliletotale reale,

Cheltuieliletotalerealecerevinlauncopil,avândapoitendinţedescăderesubstanţială,ajungândînanul2006la19%.Spreanul2007s-aplanificatocreşteredepânăla28%.

Oaltăgrupădecheltuieliîninstituţiilepreşcolaresuntceleceţindeprocurareaderechizitedebirou,materialeşiobiectedeuzgospodăresc(art.113.03)manualematerialedidacticeetc.(art.113.05)cărţişiediţiiperiodice(art. 113.06), reparaţii curente (art. 113.17); procurarea şi instalareacontoarelor (art.113.27),procurareamijloacelorfixe (art.242).Acestecheltuielileechilibreazăîntre3%şi4%peparcursulperioadeianalizate.

68

Revista economică

din

amic

a ch

eltu

ielil

or p

onde

rate

în In

stitu

ţiile

pre

şcol

are

din

sec.

Bot

anic

a, m

un. c

hişi

nău.

Tabe

lul 4

gru

pele

che

ltuie

lilor

func

ţiona

leA

nii

2003

2004

2005

2006

2007

(est

imat

)

§051„Instituţiipreşcolare”,totalcheltuieli

realecerevinlauncopil.

2847,72

3625,97

4238,91

5023,31

5882,26

Inclusiv:Salariul:art.111,112,116,01(%

în

total)cheltuielirealepentruuncopil

43%

43%

47%

48%

46%

Servicii

comunale:art.

113.01;

113.04;

113.34;113.35.(%

)36%

28%

26%

19%

28%

Procurări:art.113.03;113.05;113.06;113.17;

113.27;242.(%).

3%2%

3%4%

4%

Alim

entaţia:art.113.09,(%

)11%

17%

19%

22%

20%

Surs

a: P

retu

ra s

ec B

otan

ica,

Dep

arta

men

tul Î

nvăţ

ămân

t şi T

iner

et.

69

Revista economică

din

amic

a ch

eltu

ielil

or p

onde

rate

în şc

olile

pri

mar

edi

n se

c. B

otan

ica,

min

. chi

şină

u(an

ii 20

03-2

007)

Tabe

lul 5

gru

pa c

heltu

ielil

or fu

ncţio

nale

AN

II

2003

2004

2005

2006

2007

(est

imat

)

§ 05

2 „ş

colil

e pr

imar

e ”,

tot

al c

heltu

ieli

real

e4 , le

i17

94,2

818

91,9

228

01,4

438

19,9

541

09,8

2

la

un e

lev

Incl

usiv

: Sa

lari

ul: a

rt. 1

11; 1

12; 1

16.0

152

%62

%74

%71

%64

%

Serv

icii

com

unal

e:

art.

113.

01;

113.

04;

113.

11; 1

13.3

4; 1

13.3

5.20

%20

%10

%9%

19%

Proc

urăr

i: ar

t. 11

3.03

; 11

3.05

; 11

3.06

; 11

3.17

; 113

.27;

242

6%3%

1%4%

4%

alim

enta

ţia, a

rt. 1

13.0

9.9%

10%

10%

13%

13%

Surs

a: P

retu

ra s

ec B

otan

ica,

Dep

arta

men

tul Î

nvăţ

ămân

t şi T

iner

et.

70

Revista economică

Uncompartimentimportantdecheltuielieste„Alimentaţia”(art.113.09).

Cheltuielilaacestarticolcrescdela11%în2003la22%în2006,cuoreducerelentăcătreanul2007(vezitabelulNr.4).

Pentruaasiguraorganizareaalimentaţieicopiilordininstituţiilepreşcolarepentruanulbugetar2007conformnormeizilniceluateîncalculdeMinisterulFinanţelor,precumşipentruasigurarearespectăriiacesteiade cătrefiecareUAT, cheltuielilepentru acest scop au fostsuplimentatecumijloacepentruacoperireainsuficienţeiacestoraînanul2006.Insuficienţademijloacesaestimatcadiferenţadintrecheltuielilecalculateporninddelanumărulcopiilorincluşiînbugetulpeanul2006(anprecedentdeelaborareabugetului)afiecăreiUAT,numărulunicdeziledealimentaţiepentrufiecareUAT(165zile),normadealimentaţiepezide6leişicheltuieliaprobateînbugetînacestscop.

Analiza tabelului 5.Înşcolileprimare(grupafuncţionalădecheltuieli§052dinsector.

Botanicamun.Chişinău) cheltuielile pentruRetribuireamuncii laart.111.00,112,116.01aualcătuitcapondereîntotalulcheltuielilorreale/pentruuncopilpentruperioadeleanalizatedupăcumurmeazăîn tabelul 5.

DindateletabeluluiconstatămcăcheltuielilepentruRetribuireaMuncii (art. 111) şi contribuţiile înBASS (art. 112) şi primele deasigurare obligatorie de asistenţămedicală (art. 116.01) alcătuiescpondereaceamaimare în totalulcheltuielilor realeanualpentruuncopil,avândotendinţădecreşteredela52%în2003la71%în2006.

Peloculdoicaponderesuntcheltuielilepentruplatamărfurilorşi serviciilor (art. 113 şi aliniatele corespunzătoare din clasificaţiaeconomicăacheltuielilorbugetare),careaualcătuitînanul200320%încheltuieliletotalereale,

Cheltuieliletotalerealecerevinlauncopil,avândapoitendinţedescăderesubstanţială,ajungândînanul2006la9%.Spreanul2007s-aplanificatocreşteredepânăla19%.

Oaltăgrupădecheltuieli înşcolileprimaresuntcelece ţindeprocurareaderechizitedebirou,materialeşiobiectedeuzgospodăresc(art.113.03)manuale,materialedidacticeetc.(art.113.05)cărţişiediţiiperiodice (art. 113.06), reparaţii curente (art. 113.17); procurarea şiinstalareacontoarelor (art.113.27),procurareamijloacelorfixe (art.242).Acestecheltuielileaualcătuit6%în2003,scăzânddrasticpânăla1%în2005şiapoiiarăşimenţionândocreşteredepânăla4%în

71

Revista economică

2006şifiindplanificattotatâtpentruanulbugetar2007.Uncompartimentimportantdecheltuielieste„Alimentaţia”(art.

113.09).Cheltuielilaacestarticolcrescdela9%în2003la13%în2006.

Analiza tabelului 6.Datele prezentate şi analizate demonstrează că ponderea cea

maimare în totalcheltuieli realeprevăzutepentruunelev îndeţincheltuielilepentruart.111„Retribuireamuncii”inclusivşipentruart.112„Contribuţiideasigurărisocialedestatobligatorii”şiart.116.01„Primeledeasigurareobligatoriedeasistenţămedicală”,elefiindîncreşteredela68%înanul2003la75%înanul2006reducându-selentpentruanul2007(72%).

Loculdoidupăpondereocupăcheltuielilepentruserviciicomunale.Acestecheltuielidupăconţinutulloreconomicsereferălaart.113„Platamărfurilorşiserviciilor”şicorespunzătoraliniatele:

113.01–Energiaelectrică;113.04–Energiatermică;113.11–Serviciidetelecomunicaţieşidepoştă;113.34–Apăşicanalizarea;113.35–Salubritatea.Acestecheltuielis-aureduslentcapondereîntotalcheltuielireale

dela19%în2003la11%în2006,iarîn2007seprevedeocreşterealorpânăla19%.

Instituţiileşcolareaunevoieşidecheltuielipentruprocurărideobiectenecesarepentrufuncţionareanormalăprocesuluideînvăţământ.Estevorbadespreprocurărilaart.113aliniatelecorespunzătoare:

113.03 – Rechizite de birou, materiale şi obiecte de uzgospodăresc;

113.05–Manuale,materialedidactice, practicade ştiinţifică şimetodică;

113.06–Cărţişiediţiiperiodice;113.017–Reparaţiicurentaleclădirilorşiîncăperilor;113.27–Procurareaşiinstalareacontoarelor;242–Procurareamijloacelorfixe.Acestecheltuielicapondereîntotalulcheltuielilorrealepentruun

elevconstituie3%pentrufiecareanbugetaranalizat,abaterefaceanul2005,înregistrândodiminuarepânăla2%.

72

Revista economică

din

amic

a ch

eltu

ielil

or p

onde

rate

înşc

olile

med

ii de

cul

tură

gen

eral

ă(se

c. B

otan

ica,

mun

. chi

şină

u)Ta

belu

l 6

gru

pa c

heltu

ielil

or fu

ncţio

nale

A

N

I I

2003

2004

2005

2006

2007

(estimat)

§ 05

3 şc

oli m

edii

de c

ultu

ră g

ener

ală,

tota

l ch

eltu

ieli

ce r

evin

la u

n el

ev, -

lei

1254

,20

1510

,24

2011

,30

2710

,12

2987

,25

Incl

usiv

:sa

lari

u: a

rt. 1

11.0

0; 1

12; 1

16.0

1. (P

onde

rea

în

tota

l che

ltuie

li re

ale

pent

ru u

n co

pil,

%)

68%

68%

71%

75%

72%

Serv

icii

com

unal

e: a

rt. 1

13.0

1;

113.

04;0

113.

11;1

13.3

4; 1

13.3

5; (%

)19

%18

%16

%11

%19

%

Proc

urăr

i: ar

t. 11

3.03

; 113

.05;

113

.06;

113

.17;

11

3.27

;242

. (%

)3%

3%2%

3%3%

alim

enta

ţia: a

rt. 1

13.0

9, (%

).4%

3%4%

6%5%

Surs

a: se

c. B

otan

ica,

mun

. Chi

şină

u, D

ET (D

irecţ

ia E

duca

ţie şi

Tin

eret

).

73

Revista economică

Ocheltuialăfoarteimportantăpentruşcolieste„Alimentaţia”, care conformcategorieieconomicedecheltuielisereferălaart.113,aliniatul09.Pondereaacesteicheltuielivariazăîntre4%şi5%,cuuneledevieridedescreştereşidecreşterefaţădeanul2003(4%).

Astfel,alăturidenevoilecetăţenilorcucaracterindividualşicaresuntsatisfăcutepeseamabunurilorprivateprocurateprinmecanismulpieţei,existăoseriedenevoisocialecumarfisănătatea,învăţământul,protecţia socială şi altele care sunt satisfăcute cu ajutorul anumitorinstituţiipublice,cumsunt,şcolile,spitalele,policlinicileetc.).

bibliography:

LegeapentrumodificareaşicompletareaLegiiînvăţământului1.nr.547-XIIIdin21iulie1995(nr.70—XVI,5mai2005).Clasificarea bugetară.Hotărâre Parlamentului Republicii2. Moldovaprivindclasificareabugetară.Nr.969-XIIIdin24iulie1996(Ediţiaadoua,modificatăşicompletată).–MinisterulFinanţeloralRepubliciiMoldova.LegeaRepubliciiMoldovacuprivirelasalarizare.Nr.13053. –XIIdin25februarie1993(cumodificărişicompletări).LegeaRepubliciiMoldovacuprivirelasistemuldesalarizare4. însectorulbugetar,nr.,355din23.12.2005.Condiţiiledesalarizarepentrucadreledidacticeşialtecategorii5. de personal din instituţiile şi organizaţiile de învăţământpreuniversitar. –HotărâreaGuvernuluiRepubliciiMoldovanr.381din13aprilie2006.Raportulprivindevaluareacheltuielilorpentruînvăţământul6.preuniversitarînsec.Botanica,mun.Chişinău,DET(DirecţiaEducaţieşiTineret).IlieDogaru.Formuladefinanţareaînvăţământuluipreuniversitar7.dinRomânia(Studiişiproiecte).–Bucureşti,2002.

References:1CadruldeCheltuielipeTermenMediu(2008-2010),pag28.2CadruldeCheltuielipeTermenMediu(2008-2010),pag28.(DatelesuntenunţateînbazainformaţieiMFşiAnuaruluistatistical finanţelorguvernamentalealFMI,2005).3Aceastăjudecatăprivindfinanţareaînvăţământuluiesteunrezultatalutilizăriicercetări-lorefectuatedesavanţiiromâni,şiînspecialdednulIlieDogaru.FormuladefinanţareaînvăţământuluipreuniversitardinRomânia(Studiişiproiecte).–Bucureşti,2002..4Cheltuielilerealepentruuncopilspredeosebiredenormativulpentruuncopilsuntmaimarideoareceelecheltuielileefectuatedinveniturisuplimentareprovenitedinmijloacespecial,fondurişiplăţidelaBSMFpentruhranăcaldăpentrucopii,elevicarenusuntincluseînnormativ.

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elena fuioR, PhD.,Chief of the Finance and Banking DepartmentCooperatist-Comercial University of Moldova,

veronica MÎRzAC, PhD. Stud.

FOREIGN ExChANGE RISk MITIGATION TEChNIqUES IN MICROFINANCE INDUSTRy

Many borrowing microfinance institutions (MFIs) are not adequately managing their exposure to foreign exchange rate risk. The microfinance industry has increased its awareness and understanding of foreign exchange risk, however, there has not been any significant actions taken at the industry level. The best solution for an MFI is to avoid foreign exchange risk altogether and fund itself in local currency. There a number of strategies to accomplish this: Borrow from your local bank; Negotiate local currency loans from international lenders; Access local capital markets; Establish Policies on Foreign Exchange Management and Exposure; Use guarantees to increase local currency financing; Define foreign exchange risk tolerance levels; Negotiate back-to-back loans; Measure and monitor foreign exchange exposure; Index local currency lending.

The financial sector plays a primordial role in providingopportunitiesforamorevigorouseconomicgrowthintheRepublicofMoldova.Asthemaincreditorofthenationaleconomy,thetraditionalbanking sector should decentralize the lendingprocess.Oneof thesolutionsinthissenseisthedevelopmentofanon-bankingfinancialsystemthroughcreatingmicrofinanceinstitutions,whosestrengtheningandgrowthwouldgeneratearangeofpossibilitiesforfinancingagreaternumber ofmicro enterprises.Thedevelopment of themicrofinanceindustryisveryimportantasitoffersopportunitiesfortheSMEstoaccessthenecessaryfinancialresources,whichprovetobeofmajorimportanceinthedevelopmentofSMEs.IntermsoftheperspectiveintegrationintotheUE,thetwomostcrucialthingswouldbe:

1. raising awareness about the functional and developmentpeculiaritiesofthemicrofinanceinstitutions;

2.workingoutrecommendationsforacontinuingimprovementofthemicrofinancesystemintheRepublicofMoldova.

TheimportanceoffieldofmicrofinancebothabroadaswellasintheRepublicofMoldovaisdeterminedbyamajorrolefinancing

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thenationaleconomyanddirectinfluenceonthedevelopmentofthecountry’seconomicoutlookinthecontextofintegrationofMoldovain theEuropeanUnion.The development ofmicrofinance and theintegration of the traditional banking system inmany countries inEuropeandCentralAsia,arguesitscontributiontoincreasingeconomicandsocialindicatorsandtheimportanceofmicrofinanceinstitutionsnon-banksectorsoftheeconomyinrecoverybyfinancingmicroandsmallenterprises,irradiationandincreasingpovertyqualityoflifeofthepopulation.

Themodernmicrofinancemovement dates back to the 1970swhenexperimentalprogramsinBangladesh,Brazil,andafewothercountriesbegantoextendtinyloanstogroupsofpoorwomentoinvestinmicro-enterprises.By lending to groups ofwomenwhere everymemberofthegroupguaranteedtherepaymentofallmembers,thesemicrocreditprogramschallengedtheprevailingconventionalwisdomandprovedthatpoorpeoplewithoutcollateralcouldbe“creditworthy”.Whenofferedtheopportunity,theywouldrepayloanswithinterest,atextraordinaryratesofrepayment.

Asaresult, themicrofinance institutionsproviding theserviceswere able to develop businessmodels thatwere sustainable, nolongerneedingsubsidy.Theseinstitutionsshowedthatthepoorwere“bankable”.

Sincethen,therangeofproducts-credit,savings,moneytransfers,micro-insurance-hasincreasedaswehavecometorecognizethatpoorpeopleneedarangeservices tomeetdifferentneeds.And inrecentyears,microfinancehasattractedtheattentionofcommercialbanks,investors,andahostofnewserviceproviders.Sotodaymicrofinanceis,quitesimply,retailbankingforpoorpeople.Microfinanceclientsareoftendescribedaccordingtotheirpovertylevel-vulnerablenon-poor,upperpoor,andpoor,verypoor.Thiscanobscurethefactthatmicrofinanceclientsareadiversegroupofpeople–andrequirediverseproducts.Whilewomenclientsmakeupamajorityofclients-andinsomeinstancescomprise100percentofanMFI’sclientele,33percentofallmicrofinanceclientsaremen.

Theseclientsoperatesmallbusinesses,workonsmallfarms,orwork for themselves or others in a variety of businesses –fishing,carpentry,vegetableselling,smallshops,transportation,andmuchmore.Someofthesemicrofinanceclientsaretrulyentrepreneurs–theyenjoycreatingandrunningtheirownbusinesses.Othersbecomeentrepreneursbynecessitywhentherearefewjobsavailableintheformalsector.

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Meanwhile,smallbusinessoffersrealopportunitiestoimplementcreative skills of the developer, capacity and leadership - qualitiesnecessaryfordevelopmentperspectivewithitsbusiness.Ontheotherhand,SMEsintheRepublicofMoldovaisfacingvariousproblemsincarryingoutdailyactivities,amongwhichwementionanimportantinsufficientoffinancialresourcesintheshortterm,andlong-termandlimitedaccesstomeansoffinancialresources.AlthoughthecommercialbanksinMoldovaarethemainfinanciersofthenationaleconomy,theyremain,oftenreluctanttograntloanstoSMEs.

Thereforeuntilthepresentoneofthemostseriousproblemsofsmallbusinesssubjectscontinuestobedifficultyinaccessoffinancialresources.Aproofisthattheshareofloanstargetedtosmallbusinesssectordoesnotexceed15%oftotalloans,andmostofthemaregrantedtotheenterprisesfromChisinau.Accesstofinancing,especiallyforthenewcompaniesandmicroenterprisesisdifficult.Andthishappensbecausesmallbusinessownersdonothavecredithistoryorhaveassetsthatcanbeguarantees.

Asaresult,theyhavenoaccesstotraditionalbankfinancialsystem.Therequiredcreditsinmostcasesaretoosmallforbanks,andthecostsoftheirmanagementandmonitoringaredullforthem.

Most people recognize thatmicrofinance alone is not amagicbullettogetpeopleoutofpoverty.Itisonlyoneofmanyfactorsthatcancontributetopovertyalleviation.

Today,manyMFIs subscribe to amix of goals, includingsustainability,outreachtopoorhouseholds,andpovertyreduction.Acontinuingchallengetheyfaceishowtodeepenandmaintainoutreachtopoorhouseholdsonasustainablebasis.AnimportantstepinmeetingthischallengeistolookcarefullyatwhoMFIsdoanddonotreachalongthepovertycontinuum.

Amicrofinanceinstitutionisanorganizationthatoffersfinancialservicestolowincomepopulations.Almostalloftheseoffermicrocreditandonlytakebacksmallamountsofsavingsfromtheirownborrowers,not from the general public.Within themicrofinance industry, thetermmicrofinance institution has come to refer to awide rangeoforganizations dedicated to providing these services:NGOs, creditunions,cooperatives,privatecommercialbanksandnon-bankfinancialinstitutions (some thathave transformed fromNGOs into regulatedinstitutions)andpartsofstate-ownedbanks,forexample.

TheimagemostofushavewhenwerefertoMFIsisofa“financialNGO”, anNGO that is fully andvirtually exclusively dedicated to

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offeringfinancial services; inmost casesmicroloanNGOs are notallowedtocapturesavingsdepositsfromthegeneralpublic.ThisgroupofafewhundredNGOshaveledthedevelopmentofmicroloan,andsubsequentlymicrofinance,theworldover.Mostoftheseconstituteagroupthatiscommonlyreferredtoas“bestpractice”organizations,onesthatemploythenewestlendingtechniquestogenerateefficientoutreachthatpermitthemtoreachdownfarintopoorsectorsoftheeconomyonasustainablebasis.

AgreatmanyNGOsthatoffermicroloan,perhapsevenamajority,domanyothernon-financialdevelopmentactivitiesandwouldbristleatthesuggestionthattheyareessentiallyfinancialinstitutions.Yet,fromanindustryperspective,sincetheyareengagedinsupplyingfinancialservices to thepoor,wecall themMFIs.Thesamesortofsituationexistswithasmallnumberofcommercialbanksthatoffermicrofinanceservices.Forourpurposes,we refer to themasMFIs, even thoughonlyasmallportionoftheirassetsmayactuallybetiedupinfinancialservicesforthepoor.Inbothcases,whenpeopleintheindustryrefertoMFIs,theyarereferringonlytothatpartoftheinstitutionthatoffersmicrofinance.

Thereareotherinstitutions,however,thatconsiderthemselvestobeinthebusinessofmicrofinanceandthatwillcertainlyplayarolein a reshapedanddeepenedfinancial sector.These are community-basedfinancial intermediaries.Somearemembershipbasedsuchascreditunionsandcooperativehousingsocieties.Othersareownedandmanagedbylocalentrepreneursormunicipalities.TheseinstitutionstendtohaveabroaderclientbasethanthefinancialNGOsandalreadyconsiderthemselvestobepartoftheformalfinancialsector.Itvariesfromcountrytocountry,butmanypoorpeopledohavesomeaccesstothesetypesofinstitutions,althoughtheytendnottoreachdownmarketasfarasthefinancialNGOs.

TheemergenceanddevelopmentofmicrofinanceinstitutionsinMoldovastartedsince1997andhavebeenapositiveimpactontheuniquefinancingof entrepreneurship in rural areas andurban areasroundthecountry.ThepassageoftheRepublicofMoldovafromthecentralizedeconomysystemcompetitiveeconomyhasdemonstratedthedifficultyandimportanceofdraftingstageefficientmechanismoffinancialinstruments,social,economic,political,allowingdevelopmentofmarketeconomy.Inthiscontextitisimportanttocontinueimprovingthefinancialsystembydevelopingmicrofinanceindustry,developmentstrategies,andfinancialmanagementsector.

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Microfinanceisexperiencinganunprecedentedinvestmentboom.Thepastfiveyearshaveseenremarkableincreasesinthevolumeofglobalmicrofinanceinvestments.Theentryofprivateinvestorsisthemostnotablechangeinthemicrofinanceinvestmentmarketplace.Newplayersarriveonthesceneeverymonth.Fortyspecializedmicrofinanceinvestmentfundshavebeenestablishedinthepastthreeyearsalone.Individualsandinstitutionalinvestors–includinginternationalretailbanks,investmentbanks,pensionfunds,andprivateequityfunds–arealllookingforwaystochannelcapitalintomicrofinance,andinvestmentbankingtechniquesarebeingintroducedtocreateinvestmentvehiclealternativesthatappealtoanincreasinglybroadrangeofinvestors.

Themicrofinanceindustrycontinuestogrowatarateofmorethan30percentayear,andthesupplyoffundsforgrowthisonlyone–fifthof total demand.1Tomeet this demand there has been an increasein international investors inmicrofinance institutions (MFIs). It isestimatedthatthevalueofinternationalforeigninvestmentavailabletoMFIswillsoontopUS$1.2billion,ofwhich$750millionisdebtcapital.At least 92 percent of this debt capital is in hard currency(primarilyUSdollarsoreuros).2Asaresult,foreignexchangeriskforMFIsisontherise.

Foreignexchangeriskisdefinedasthepossibilityofalossoragainfromthevariationsinexchangeratesbetweencurrencies.Thisriskisacuteforbusinesses,suchasMFIs,thatoperateincountrieswithvolatilelocalcurrenciesandcarrybothlocalcurrencyandhardcurrencyontheirbalancesheet.Whileitisdifficulttofullyeliminateforeignexchangerisk,itcanreadilybeidentified,measured,managed,andmitigated.This paper highlights strategies tominimize foreign exchange risk,providesexamplesofactionstakenbyMFIs,andsuggestsactionsthatMFIs,donors,andinternationallenderscantaketooffsetthisgrowingriskintheinthemicrofinanceindustry.

Themicrofinance industry has increased its awareness andunderstandingofforeignexchangerisk,however,therehasnotbeenanysignificantactionstakenattheindustrylevel.Itistruethattherehavenotbeensizeablepublicizedlossestodate,andthelevelofmostMFIs’hardcurrencydebt,atpresent,isconsideredtobereasonable.However,MFIs’lossesarerarelymadepublicandmanyinternationalmicrofinancefundshavedisbursedonlyasmallportionoftheiroverallhardcurrencyfunds.Theindustryseemstohaveadoptedafreemarketapproach of letting theMFIs and internationalmicrofinance fundsfigureouthowtoresolvethisriskontheirownonacase-by-casebasis.

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Unfortunately,mostMFIshavelimitedaccesstoinformationonhowtomeasureandminimizeforeignexchangeriskandevenlessexperiencenegotiatingwithinternationalinvestors.Asmorehardcurrencyfundsenter the industry, donors, development agencies,multilaterals andinternational banks should consider how they can helpMFIs andinternationalmicrofinancefundsmitigateforeignexchangerisk.

BelowarefivewaysthatMFIscandealwiththeforeignexchangerisk(tableA).

table a five Recommendations for managing foreign exchange Risk

Recommendations Complexity Cost

1. Avoidit:Pursuelocalcurrencyloansfirst Low Low-Moderate

2.Establishpoliciesonforeignexchangemanagement and exposure

Moderate Low

3.Converthardcurrencyloanstolocalcurrencyrisk

Moderate Moderate-High

4. Explorelocalhedginginstruments High Moderate-High

5. Otheralternatives(butoftenlessideal….) Low Moderate-High

Thebest solution foranMFI is toavoid foreignexchange riskaltogetherandfunditselfinlocalcurrency.Thereanumberofstrategiestoaccomplishthis.

Hardcurrencyloansconstituteanimportantsourceoffinancingfortheloancapitalneedsofmicrofinanceinstitutions(MFIs).Althoughsuch loansmay, in certain circumstances, appear to be a relativelycost-effectiveandeasysourceoffunding,theyalsohavethesignificantdisadvantageofcreatingforeignexchangeriskforthoseMFIswhoseprincipalassetsaremicroloansdenominatedinthelocalcurrencyoftheMFI’scountryofoperation.

Despite this, recent surveys indicate that fewMFIs exposed toforeignexchangerisktakeeffectivestepstoreducethatrisk.ForeignexchangerisklargelyarisesinmicrofinancewhenanMFIincursdebtin a foreign currency, usuallyU.S. dollars or euros, and then lends

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thosefundsindomesticcurrency.TheMFIcansuffersubstantiallossesif thevalueof thedomesticcurrencydepreciates(or losesvalue)inrelationtotheforeigncurrency,meaningthatthevalueoftheMFI’sassetsdropsrelativetoitsliabilities.Thisisknownasdevaluation,ordepreciation,risk.

Like any other institution that has a cross-border obligationdenominated in hard currency,MFIs also can be affected byconvertibilityandtransferrisks.Inbothcases,theMFImayhavethefinancialcapacitytomakeitshardcurrencypayments,butcannotdosobecauseofnationalgovernmentrestrictionsorprohibitionsonmakingforeigncurrencyavailableforsaleortransferringhardcurrencyoutsidethecountry.Theserisksareknownrespectivelyasconvertibilityriskandastransfer(orremittance)risk.

Organizationsexposedtoforeignexchangeriskhavethreeoptions.First,theycanchoosetodonothingabouttheirexposureandaccepttheconsequencesofvariationsincurrencyvaluesorthepossibilitythattheirgovernmentmayimposerestrictionsontheavailabilityortransferof foreign currency.This is not a recommendedpath.Second, theycan“hedge”againsttheirexposure.Forexample,theycanpurchaseafinancial instrument thatwill protect the organization against theconsequencesofthoseadversemovementsinforeignexchangerates.Finally,theycanpartiallyhedgeagainsttherisks,orlimittheirhardcurrencyexposuretosetlevels.

Theseconventionalinstrumentsmaybethemostappealingandefficientwaytohedgeagainstforeignexchangerisk.However,manyofthecapitalmarketsinthecountriesinwhichMFIsoperatedonotsupportthese instruments,and thecosts toMFIsofusing these instrumentsmaybeprohibitive.Furthermore,creditworthinessissuesmaymakeitdifficultforMFIstopurchasethesederivativeinstruments.

Manyborrowingmicrofinanceinstitutions(MFIs)arenotadequatelymanaging their exposure to foreign exchange rate risk.There are atleastthreecomponentsofforeignexchangeraterisk:(1)devaluationordepreciationrisk,(2)convertibilityrisk,and(3)transferrisk.

DevaluationordepreciationrisktypicallyarisesinmicrofinancewhenanMFIacquiresdebtinaforeigncurrency,usuallyU.S.dollars(USD)oreuros,andthenlendsthosefundsindomesticcurrency(DC).TheMFIthenpossessesaliabilityinahardcurrencyandassetsinaDC(inwhichcase,anMFI’sbalancesheetissaidtocontaina“currencymismatch”).Fluctuationsintherelativevaluesofthesetwocurrenciescanadverselyaffectthefinancialviabilityoftheorganization.

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Convertibility risk is another possible component of foreignexchangerisk.Forthepurposesofthisnote,convertibilityriskreferstotheriskthatthenationalgovernmentwillnotsellforeigncurrencytoborrowersorotherswithobligationsdenominatedinhardcurrency.Transferriskreferstotheriskthatthenationalgovernmentwillnotallowforeigncurrencytoleavethecountryregardlessofitssource.

Avarietyofconventionalcapitalmarketinstrumentscanbeusedtohedgeagainstforeignexchangerisk:

forwardcontractsandfutures(agreementsmadetoexchangeor �sellforeigncurrencyatacertainpriceinthefuture); �swaps(agreementstosimultaneouslyexchangeorsellanamount �offoreigncurrencynowandresellorrepurchasethatcurrencyinthefuture); �options (instruments that provide the option, but not the �obligation, tobuyorsell foreigncurrencyin thefutureoncethevalueofthatcurrencyreachesacertain,previouslyagreed,price)

AdvantagesUsingconventionalhedginginstrumentseliminatesanMFI’s �exposuretocapitallossesasaresultofDCdepreciation.Usingtheseinstrumentsprovidesaccesstocapitalthatmight �notbeavailablelocallyortocapitalwithmoregenerousandflexibletermsthanareavailablelocally.Using these instruments provides themeans to eliminate �convertibilityortransferriskthroughswaparrangements.

DisadvantagesManyofthefinancialmarketsinthecountriesinwhichmost �MFIsoperatedonotsupporttheseinstruments;however,thereisevidencethatuseoftheseinstrumentsisstartingtoemergeinsomedevelopingcountries.Thecostsofusingtheseinstrumentsmaybeprohibitivebecause �ofthesmallsizeofforeignexchangetransactionstypicallymadebyMFIs.Also,thedurationofforeignloansoftenexceedsthatof thehedgingproducts available in thinner, localfinancialmarkets.Creditworthiness issuesmaymake it difficult forMFIs to �purchasethesederivativeinstruments.

Currently,themostcommoneffectivewaysforMFIstohedgeagainstforeignexchangeriskareback-to-backloansandlettersofcredit.

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Back-to-backlendingisthemethodmostcommonlyusedbythemicrofinancesectortohedgeagainstdevaluationordepreciationrisk.However, theback-to-back loanmechanismcanexpose theMFI tothelocalbank’screditrisktotheextentthataforeigncurrencydepositis placedwith that local bank to entice it tomake a local currencydenominatedloantotheMFI.Moreover,mostback-to-backloansarestructuredinsuchawaythattheydonothingtoprotecttheMFIfromconvertibilityandtransferrisks.

CertainfeaturesofthisstructurecontributetomitigatetheriskstheMFIwouldfacebysimplyconvertingthehardcurrencyloantolocalcurrencytofunditslocallendingactivities.First,aback-to-backloanstructureavoidsconvertibilityrisk. If theMFIwere toconvertthehardcurrencyloanintolocalcurrencyandthelocalgovernmentsubsequentlyimposedrestrictionsonconvertinglocalcurrencyintohardcurrency,theMFImaybeincapableofconvertingthelocalcurrencybacktohardcurrencytorepaythehardcurrencyloan.Byretainingthehardcurrencyinanaccountatthedepositbank,theMFIsidestepsthisregulatoryrisk.

Moreimportant,retainingahardcurrencydepositmitigatesde-preciationanddevaluationrisk.AslongastheMFIdoesnotdefaultonthelocalcurrencyloan,thehardcurrencydepositwillbeavailableatmaturitytorepaytheprincipalofthehardcurrencyloan.

SeeFigure1foranillustrationofthisstructure.

See figure 1. back-to-back loan StructureAdvantages

Isno � texposedtocapitallossiftheDCdepreciates.Providesaccesstocapitalthatmightnotbeavailablelocally �andcanmobilizelocalfunds.

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Providesaccess � tocapitalthathaspotentialformoregenerousandflexibletermsthanareavailablelocally.

DisadvantagesIs still exposed to increase in debt-servicing costs ifDC �depreciates.Mustpayinterestondomesticloanandthedifferencebetween �theinterestchargedbythehard-currencylenderandtheinterestearnedonthehard-currencydeposit.Isexposedtoconvertibilityandtransferrisksthatcouldlimit �access to foreign currency or prohibit transfers of foreigncurrencyoutsidethecountry,therebymakingitimpossibleforanotherwisecreditworthyMFItorepayitshard-currencyloan.Thismakesitunlikelythataninvestorwilllend.Is exposed to credit risk on the hard-currency deposit if �domesticbankfails.

Inaletter-of-creditstructure,theMFIentersintoahardcurrencyloanwithaforeignlenderanddepositsthehardcurrencyproceedsofthisloaninanaccountmaintainedatabankascollateraltosecuretheissuancebysuchbankofaletterofcredittoalocalbanklocatedintheMFI’sjurisdiction.Toachievethefullbenefitsofthisstructure,thebankissuingtheletterofcredit(the“issuingbank”)typicallyisnotlocatedintheMFI’sjurisdiction.Thelocalbank,inturn,agreestoextendalocalcurrencyloantotheMFItofinanceitslendingactivities.

Theletterofcreditisanirrevocableobligationoftheissuingbanktopaythelocalbankacertainamountinhardcurrency(normallyuptotheamountofthehardcurrencydepositplacedbytheMFIwiththeissuingbank)ifthelocalbankpresentsadocumenttotheissuingbankstatingthattheconditionsspecifiedintheletterofcredithavebeenmet.IntheMFIcontext,themostcommonconditionthatcantriggerpresentationoftheletterofcreditforpaymentisthattheMFIhasdefaultedonthelocalcurrencyloan.Therefore,iftheMFIdefaultsonthelocalcurrencyloan,thelocalbankwillbeentitledtopresentastatementtothateffecttotheissuingbankandtoberepaidbytheissuingbankthehardcurrencyequivalentofthelocalcurrencyowedbytheMFI.2AssumingthattheMFIdoesnotdefaultonthelocalcurrencyloanandrepaystheprincipalonthelocalloanwhendue,theletterofcreditwillexpirewithoutanypaymentbeingmadebytheissuingbank.

SeeFigure2foranillustration.

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See figure 2. letter of Credit StructureAdvantages

IsnotexposedtocapitallossifDCdepreciates(protectsagainst �devaluationordepreciationrisk).MayleveragecashdepositandLetterofCredittoprovidea �largerdomesticloan.Providesaccesstocapitalthatmightnotbeavailablelocally �andcanmobilizelocalfunds.Isnotexposedtothecreditriskofthelocalbankbecauseno �hard-currencydepositisplacedwiththelocalbank.Isnotatriskforconvertibilityortransferriskbecausenohard �currencyneedstocrossborders.

DisadvantagesIs still exposed to increases in debt-servicing costs ifDC �depreciates.Ismoredifficulttoobtainthanback-to-backlending. �SomelocalbanksarenotwillingtoacceptaLetterofCreditin �lieuofotherformsofcollateral.Thesebanksmayrequiresome“extra” credit enhancements in the formof cash collateral,pledgeofloanportfolio,etc.Also,Letterof-Creditfeesaddanothercosttothetransaction.

As conclusion, a significant portion ofMFIs that have hard-currency liabilities either do not understand the level of risk theseliabilitiescreate,orarenotmanagingthatriskaseffectivelyastheycould.Foreignexchangerateriskcanbecomplicatedanddifficulttounderstand,andtheinstrumentstypicallyusedtomanagethisriskarenotalwaysavailabletoMFIs.Theindustryneedstopaymoreattention

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toforeignexchangeriskandlearnmoreabouttechniquestomanageit–includingavoidingitbyusinglocalfundingsourceswherepossible.Broad recommendations for players in themicrofinance sector arediscussednext.

IfMFIsmust obtain foreign currency debt, they should adoptpositionstolimittheirexposuretoforeignexchangerisk.Thereisarangeof instrumentsavailable toMFIs tocounter theeffectsof theunpredictable and potentially devastating nature of exchange ratefluctuations.MFIsneedtoanalyzeandthenadoptsuitablemethodstomitigatetheirexposuretothisrisk:

1.Alackofcost-effectiveFXhedgingoptionsconstraininternationalcommercialinvestment;akeytosustainableandacceleratedgrowthinmicrofinance.

2.FXriskcannotbehedged100%,butmustbemanaged.3. Significant outside support is needed to add liquidity in the

industryandcatalyzemarket-basedfinancingstructuresformicrofinanceorganizations.

bibliography:CGAP. “Foreign ExchangeRiskMitigationTechniques:1.Structure and Documentation.”ATechnical Guide forMicrofinanceInstitutions.Washington,D.C.:CGAP.2006.Ivatury,G.,andX.Reille.“ForeignInvestmentinMicrofinance:2. Debt and Equity from Quasi-Commercial Investors.”FocusNote 25.Washington,D.C.:CGAP, January 2004.http://www.cgap.org/portal/binary/com.epicentric.contentmanagement.servlet.CotentDeliveryServlet/Documents/FocusNote_25.pdf3. MIXMarket.h4. ttp://www.mixmarket.org/.Featherston,Scott,ElizabethLittlefield,andPatriciaMwangi.5. “ForeignExchangeRateRiskinMicrofinance:WhatIsItandHowCanItBeManaged?”FocusNote31.Washington,D.C.:CGAP.2006.Crabb,P.ForeignExchangeRiskManagementPractices for6.MicrofinanceInstitutions.OpportunityInternational.March2003.Ivatury,G.,andJ.Abrams.“TheMarketforMicrofinanceForeign7.Investment:OpportunitiesandChallenges.”PresentedatKfWFinancialSectorDevelopmentSymposium.November2004.Ivatury,G.,andX.Reille.“ForeignInvestmentinMicrofinance:8. DebtandEquityfromQuasi-CommercialInvestors.”FocusNoteNo.25.CGAP.January2004.

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Stela ciobu, PhD., Academy of Economic Studies of Moldovaivan luchian, PhD., International Institute of Management. “IMI-NOVA”

alina BÎRLăDeANu, Academy of Economic Studies of Moldova

bANkING INNOVATIONS RISk – pROFITAbILITy RELATIONShIp

IN ThE bANkING SySTEM OF ThE REpUbLIC OF MOLDOVA

The level of information technologies development in modern banks represents an essential factor in maintenance and consolidation of the position on the market. In this respect all Moldovan banks develop risk management policies with regard to banking IT’s and e-products and services, which they consider as the main part of banking innovations at the moment. The purpose of this article is to analyze each innovation (Information Security Services, Business Systems Controls, Business Continuity Management, IT Outsourcing, Information Systems Governance, IT Performance, Project Risk Management, IT Internal Audit) in terms of risks and benefits when these risks are managed properly.

ByanalyzingtheinnovationsMoldovanbankshaveimplementedin the last 10 years, likeATMs, different types of banking cards,internationaltransfersystems,performingbankingsoftware,e-servicesandmanyother,wemayconfidentstatethatnomatterhowmuchriskthey inherit, banks still consider them the road to profitability andleadership.

Nowadays, the level of information technologies developmentinmodern banks represents an essential factor inmaintenance andconsolidationofthepositiononthemarket.Thevolumeofinformationexchangeandcurrentrequirementsforthespeedoftransactionshasmadeimplementationanddevelopmentofhighinformationtechnologiesaprimarynecessity.InthisrespectallMoldovanbanksdevelopriskmanagementpolicieswithregardtobankingIT’sande-productsandservices,whichtheyconsiderasthemainpartofbankinginnovationsatthemoment.

The errors of conception or fulfillment, slow implementationprocessoftechnologies,poornewsystemsmanagementrepresentmoreandmoreimportantrisksthathaveadirectinfluenceuponthebankingservices’qualityandprofitability.TheMoldovanbanksusuallydeal

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withthefollowingriskaspectsregardingnewsoftware,newproductsandservices,innovations:

—ThefirstaspectcomprisesthecategoryofrisksrelatedtotheITknowledge.Itrepresentsthepossibilityofsomeerrorsincomputingthebankingprogramsanditisalsocalledtheriskoflogicalsecurity.Theexposuretothisaspectofriskcanbehugeanddifficulttomeasure.ItcanbecalculatedonlyinthetermsofnewITdevelopmentcostinordertoderiveanefficientsystemoritcanbeestimatedindirectlyasthelossesduetoaninadequateservicesandproductsmanagement.

—Thesecondoneisrelatedtothedifficultyofsystems’applicationsfunctioning.Itisalsocalledsystemriskandaffectsboth,thetraditionaldatabasemanagementandinformationactualization.Thepotentiallossequals to funds’decreasesormediuminsteadofmaximumattainedprofitability.

—Thethirdaspectregardstelecommunications.Itisconcerningtotheprobabilityofsendinginformationoverthephone,telex,mailthatcontainsmistakes,lossesormisleadingparts.Anerrorindestination,awronginterpretationoftheinformationreceivedfromtheclient,aswellasillegaluseofabankingchannelmayleadtoimportantlossesforthebankthatcannotbecalculatedinfixtermsastheupmentionedriskaspects,too.

Oneanothermajorproblemrepresent thepersonnelknowledgewithregardtonewsoftwareoranewproduct/servicecharacteristics.Usually thebankingpersonnelarefamiliarizedearlierwith thenewbankingsystem;thebankorganizesspecialtrainings.Moldovanbanksveryoftenmeetaholdup in thiscase,because trainingsencompassadditionalcosts.Sometimesbysavingonpersonneltrainings,Moldovanbanksexperiencehighercostsincomparisonwiththeinitialones.Morethanthat,whenanewsoftisimplemented,theoldoneisnotremovedimmediately.Theemployeesmustperformtheoperationsin2systemsconcomitantly for a period till the old one is replaced.This takesadditionaleffort,timeanddiminishestheefficiencyandproductivityofservicesprovided.

Bankscanexposure themselves toamajor risk if theydevelopaninadequatestrategy.Someofthemtakeupcostlyprojectswithouthaving a real capacity of financing them.A new product/ serviceimply amarketing strategy,which comprises design, launch andimplementationstages.Thus it isvery important tochooseforeachstagethebesttime.

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Whenwetalkaboutmanagingthebankrisksiscriticaltounderstandthatoneriskderivesanotherone,thatiswhybanksshouldbeawarethatinnovationsbringupnewaspectsmostofthetimesunknownandunpredictableforthebankthatraisenewrisks.Evenifabanksurvivesmajorlossesduetoawrongstrategy,thebank’scredibilityisaffecteddirectly,factthatwillresultinaweakerauthorityamongotherfinancialinstitutions,whichwilltakeanegativeeffectonthecostofthecapitalthebankwillattractinthefuture.

With banks constantly extending their use of technology intonewareastoderiveandprovidestrategicbenefits,theworldisgettingincreasingly interconnected. Information is nowcentralized andweseeMoldovanbanks,toopushedtotheedgeofthenetworks.Inorderto race to themarket, security for and controls over such criticalinformationtendstogetoverlooked.Thistranslatesintoissuesrelatedtoconfidentiality,integrityandavailabilityofinformation-keycontrolsintheinformationeconomy.Effectiveinformationriskmanagementtherefore assumes critical importance and provides competitiveadvantage.

Useofinformationtechnologybybanksisfraughtwithrisk.Byapplying amulti-disciplinary approach to projects and formulate amorecomprehensiveandeffectivestrategy,Moldovanbanksshouldpay attention to: Information security services, Business systems Controls, Business Continuity Management, IT Outsourcing, Information systems Governance, IT Performance, Project Risk Management, IT Internal Audit.

Thepurposeofthisarticleistoanalyzeeachofthemintermsofrisksandbenefitswhentheserisksaremanagedproperly.

Information security services Securityfailurescancostdearly,eitherdirectlythroughlostbusiness,

lossofgoodsorservicesandcostsofrecoveryorindirectlythroughdamagetoreputation.Significantriskaccompaniestheopportunitiesthate-businessesoffer.Informationandinformationsystemsareexposedto theft and attack anywhere.To retain competitive advantage andmeetbasicbusinessrequirements,banksmust:enhanceintegrityandreliabilityoftheinformationheldontheircomputersystems;preserveboth privacy of customer information and confidentiality of data;enhanceavailabilityoftheirinformationsystems.

However,technologyisonlyoneelementofanysecuritysolution.Aneffectiveapproachneedstoinvolvepeopletomakethemworkandprocessestofosterconsistentandeffectiveoperations:

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•Securityassessmentthroughriskanalysisincluding:informationthreat and impact analysis, identificationof vulnerabilities, securityarchitecture assessment, evaluation of controls and gap analysis toidentifyareaswhererisksoutweighcontrols.

•Design of the bank security architecture to address the gapidentifiedduringtheassessmentphase.

•Implementationofsecuritystrategiesanditsintegrationwithinthebusiness

• Monitoring of incidents, measurement of security keyperformance, andperiodicaudit toenhance theeffectivenessof thesecuritystrategies.

Bank’s benefits:—increasing revenue by securely harnessing the commercial

potentialofinformationtechnology;—reducingoverallcostbygettinginformationsecurityrightthe

firsttime;—reducingthenumberofcostlyincidentstorecoverfrom;—loweringtheriskofdamagetoreputation.

Banks systems controls Inaneraofe-commerceandtheInternet,organizationsfaceissues

ofinternalsystemsanddevelopmentofefficient,automatedcontrolsandprocesses.CompetitionhasleftmanyourbankswithacombinationofseveralITsystemstosupporttheirbusinessprocesses.Downsizingandoutsourcinghavebrokendowntraditionalbusinesscontrols.

BusinessSystemControlscoverstheaudit,risk,controlandsecurityaspectsofanyITsystemsupportingabank’sbusinessprocesses.

Generictools:•BusinessProcessAnalysis-risk-basedapproachtoevaluation

anddesignofsystematiccontrolsoverbusinessprocesses.•SystemsIntegrationControls-addressesthefullimplementation

lifecycle for controls from review and evaluation through design,implementationandon-goingmonitoring.

Bank’s benefits:—efficient control procedures,which cost less to operate and

reducethecostsoferrorcorrection;—reducedriskofvaluedestructionthroughcontrolfailure;—increasedbenefitinintegratedsystems;— systems and processes to enable information technology

opportunities.

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Business continuity management Banksandbusinesspartnersmustprovidefault-free,instantaneous

service 100 per cent of the time.Thesemore exacting customerrequirements have firmly positioned high availability as a criticalsuccess factor for anybusiness. It is a key competitive benchmarkforallbanksandotherfinancialorganizationswithanonlinechanneltomarket,orwithhighdependenceoninformationtechnology.Thisis creating awidening gap between banks’ business andmarketrequirements,reducingtheabilityoftraditionalapproachestodeliverthesenewrequirements.AssuringhighlevelsofinformationandserviceavailabilitymustbecomeakeydesignobjectiveforanybankoftheMoldovansystem.

Bank’s benefits:—reducedoverallcostofdowntime;—improvedbusinesscontinuanceenvironment;—enhancedservicelevelmanagement;—effectivedisasterrecoveryandcrisismanagementprograms;—protectedprofits,revenues,andshareholdervalue.

It outsourcing Competition and increasing pressure from shareholders focus

on core business issues improve customer satisfaction and reduceinformationcostsdrivingmanybankstore-evaluatesourcingoptions.Emphasizing on core competencieswhile leveraging increasingly,commoditizedservicessuchascallcenters,systemsdevelopmentandIToperationscanalsoincreasethefocusandsharpenthecompetitiveedgeofthebank.

Moldovan banks should evaluate their sourcing approach,establish sourcing strategieswith controls over implementation andmanagement to facilitate selection between the numerous sourcingalternativesandincreasethebenefitsthatcanberealizedfromsharedservices,outsourcingandmultivendorarrangements.

Weprovide fourbroadcategoriesof servicesdependingon thebank’sneeds:

•SourcingAdvisory:providesassistancewithsourcingapproach,vendorevaluation,negotiationandtransitionmanagement,forpotentialsourcingservicepartners.

•SourcingAssessment: helps clients reviewandassess currentsourcing arrangements - includes: requirements reviews and duediligenceandcontrolsassessment.

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• SourcingFinancialManagement: provides cost analysis andbillingpracticereviewsandanalysistohelpclientsrealizethebenefitsofsourcingarrangements.

•SourcingPerformanceManagement:assistsclientswithcontractcomplianceandservicelevelmanagementreviewstohelpdeterminewhethertheplannedvalueisbeingdelivered.

Bank’s benefits: —identificationandeliminationofinadequaciesinagreementswith

externalserviceproviders,thereforeenablingthebenefitsofoutsourcingtobebetterrealized.Thesemayinclude:improvingcustomerservice;reducingmanagementeffort;improvedflexibilitytomeetcurrentandfuturebusinessneeds;avoidinglock-intoinadequateagreementsonrenewalofcontracts;compliancewithregulatoryrequirements.

Information systems (is) governance Effective ISGovernancehelps ensurebusiness systemsdeliver

valuetobanks.Italsoassistsinmanagingtheuniquerisksinherentintechnologythroughappropriatecorporategovernance.ISGovernancealsofacilitatesuseoftechnologytosupportorganizationsmeettheircomplianceobligations.

Reviewing alignment of it and business strategies Moldovanbanksmust focus on review and re-development of

theirITstrategies.TherecommendationsaretoaligntheITstrategicplanstothebusinessbyclearlydemonstratingtheroleofITinmeetingbusinessobjectives,including:

‘Where are you now?’-AnoverviewofthecurrentITenvironmentexaminedagainstthestrategicdirectioninordertobridgethegap.

‘Where are you going?’-ConfirmationofthestrategicdirectionoftheorganizationsandthelinktoITstrategy.

‘How do you get there?’ -Strategiestobridgethegapincludingaportfolioofprioritizedprojects,indicativebudgetforprojects,benefits,timeframesandriskmanagement.

UnderstandingthepotentialvalueofITiscontributingtobank’seffectiveness, in the implementation of IT strategies that enhanceshareholdervalueandgovernmentinabetteruseofthebank’sfunds.

Bank’s benefits:—helpingclientsensurethatITisdeliveringvalue;—ensuringthatITisabletosupportbusinessstrategies;—strengtheninginternalITcontrolstosupportoverallcorporate

governanceframeworks.

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electronic business risk management services E-businesscontinuestochange“theshapeofbank,thespeedof

action,thenatureofleadership”,alongwiththerisksandopportunitiesbanksface.Asaresult,everyorganizationneedstoensureeffectivebusinesscontrolstosustainaprofitableposition.

Moldovanbanksdevelopacomprehensivesuiteofmethodologiesdesigned specifically to provide an end-to-end riskmanagementframeworktobusinessesontheInternetinthefollowingways:

—helpinge-businessesinevaluatingandstrengtheningthecontrolsestablishedinidentifyingandmanagingtherisksduringthestrategicdecisionmakingprocess

—assessingtherobustnessofbusinessprocessesinhandlingever-increasingloadsinaconsistentmanner,withassuredendresults

—evaluatingtheconsistenceofwebpresencewiththeorganizationalimageandprovidinggoodpracticestoenhancevisibility

—enhancingreliability,availability,andconsistencyofsystemsperformance inmeeting thebusiness requirements and improve thecustomer’sexperience

—providing an ongoing service to secure theweb presenceagainsteverincreasingandinnovatingexternalandinternalelementsofthreat

AnElectronicBusinessRiskManagementReview identifiesthecapabilitiesdevelopedbyane-businessisdevelopingacontrolsframeworkandtheprogressachievedinimplementingthem.

it performance Successful professionals need to focus on bottom-line results

bymaximizing business performance,minimizing operational risk,andgaining control over IT systems andprocesses.Optimizing theeffectivenessandefficiencyofpeople,processes,andtechnologiesiscriticalforthesurvivalandsuccessofthebank.

Moldovan banks systematically strive for excellence bybenchmarkingthemselvesagainstestablished‘goodpractices’.Theyaligntheirstrategiesfromtoptobottom,viewtheirITinfrastructureasamissioncriticalbusinessenabler,considertheirITgroupasabusinesspartner,andsatisfytheircustomers.

Bank benefits: —improvedoverallbusinessperformance—efficientbusinesssystemsandprocesses

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—betterunderstandingoftheunderlyingcontrols—reducedrisksassociatedwithIT—effectiveutilizationoforganizationalassets

Project risk management Technological advances fuel the speed atwhich theMoldovan

bankingsystemenvironmenttransitionsanddevelops.Tosurviveandprosper,anorganizationmustseizenewtechnologyopportunitiesthatbenefit the business.These include, amongothers, developingnewroutestomarket,improvingcustomerinformationorstreamliningkeybusinessprocesses.However,therisksassociatedwithsuchprojectsarecomplexanddifficulttomanage;andthecostoffailurehuge.

Bankstakeappropriateandtimelyprojectactiontoavoidexpensivedelaysandfailure.Theirgoalsareaimedat reviewingtheprogress,organizationandmanagementofprojects,selectingpackagedsoftwareandimprovingdataintegrity.

Bank benefits: —objectiveassessmentoftheeffectivenessofprojectmanagement

controlsprovidingassurancetoseniormanagementand/orexternalparties

—proactiveadviceonenhancingprocessesandcontrolstomitigateprojectrisks,increasethelikelihoodoftheprojectmeetingitsobjectivesandreducingcoststothebusiness(theseinclude—unquantifiablecostssuchasatarnishedimage,frustration,poorstaffmoraleandwastedtime)

—independentandobjectiveassessmentoftheprocessforselectingpackagedsoftware

—experiencetoanalyzeandcleandataaswellasadviceonthecontrolsrequired,ifmanagementistoplacerelianceondata

It internal audit Technologyisnotjustatooltosupportbank’sfunctions:instead

it is creating new needs, products, organizational structures andevenbusinessmodels.BanksthatexcelinexploitingITandInternettechnologygainsignificantcompetitiveadvantage.

These advances present a huge challenge to the InternalAuditfunctioninprovidingeffectiveassuranceandadviceovertherisksandcontrolsinthisrapidlychangingenvironment.

ITInternalAuditcanbeprovidedaspartofafullinternalauditco-sourcingoroutsourcingarrangement,orasastand-aloneservice.

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OurbankstendtohighlyexperiencedstaffandarangeofprofessionalshavingindepthknowledgeofInternetsecurity,businessapplicationcontrols,projectrisk,andbusinesscontinuity.

Bank’s benefits: —updated technical knowledge and the business experience

requiredforthisfunction—strengthened IT internal controls environment and thus, a

strongeroverallcorporategovernanceframework—identificationandmanagementoffinancialandoperationalrisks

embeddedinbusinesssystemsAs an example of howMoldovan banksmanage these types

of riskswe bring into discussion theMoldovaAgroindbank’s riskmanagementpolicy.Inordertominimizethem,thebankadministratestherisksrelatedtotheenvironmentofdatae-processing:theriskofinformationconfidentiality,theriskofinformationintegrity,theriskofcontinuityfunctionalityofthebasiccomponents,theriskofsecurityofthefunctioningenvironment.

ThebankingIT’sriskmanagementisperformedthrough:—Elaboration,systematicalactualizationandpracticalapplication

ofthebank’sContinuityBusinessPlan;—PeriodicallyanalysisoftheITriskswiththeapplicationofthe

acceptedinternationalmethodologies;—Systematic control of the information securitywith regard

tothebank’semployeesandthirdparts thatperformtothebankIToutsourcingservices;

—Identificationoftheinterninformationsourceswithregardtotheoperationallossesevents,thustobeincludedinthedatabaseforthemeasurementandmonitoringrisksfacilitation;

—Use of licensed antivirus programs, limited access to theinformationboth,attechnicalandprogramlevels,useofmorelevelsofprotection;

—Passing in real terms of the bank’s management to theInternationalStandardsofInformationSecurityBS7799/ISO177;

Alsothebankdevelopsandappliesthenecessaryproceduresandmechanisms,includingreservesandmeasuresofrecoveryincasesofdisasters;systematicalmodernizationandaccessibilityandreliabilityinsuranceof the bank’s IT; implementationof specificprocesses inaccordance to the InternationalStandards likeCOBIT, for example(ControlObjectivesInformationTechnology).

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Inconclusion,wemaysaythatasoundriskmanagementinwhichconcerns innovations provides a higher efficiency andproductivity,increased number of customers, thus better services/ products, animprovedimageonthefinancialmarketandconsequentlytheleadershipposition.

Moldovan banksmust develop their own strategywith regardto banking innovations in accordancewith their needs and futureexpectations.Byhavingalargeexperienceintheback,thechallengeforinnovationimplementationatpresent,thefutureofMoldovanbankscanbedrawninbrightcolorsofprofitabilityandsuccessinthepictureofinnovation.

bibliography:Claessens, Stijn.Competitive implications of cross-border1.banking.Washington:TheWorldBank,February2006.DodgsonMark.Themanagement of technical innovation:2. an international and strategic approach.Oxford:OxfordUniversityPress2000.InternationalMonetaryFund.Asymmetricinformationandthe3. marketstructureofthebankindustry.Washington:InternationalMonetaryFund,June1998.

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alina Din, PhD. stud., University “Lucian Blaga”, Sibiu - Romania

CApITAL MARkET UNDER ThE IMpACT OF GLObALIzATION

The paper intends to identify elements which nowadays naturally bind the Romanian capital market to external financial circuits and to evaluate the dynamics of these one into a world of multiple conditionings in which the juxtaposition of influences may generate the intensification or disruption of the effects, and their reproduction in different circumstances may lead to results situated beyond anticipations.

GLOBALIzATION OF CAPITAL MARKeTsThedirectionofinternalizationofstockexchangesanddevelopment

ofaglobalfinancialmarketmayhavenegativeconsequences.InFelixRohatyn’sopinion“globalfinancialmarketsareagreater

dangertodaytoworld’sstabilityevenmorethanatomicweapons”.Thesuccessionoffinancialcrisesinthe‘90sstartingwithMexico

andfinishingwithSouthKorea,RussiaorBrasiliaisanargumentusedbyglobalization’sopponents.Themainfactoroffinancialcrisesinthelastdecadeisalsothefactorofglobalizationofcapitalmarkets,whichspeededthecapitalmovements.

Unlikepreviousdecades,nowadaysnationaleconomiesintegratedin global economical circuitmust be prepared anytime in order tofaceeventualshocksfromtheexterior.Theisolationfromtheglobaleconomyisnotasolutioninordertoescapefromthedangersimplied.A strong economywith a solid financial compartment, open andtransparentmayfacesuccessfullytheprovocationsbroughtbychangesontheinternationallevel.

Thereduceddegreeofregulationofinternationalmarketenhancestheopportunitiesofspeculations1andthusmayaffectthestabilityofnationalcapitalmarkets.

Aglobalizedfinancialsystemwherehundredsofmilliarddollarsmay circulate simultaneously as a reaction to the latest news andeventuallyonlyon thegroundsof somepsychological factors,maybecomeanunstablesystem.

Thespeculativemovementsrepresentasignificantperturbantsourcewhichattemptstothestabilityoffinancialmarkets.Theoverwhelmingfinancialpowerofprivateinvestorsmaycreateproblemseventothemostpowerfulgovernments.

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AfamiliarexamplewhichshowsthepotentialsourceofinstabilitygeneratedbyglobalizationistheoneofRaringsBank.

Nowadays,onaglobalmarketwithglobalinvestorstheinternationalflowsofcapitalmayaffectthewholesystemwiththeriskofbeingasourceofinstability.Theintercorrelationofnationalfinancialmarketsallowsthemorerapidtransferofwaveshocksandtheconsequencesofadominoeffectgeneralizedatglobalscalearehardtoimagine.Thetechnologicalrevolutionreducedtheautonomyofnationalmarketsandincreasedtheirvolatility.

GLOBALIzATION AND FINANCIAL VOLATILITYThefinancialcrisesofthesecondhalfofthe‘90sthreatenedthe

globalizedsystemofcapitalmarketsandbroughtspectacularreductionsofproductiononashortterm.Thevolatilityofcapitalflowsmeasuredasastandarddeviationtothemeanofadmissions–exitsoffinancialresourcesplacedunderdoubtthecapacityofmarketstoactuateincreasesonalongtermandthusthedevelopmentofnationaleconomies.

In a reciprocal sense one intended the influence of financialglobalization to themacro economical volatility –measured as astandarddeviationoftheconsumptionandproductiontothemean.

Inspiteofthefactthatthevolatilityofcapitalflowsinhibitsthedevelopment,recentevaluationsshowthefactthatcountrieslearntomanagemoreandmorebettertheirvolatility.Thus,theratherharshprocessofglobalfinancialintegrationoffer–ifwell-managed–thepossibilityofsomeeconomicalgrowths.

The volatility of capital flows,measured either as a standarddeviation to themeanofadmissions–exits,orasadeviation to theaverageproportionbetweentheflowsandtheinternalbruteproductmaybetheresultofaninternalcauseaswellasofanexternalone:

▪The changes in the internal financial politics, for example,may determine reactions of the capital flowswhen these kinds ofmodifications are frequent and unpredictable. In this situation, thevolatilityisconsideredasymptomofthedeficienciesofpoliticsratherthanarisk.

▪Ontheothersidetherearetheopinionsaccordingtowhichthemovementsofcapitalflowsarealmostindependenttothefundamentaleconomicalbalancesofthestates–thevolatilityoftheflowsisthusowed to the state of global liquidities and ‘contagious’ conduct ofinvestors.

Anintermediatevisionbindsinternalweaknesses–especiallyinthefinancialsector–totheimperfectionsofglobalallocationofcapital

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flows.Therelationaffectsespeciallythecountrieswhichliberalizetheirfinancialsectorsinthesametimewiththeopeningoftheeconomiestotheexternalcapital.

This perspective led to the general accepted importance ofconsolidationof internalfinancial sector in the same timewith thefinancialintegrationwiththerestoftheworld.

Duringthelastyearsthevolatilityonalongtermofcapitalflows,thoughevenincreasedor increasinginsomecountrieshasrecordeddeflationsinthegroupofstateindevelopment.Thesignsofreducingofvolatilityaswellastheperceptionofthefactthatsomecountriesgotinshaperelativelysoonfromthecrisesdeterminedtheobserverstoconcludethat thecountriessucceededtoamelioratetheabilitytomanagethevolatilityofcapitalflowsbysuchmeansas:

diversificationofthestructuresofproduction �introductionofflexiblerateofexchange �preservationofahigherlevelsofcurrencystores �consolidationoftheobservationofthefinancialsector �ratingofcapitaladmissionsinordertomaintainundercontrol �themostvolatileflows.

ReGulation anD obSeRvation OF NATIONAL CAPITAL MARKeTs

The national organisms of observation of capitalmarket haveas theirmainmission toensure theprotectionof the investorswhoplacedmoneyinvaluetitles,permanentinformationoftheinvestors,authorizationofthecreationandobservationofthecourseofactivityfortheinstitutionsimpliedinthefieldandthewellfunctioningofthemarketsorganizedinmovablevalues.

Theyhavealsothetasktoexamineiftherearepersonswhobenefitfromprivilegedorconfidentialinformation.Oneoftheantinomyoftheexchange:knowingoftherealityprevioustothe‘market’isasourceofbenefitbut theconfidentialpieceof information is, theoretically,unusable.

Inmorecountriesonecanobservethetendencytounifythewholeresponsibilitiesofregulationandobservationofnationalcapitalmarketinthehandsofasingleinstitution.

Theexistenceinmoreandmorecountriesofthepreoccupationofagglomerationoftasksofobservationhasthedisadvantageofalackofresponsibility.

Thetendencytoreunitealltheresponsibilitiesofregulationandobservationofnationalcapitalmarketinthedutyofoneinstitutiondo

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nothavetobemixedwiththatofunificationofobservationforthewholefinancialmarketbutcanrepresentafirststepinthisdirection.

Intheattempttofulfilltheirobjectives,theroleofthe‘peaceofficeroftheexchange’,theorganismsofobservationofthemarketareinvestedwithpowersofexecutiveandjudicialregulation:

powersofregulationwiththeviewtothepossibilitytopromote �regulation,instructions,recommendations,etc;executivepowerswhichrefertotheactivitiesofnotifyingof �publicoffers,ofobservingofthemarket;judicialpowersinaccordancewiththepossibilitiestoproceed �to investigations if one observes the break of the laws inthefieldorofproperregulations,thecasesbeingabletobesenttothelawcourtorbeingdirectlyexecutedbypenaltiesor administrativemeasurement to the society ofmovablevalues.

Inthefuture,theproblemofauniqueauthorityofobservationandregulationforthewholefinancialmarketwillbeoneofactuality,onetakingintoaccountthetendencyofsendingtothebankstheimplicationonthecapitalmarket.

TeNDeNCIes OF DeReGuLARIzATIONs OF CAPITAL MARKeTs

Theconceptofderegularizationdoesnotimplytherenouncementofregularizations.Capitalmarketscontinuetoremainregularized.

Thetendencyofderegularizationmanifestedinternationallyhasinviewaphenomenonofliberalizationofthemarkets,ofopeningofnational capitalmarkets. In this sense the deregularizationmust beregardedalsorelatedtothephenomenonofaccelerateglobalizationofnationalcapitalmarkets.

THe eMBRYOs OF FINANCIAL CRIses anD Global financeS

Theproblemoftheimperfectionsofthemarketariseswhenthereappearfrictionsbetweenthecapitalmovementsandthefundamentalindicatorsandwhenthedisciplineofthemarketprovestobeweak.This is the case, for example,whencapitalflows refer to countrieswithunsustainablepoliticsor,onthecontrary,whenfinancingsontheexternal capitalmarketsareeitherunavailable,or tooexpensiveforcountrieswhichotherwisehavecorrectpoliticsandperspectivesonthecapitalmarkets.

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“Inthebattlebetweennationsmattersnotsomuchthedifferentdivisions or ideologies as the capacity to attract and hold theinvestors”2.

Accordingtothehypothesisofthearbitrationbetweenfinancialpolitics,thedifferencesinthequalityofthemanagementofeconomicalpolitics represent important determinants of the volume, terms anddirectionofcapitalflows.Thus,theseflowstendtocomefromcountrieswithrelativelyinstableeconomicalpoliticstocountrieswithhealthyeconomicalpoliticsandgoodperspectives.

Anyconflictwhichcanappearinthiswaybetweenthenationaland international interests refer not somuch to thedirectionof thecapitalmovements,astotheirvolume.Ifaneconomyreceivesavolumeofcapitalsbigger than itscapacityofabsorption, theadmissionsofcapitalwilldestabilizethefundamentalbalancesandriseproblemtothemonetarypoliticsandtheoneoftherateexchange.

Themanagementoffinancialcrisesresidesinthearbitraryofthetwoopponentrealitieswhichgovernsthenationalmarkets:thecontrolofcapitalflowswhichassumesacertaindegreeofeconomicalplanningontheonehand,andthepressureofgroupofinterests,ontheother.Thejudgmentsareaggravatedbythepsychologyoftheregularintervenientonthecapitalmarket.

the SimPle cauSe of a financial cRiSeS:Inventions–EmergentMarkets–EconomicalBoomThese tendenciesare increasedby thefact thatanyeconomical

‘boom’isthecarrierofagreatinflationarypotential.Theexpansionofthecrisisisanattributeoftheseoneswhichraises

questionmarksandaccentuatestheurgencyregimeoftheproblematicoffinancialcrises.OnenoticesthattheimpactofthecrisesinthedecadesIXandXtothegroupofcountriesOECDwasinsignificantandthatthelossesregisteredinthecountriesincriseswouldequalonly2-3yearsofeconomicalgrowth.

Moreover,theinnovationandthefinancialintermediationfacilitatethecirculationwithoutfurrowsofsomeimmensecapitals–inclusivelyofthe‘blackmoney’–withevidenteffectstonationaleconomies3.

concluSionSRomaniancapitalmarketdevelops,initsturn,aprocessofevolution,

exceedingthephaseoftheemergencyofsystembutremainingatthestageofsearchingandpartialandsometimespainfulconsolidations,

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takingitsproperrhythmsofinternaleconomyandaspiringtothestatuteofadelicateinstrument.

InordertocircumscribetheRomaniancapitalmarketwithintheinternationalfinancial space it is necessary the identificationof thebroadcadreoftheinfluencesoftheglobalizationtothemarketsandcapitalflowsbutespeciallytotheonesofeconomiesintransitionwithahigherdegreeofvulnerability.

Regionalinitiativesandcommuneplansofactionwhichsustainthemdetermine the profile ofmany of the transformationswhichRomanianexchangesandotherfinancialsystemsoperatedorhavetooperatesoon.ThenewEuropeaneconomicalgeography,theproblemsofmonetaryandfinancialunion,internalsectorialbetsandeventhosesocialofEuropeancommunityseemdistantsubjectsbuttheyactuallyhave the capacity to significantly influence andon a long term theintegrationoftheRomanianmarket–aswellasofsomeothermarkets–intheEuropeanfinancialarena.

In thepresenceofglobal structural forceswhichdetermine themovementsof thecapitals, theroleof internalfiscalropesbecomescrucial.Theseoneavoidthecostsassociatedwithdifferenttypesofpoliticsofsterilizationandrepresentasubstitutefortheflexibilityoftherateofexchange.Nevertheless,fewcountrieshavereliedsofaronthefiscalpoliticsinordertocontroltheadmissionofthecapitalduetoitsinflexiblecharacter

Fiscalcontractioncanplayabeneficroleasaninstrumentforthestabilizationofthecapitalsonashorttermandtheconservativefiscalpositionshouldoccupyacentralrole in thecontrolof thecountrieswhichareinaphaseofgrowthofthefinancialintegration.

Duringextensivefinancialintegrationthedirectionandsizeofthecapitalflowsbecomeverysensitivetotheperceptionoftheinvestorsoninternalpublicsolvabilityandlimitfiscalflexibility.Moreover,duringvolatilityofcapitalsthepreventivetighteningoffiscalpoliticsmayhelptheprotectionofimportantcapitalsofincomesandexpenses.Evenifthefiscalpositionhastobeconsolidateinfrontofthevolatilityofthegreatcapitalflows,thenecessarymodificationswillbelessimportantifthegovernmenthasalreadyconsolidatedthefiscalpolitics.Thiswillhelpthegoverntoavoidtheeventualsignificantadjustmentsoffiscalprogrammes.

Theconclusion,aswellasthewayofapproachingarecertainlyperfectibleanddeservetheeffortofafutureampleresearch.Inaddition,the legislative initiatives and the structural changes for the capital

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marketinthenearfuturewillgeneratenewelementsofanalysisandwillreconfiguredynamicallyoneoftheyoungestsectorsofRomanianeconomy.

bibliography: PopaI.Bursa,Vol.II,Ed.Adevărul,Bucureşti,19941.GalloisDominiqueBursa.Origine şi evoluţie, Ed.Teora,2. Bucureşti,1999BogdanConstantinA.Pieţe de capital şimanagementul3. portofoliilor,Ed.Junimea,Iaşi,2005AnghelacheGabrielaPieţe de capital şi bursede valori ,4. Ed.AdevărulS.A.,Bucureşti,DăracNicolae,19925. StancuIon6.Bratu ŞtefanBursa de valori,Ed.Universitaria,Craiova ,7.1994GaliceanuIon8. CiobanuGheorgheBursedevalorişitranzacţiilelabursa,9.Ed.Economică,1997CoyleDianeGuvernareaeconomieimondiale,Ed.AntetXX10.Press,2000DăianuDanielRomâniaşiUniuneEuropeană.Inflaţie,balanţa11.deplăţi,creştereVrînceanuRadueconomică,Ed.Polirom,200212.LuigiPopescuPieţedecapitalşibursedevalori,Ed.Sitech,13.Craiova,2005

References:1Popa I., The Excahnge, vol. II, The Truth, Bucharest, 1994, p. 234.2Gallois Dominique, The exchange. Origin and evolution, Teora, Bucharest, 1999, p. 154.3Bogdan Constantin Andronic, Capital markets and management of portfolios, Junimea, Iasi, 2005, pp. 184-185.

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natalia coDReanu, PhD, stud.

INFLATION TARGETING

Today the central banks of many states face a dilemma: they have to decide what is more important – to fight the inflation or to create conditions for economic growth (including ensuring stability in their financial and bank systems). The economy of the Republic of Moldova can not stay outside these globalization processes.

TheConsumerPrice Index inMoldova amounted to 13.1 percentin2007,whiletheestimatedfigurewasof10percent.Itmustbementionedthatthelastyearinflationlevelexceededtheforecastsinothercountriestoo.IntheneighboringUkrainetheconsumerpriceindexamountedto16.6percentinsteadoftheforecasted9.6percent.TheindexrecordedinBelaruswasof12.1percent,tocomparewiththeforecasted6-8percent.ThefinalresultsofriseinpricesinRussiawereof11.9percent,whileitwasestimatedthatitwouldbepossibletokeeptheinflationwithinthelimitsof7-8percent.TheinflationintheEuropeanUnionincreasedfrom1.9percentto3.1percent,i.e.bymorethan1.5times.TheinflationinLatviareachedarecordlevelfortheEU-14percent;inEstoniaandLithuaniathisfigureamountedto9.7percentand8.2percentcorrespondingly.Amongtheneighboringcountries,thebestindexwasrecordedbyRomania-6.7percent.Thebeginningof2008didnotbringaneasetotheconditionsofMoldovaneconomy,astheinflationratesincreasedrapidlyraisingdoubtsaboutthepossibilityofmaintainingtheconsumerpriceindexatthelevelsrecordedlastyear.

BasedontheneedtofulfillthemaintaskoftheNationalBankofMoldova-toensureandtosupportthepricestability,onNovember8, 2007 theAdministrationBoard of theNBMapproved the planofactions for the implementationof the inflation targetingstrategy,whichprovidesfordevelopmentofmacroeconomicanalyses,inflationmodelingandforecasts,improvementofthemechanismofmonetarypolicytransmissionaswellasdevelopmentofapopulationawarenessraisingpolicyandimplementationofmeasuresaimingat increasingtheconfidenceofthepopulationinthemonetarypolicyappliedbytheNationalBankofMoldova.

Theinflationtargetingisaneconomicsystemoriginatingfromthe

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endofthe80’s,whichprovidesforapprovalandofficialdeclarationofthetargetedinflationindexforoneorseveralperiods,aswellasfortheresponsibilityofthecentralbankforthepricestabilityasthebasictaskofthemonetarypolicy.Usingasimplelanguage,theessenceofthemethodistheideathattheinflationisthemainenemyandthefightagainst it takes priority over the economic growth index.Thus, byincreasingtheinterestrates,theregulatormanagesthecashflowandreducestheinflationpressure.

Theprincipleofinflationtargetinghasbeenusedbymanybothdeveloped and developing states, such asAustralia,Brazil,GreatBritain,Hungary,Israel,Indonesia,Canada,Columbia,Korea,Mexico,NewZealand,Norway,Peru,Poland,Romania,Slovakia,Thailand,Philippines,theCzechRepublic,Chile,SwedenandtheRSAsincetheendofthelastcentury.Accordingtothisprinciple,whenpriceincreaseandtheinflationexceedtheforecastedlevels,thecentralbankmustraisetheinterestrates.BesidestherefinancingratestheCentralBankhasamoreefficientanti-inflationtool–themandatoryreserverequirements.ThebankstransferacertainpercentageoftheattractedassetstotheMandatoryReservesFund.TheseassetsarefrozenontheaccountsoftheCBandthecreditingorganizationscannotusethemevenfortheshorttermreplenishmentofliquidity.

The experience of the abovementioned countries shows that inthelongruntheinflationtargetingpolicycandecreasetheinflationbytwice.Itishoweveramatteroftime,alongperiodoftime.Theinflationtargetingmustnotbeanextrememethodoffightingagainstthepricesincrease.It is important tomakeagradualtransitiontothissystem.Besides, there are several important prerequisites for the inflationtargetingtobecomesuccessful.Firstofall,thecreditmarketmustbeahigh-scaleone,sothatTheCentralBankcanmanageefficientlytheoverallcreditingsystemthroughtheinterestrates.ItisknownthatsuchamarketdoesnotexistinMoldova.Therefinancingratesestablishedby theNBMplayarather indicativerole thanarea real instrumentofmonetarymassregulationintheeconomy.Secondly,theinflationtargetingisdeterminedbythefloatingexchangerate,basedonthestablepaymentbalance.IfthefloatingrateisintroducedinMoldovatoday,itwillhaveasshorttermconsequencesthequickstrengtheningofthepositionofLeuandthelossofcompetitivenessofthelocalproducers;inthelongtermitwillresultinthenegativevalueofthetradebalanceandthestartofdecreaseofthegoldandcurrencyreserves.

Someofthecharacteristicsof inflationtargetingsystemarethe

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measuresforbudgetexpensesreduction,introductionofastrictbudgetdiscipline and decrease of trade banks crediting by theCB.Thesemeasuresresultinthelowerratesofindustrycreditingbythebanks,decreaseofliquidity,reductionofinvestmentsandconsumerdemand,suspensionoftheincreaseofpopulationincomes.

AccordingtotheNBM,aswellastotheexpertsfromtheIMF,themainreasonofpriceincreasesisthegrowingvolumeofthemonetarymass incirculation,which isnotcounterbalancedby theequivalentindustrygrowthinthecountry.ThesterilizationofthemonetarymassthroughattractionofunallocatedbankassetsistooexpensivefortheCB.During the last 18months (first through the attractionofbankassetstourgentpayabledepositsandlaterthroughtheissueofincomecertificates)theNationalBankhasdivertedfromonetotwobillionleifromthemarket.Theseactionsweresuccessfultoacertainextentattheinitialstage.However,startingwiththefall2007theinterestratesincreasedfrom13.27percentto16.82inAprilthisyear.TheNMhastofindnowforthemeanstopaytheinterestsforthe“absorbedmoney”ontheaccountofitsincome.Thisincomebecameinsufficientalreadyattheendof2007.

Thepossibilitytoinfluencethemarketthroughthechangeofthesocalled“basicrate”existsonlytheoretically.Thisisnotmorethanasignal tothebankcommunityandtheoverallmarket.Themarketoperatorshavetodecideiftheyshouldfollowthissignalorjustignoreit.Therefore, sometimes theNationalBankofMoldovahas in factnoothersolutionbutincreasingthemandatoryreservesrequirementsappliedtotheattracteddeposits.

The increase of themandatory reserves requirements from16percentto22percentbecameacertainchallengetothecommercialbanks.Inaquiteshortperiodoftimetheyhadtocollectasignificantamountofliquidity-morethan1.55billionlei.Itcouldbedoneinthefollowingways:byclosingsomeofitspositionsinstatesecuritiesandNBMcertificates,decreasingthevolumeofcreditingandincreasingtheinterestratesfortheattractivedeposits.Theaveragerateappliedtourgentdepositsinleihasincreasedsincethebeginningoftheyearby2.88percentamountingto18.69percentandby3.83percentto10.32percentondepositsinforeigncurrency.Itmustbeacknowledgedthattheeffortsofthebanksprovedtobeuseful-insevenmonthstherateofriseinassetsamountedto20.5percent.Thebanksthat engaged in thefightfortheattractionoftheunusedassetsofthepopulationandoftheeconomicagentsfromtheverybeginningrecordedthehighest

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ratesofdepositsincrease:„MICB”–23,1%,„Victoriabank”–19,4%,„MAIB”–15,4%,„BEM”–14,2%.Because the resourcesbecamemoreexpensive,thebankshadtoincreasetheinterestratesoncredits,asthemainindicatorofabankefficiencyisitsprofitability.TheaverageinterestrateoncreditsamountedinJulyto21,45%oncreditsinleiandto12,27%oncreditsinforeigncurrency.Theborrowershavetopaynowby2.45%moreforcreditsinleiandby1.6%forcreditsinforeigncurrencycomparedtothepreviousyear.Itmustbementionedthatboththeconsumerscreditsandthecreditsgiventoeconomicagentsbecamemoreexpensive(whichis,infact,whatNBtriedtoachieve).Andwhilethedemandforevensuchexpensivecreditsremainsrelativelyhigh,thevolumeofcreditingincreasedsincethebeginningof2008onlyby15.2percent,whilein2007thebanksmanagedtoincreasethecreditingvolumeby6923leior50.1percent.

TalkingaboutthedecreaseoftheeconomycreditingvolumesitmustberemindedoftheEUtradepreferentialconditionsprovidedtoMoldovarecently.TheGovernmentmadehugeefforts tobeable tobenefitofthissystemofpreferences:thesystemofproductscertificationhad beenmodified, newprocedures related to the export of goodshadbeen implemented, etc.TodayMoldovauses these preferentialconditionsat thelevelof60percent.Inorder tousetheremaininglimitofpreferencestheproductionvolumesmustbeincreased,whichat its turnrequiresavailablecredit resources.However thesituationinthebanksectordoesnothelpitatall.IfMoldovaisnotabletousetheopportunitiesprovidedbytheEuropeanUnion,theimageofourcountrycanbeaffectedanditwillhaveanegativeimpactonthefurtherrelationshipswiththeEuropeanUnion.

Thus,thebanksystemresistedbyincreasingthemandatoryreservesrequirements and ingeneral terms it prevented the lossof liquidity(thoughonequarterofthebanksparticipatinginthesystemrecordedadropintheliquidassets).Howevertheprofitabilityofthebankingbusinessdecreasedsignificantly.TheNBpaysfortheassetsreservedbythebanksanaveragerateof0.5%.Ifthebankswereabletousetheseassets,theywouldreceive18-20percentonlyonstatesecurities,andevenmoreonthecredits.Besides,themargin(thedifferencebetweentheaverage interest rateonurgentdepositsand theaverage rateoncredits)alsodecreases.Itamountedto2.86percentinJuly,comparedto7.7percentrecordedlastyear.TheminimalmarginwasrecordedbyInvestprivatbank-2.7percent,whilethehighestindicatorbelongstoEurocreditbank-16.3percent.Thedecreaseoftheinterestmarginmust

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challengethebankstoincreasetherangeofnon-creditbankoperationsandservicesthatbringprofitsgeneratedbytheinterestrates.Inthefirst7monthsofthecurrentthecapitalincreaseduetotheoverallprofitofthebankswithinthesystemamountedtoover750millionlei,or15%.Duetotheprofessionalmanagement,thecommercialbankscouldachievequitegoodprofitindicators,eveniftheyhadtocoveranimportantpartofexpensesforthereductionofinflation.Thisisanotherjustificationoftheincreasedinterestofforeigninvestorsinourbanksystem.

«Theinflationtargeting»,performedbytheNBandwhichresultedin the increaseofmandatory reserves requirementshad someotherinterestingconsequences.Inordertoachievethenewlevelofreservesinforeigncurrencythebankshadeithertotakesourcesfromthecreditlinesortoattractforeignassets.Thebanksthatdonothaveaccesstoforeigncreditlinesacceptedcreditrepaymentsinforeigncurrencyinordertobeabletomeetthenewreservesrequirements.Underthesecircumstances,thebanksthatarefinanciallysupportedfromabroadhaveanadvantagecomparedtotheircompetitors,astheycanattracttheclientsofotherbanksrequiringcreditsinforeigncurrency.Thedemandforcheapercreditsinforeigncurrencyisgrowing;thevolumeofcreditsgrantedinforeigncurrencyinJulyamountedto113.3millioninUSDequivalent(MDL1111.4million),whichisbyUSD19.4millionmorethaninJune.Onthecontrary,thevolumeofcreditsgrantedinMDLdecreasedby97.1millionleito1355.5millionleiinJuly.Theurgentneedinforeigncurrency resourcesmakes theMoldovanbanksmuchmoreflexiblein establishing the crediting conditions andeven in considering theintroductionorextensionofforeigninvestorsparticipationintheirsharecapital.Theshareof foreign investments inMoldovanbanksystemincreasedfrom64percentto72percentinthelasttwelvemonths.Duetothesharpincreaseofreservesrequirementstheinfluenceofforeigncapitalbankswillbegrowingwithhigherrates.

Thebanksthatdonotbenefitofsufficientsupportfromtheforeignbankswillbesubjecttoincreasedcompetitionfromnon-bankcreditandleasinginstitutions.Thenumberofthelatterisascendingandtherecentstatisticsshowariseintheircapitalduetoforeigninvestmentsflow.Asthenon-bankingfinancialinstitutionsarenotsubjecttothecompulsoryreserves increase requirements, the loans granted by their foreignpartnerscontinuetobethemainsourceofcompaniesfinancing.

AccordingtotheNationalBankofMoldova,thecorrectitudeoftheappliedmonetarypolicyisconfirmedbythesignificantchangeoftheannualinflationtrend.Indeed,accordingtotheNationalBureauof

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Statisticstheinflationleveldecreasedfromthemaximalvalueof16.9%recordedinMay2008to13.4%inJuly.Thepricesfor thefoodproductsdecreasedby3.3percent(attheendofthesummerthepricesforvegetablesandfruitsaredecreasingonthemarkets),atthesametimethepricesfornon-foodproductsandservicesincreasedby0.3and0.7percentcorrespondingly.ItshowsagainthattheinflationimpulsescausedbytheriseinenergypricesaswellasbythefalloftheUSdollarpositionhaveanevidentglobalcharacter.Theconsolidationofmonetarymethodsofinflationcombatingwithinthecurrenteconomicframeworkscannothaveadecisiveimpact.Ofcourse,theycanalsobeusedwithinreasonablelimits,butthefocusmustbesetontheincreaseof(bothindustrialandagricultural)productsupply.Themonetarypolicygoalsmustconsistofsupportofthenecessarymoneysupplyandliquiditylevelinthebanksystem,ensuringthenecessaryeconomygrowthratherthaninthefightagainstinflationbyallmeans.

Themonetarismreflectingtheeconomicconditionsofdevelopedcountriestheeconomicgrowthratesofwhicharequitelow-notmorethat3-5percent,wascreatedinordertosolvetheproblemofincreaseoftheirmarketefficiencythatstartedbeingaffectednegativelybytheactiveinvolvementofthestate.However,theeconomyofdevelopingcountries,which in fact are countries retarded in their economicdevelopment,requirestheinflowofmonetarymassnecessaryfortherevivingoftheeconomy,evenifitimpliesamoderateinflation.Forthese countries, the dogmatic observance ofmonetarismprinciplesis nothing else but themechanismof conservation of their currentretardation.Atthesametime,theotherextreme-excessiveinvestmentsinnon-efficientprojects-shouldbeavoided,asitwillcertainlyleadtoinflation.ThemostreasonablestrategyconsistsintheflexibleuseofbothliberaleconomyvaluesandaKeynesianapproach.

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Section iii. social policies and labour market

Dr. ing.Gabriel vaSileScu – INCD INSEMEX Petrosani, RomaniaDr. ing. Angelica DRăGHICI - INCD INSEMEX Petrosani, Romania

Prof.. dr.eng. Nicolae ILIAş - University of Petrosani, RomaniaEc. inga cioaRa- University of Petrosani, Romania

ESTAbLIShING ThE ACCEpTAbLE RISk LEVEL CONSIDERING ThE FORMAL

ANALySyS OF ThE FUNCTION RELATED TO ThE STRUCTURE OF COSTS INVOLVED by OCCUpATIONAL ACCIDENTS AND DISEASES

The literature says that the occupational safety is that state of the working system where there is no possibility that occupational accidents and diseases should occur.Considering the specific features of the component elements there are no such full safe working systems for men because there is always a hazard of occupational accidents and diseases.Generally speaking, all the component parts of the system, together with the relations built among them have been conceived, designed and produced so that there is no possible occurrence of occupational accidents and /or diseases; never the less, the carrying out of the working process shall wear out these component parts. In addition, no matter how well the performer may be selected, his behavior cannot be taken into consideration because it depends on the variables of his momentary state of mind.

1. GeneralsEach real systemdisplays awider or narrower deviation

fromtheidealstateofoccupationalsafety.Thisdeviationshallafterinthelongruninrelationtothestatusandevolutionofthecomponentelementsofthesystem.

Consequently,theoptimumshapingoftheoccupationalsafetyinaworkingsysteminvolvesthefollowingtargets:

Apermanentawarenessofthedeviationmagnitude; �Establishingthemaximumaccepteddeviationfromtheideal �state;Correctingthemagnitudeofthedeviationandbringingitto �themaximumaccepted limit by preventive and protectivemeasures.

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Establishingthemagnitudeofthedeviationmeansanevaluationof the occupational health and safety risk i.e. establishing the realamplitudeofthisstatus.

Ifwetakeintoconsiderationtheoverallcostsoftheoccupationalsafety(madeupofthefollowingelements:costsinvolvedbytheriskstudyreportsandbythesafetygears–aprioricosts–andcostsrelatedtotheresultsofoccupationalaccidentsanddiseases–aposterioricosts),wecanestablishan„economically”reasonablevalue,byconsideringthepreviouslyevaluatedlevelsoftheresidualoccupationallackofsafetyandtheinvestmentcostsandthecostsrelatedtotheeffortsmadetorehabilitatetheworkingsystemthathasbeendamaged.

2. establishing the background for the occupational riskStartingfromtheideathattherearenoabsolutelysafeworking

systems,ithastobeestablishedtheextendtowhichtheoccupationalsafetyofthesystemisacceptable,consideringthepossibleoccurrenceofoccupationalaccidentanddiseases.

Inordertobeabletoadoptadecisioninthisspirititisnecessarytogetameanstoexpressoccupationalsafetywhichshouldmeettwoconditions:

Thehighestpossiblelevelofimpartiality; �Itshouldallowcomparisonamongdifferentstatusofthesome �system,aswellamongdifferentworkingsystems.

These two conditions canbeobservedwhen there is identifiedaniterativecorrelation,irrespectiveofthespecificparametersofrealsituations,betweenaquantitativeorqualitativedimensionandtheextenttowhichthereisnoprobabilityofoccupationaldiseasesoraccidents.

As,basically,theabsolutequantitativeindicatorsprovideamoreimpartialexpressioncomparedtotherelativequantitativeonesandtothequalitativeindicators,theidealsituationsistoestablishaquantitativedimension(„levelofoccupationalrisk”)thatcanbeexpressedbythesamevalueforallthesystemsthatprovidethesamesafetylevel.Duringpractice,therehastobeconsideredaminimumoccupationalrisk,i.e.,alevelofthisriskdistinctfromzero,butsufficientlylowtoconsidertheworkingsystemassafe,andamaximumlimitofoccupationalriskthatshouldbeequaltosuchalowlevelofoccupationalsafetysothattheoperationofthesystemisnolongerallowed.

Consequently, in order to establish these limits it is necessarytofindameanstoquantsizetheoccupationalriskandthelevelsofoccupationalrisks.Thisoperationgivestwoproblems:

themannerusedtoestablishthecoordinatesoftheoccupational �risk(thepairbetweenseriousnessprobability);whatcoordinatesfortheoccupationalriskareto � beselectedin order topart theacceptableareas from theunacceptableones.

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Accordingtotheliteratureonoccupationalhealthandsafety[2,4,5],riskisthecombinationbetweentheprobabilityofoccurrenceandseriousnessofapossibleinjuryorhealthdamageduringahazardoussituation and shows the frequency and seriousness of possibleconsequenceswhichmaycomeupduringaworkingprocess.

Inordertodescriberiskinrelationtoseriousnessandprobability,IEC812definesa“curveofacceptability”(Fig.1)whichisadecreasingexponentialthatallowsadivisionbetweentheacceptableriskandtheunacceptablerisk.Incompliancewiththisidea,theriskofoccurrenceforaneventE1,withseriousconsequencesbutlowfrequency,situatedunderthecurveofacceptabilityisconsideredasacceptable,whiletheriskposedbytheeventE2,withlessseriousconsequences,butwithahigherprobabilityofoccurrence,locatedabovethecurve,isconsideredasunacceptable.

Consequently,wehave:

fig.1-Risk acceptability curvewhere:

Roccupational=occupationalriskrelatedtohazardsforoccupationalaccidentsanddiseases;

PGmax =probabilityofoccurrenceforriskofoccupationalaccidentsanddiseases;

Gmax =seriousnessofthemaximumenvisagedconsequenceduetotheoccurrenceoftheoccupationalrisk.

Thevaluesontheordinateofthecurvearesymbolically,buttheycanbeindividualizedasvaluesexpressedinfinanciallosses(money)orhumanandmaterialdamagesexpressedfromaquantitativepointofviewetc.

Thestudyoftheriskacceptabilitycurvegivestherelativenatureof„acceptability”;consequently,itcanbenoticedthattheunwantedeventswith a „high seriousness butwith a very lowprobability ofoccurrence”areacceptedthesameastheunwantedeventswith„low

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seriousnessbuthighprobabilityofoccurrence”,becausethevaluesoftheformersituateunderthecurve.

Ariskstudycananswertoseveralquestions: �Whatneighgowrong? �Whatcanhappen? �Howoftendoesithappen? �Whatnighttheresults? �Whatcamebedonesoastoavoid? �

Asanevaluationassignsrealvaluestohazardsonoccupationaldiseasesandaccidents, it ispossibletoestablisharisklevelfor theworkingprocesswhichrelatestoacertainactivity;thisrisklevelcanbesubsequentlycomparedtotheacceptableoccupationalriskbutforgroundingadecision,ifisnecessarytodefine„acceptable”.

Whethertheacceptableoccupationalriskrepresentsalevelofriskadmittedbyasocialagreementbasedontheexperiencegathered,onoccupationalsafetyforacertaintypeofactivity,thisnotionshallhavetocomplywiththeresultsandbenefits.

Themechanismregardingthematerialandhumaneffortsnecessaryfor providing occupational health and safety depends on the ratiobetweenacceptableandunacceptableandtheaccuracyforestablishingthisratiogivesthesuccessoftheimplementedmeasures.

Asaresult,theexpertsinoccupationalhealthandsafetyworktoimproveandmultiplythemethodsusedtoevaluatetheoccupationalriskandtoclassifythecriteriathatestablishtheacceptableoccupationalrisk.

Untilnow,therehaveappearedtotrendsregardingtheeffortstoestablishtheacceptabilityoftheoccupationalrisk:

Takingintoconsiderationthecostofhumanlife;Bycomparisonstootheroccupationalrisksthathavealreadybeen

acceptedorwhichcannotbeavoided.Thingsgetmorecomplicatedifthefactorsthatinfluencethelevel

ofacceptance(costs,levelofinfluence,safetylevel,usefulnessetc.)aretakenintoconsiderationbecausethesefactorshaveastrongsubjectivecharacter.

Practicehasn`timposedunanimouslyrecognizedmodelsregardingtheestablishmentoftheacceptableoccupationalrisk.Thisoperationremains the responsibility of the factor that take themanagementdecision.

Estimation, evaluation and control of the occupational riskrepresentprerequisitesforgroundingandforacontinuessupportof

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thedecisionthathasbeenpreviouslytakenonoccupationalsafetyinaworkingsystem;envisagingunwantedeventsisbeingdeterminedbytheoccupationalriskandisexpressedbytheratiobetweenthepossibleoccurrenceofoccupationaldiseasesandaccidents(whichdisplaysarandomcharacter)andthetotalamountofavailableresourceswiththeviewtoprovidingasuitableoccupationalsafety.

3. Graphical presentation of the risk

for occupational accidents and diseasesForthecaseofaworkingsystem[1,3],theacceptableriskisan

indicatorusedtoevaluatethelevelofoccupationalsafety;itrepresentstheresultsofadecisionimplementedobjectively,bycomparingtotheknownandagreedrisksofoccupationalaccidentsanddiseases.Severaldomainsusethenotionofadmissibleriskorlimitrisk.

Establishing the acceptable riskmeans a compromise betweentheissuesagreedbytheresponsiblebodyfromaneconomicpointofviewwhenthisonetakesaprioriinconsiderationtheoccurrenceofoccupationalaccidentsanddiseasesrisk(togetherwiththeoccupationalsafetymeasuresthatshouldbeimplemented)andtheexpensesthatshallhavetoberecoveredaposterioriwhethertheoccupationalriskhasbeenignored,consideringthefollowingelements[6].

The cost related to the removal of human andmaterial �damages;Thecostinvolvedbytheunavailabilityofthesystem; �Theimpactinthemass-media. �Bytakingintoconsiderationthefactthatoverallcostsinvolved �bytheoccupationalsafetycoverthefollowingelements:Thecostsoftheriskstudiesandofthesafetydevices(apriori �cost);

Thecostsrelatedtotheconsequencesofoccupationaldiseasesandaccidents(aprioricost),itispossibletodeterminean„economically”,reasonablevalues,withtheconsiderationoftheresidualoccupationallevelsofunsafenessthathavepreviouslyevaluatedandoftheinvest-mentcostsandthecostsrelatedtotheeffortsmadetorehabilitatetheworkingsystemaftertheaccident.

Fig.2,showstheprincipleforthepresentationofthejeansusedtoestablishtheeconomicoptimum,bycomparingtheprobabilityfortheoccurrenceofunwantedevents(suchasthecaseofoccupationalaccidents and diseases) to the accepted level of occupationalunsafeness.

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fig.2. –Principle presentation of the acceptable

4. establishing the acceptable level of occupational risk, starting

from the criterion of the cost priceItshallbeformallyanalyzedthefunctionrelatedtothecostprice

which isbeingestablished in relation to theprobableoccurrenceofoccupationalaccidentsanddiseases;thisrepresentsthemannerusedtoestablishthisfunctionfortheconditionofminimum[6] .

TheoverallcostprinceC(showninFig.3)ismadeoftheaprioricostrelatedtoinvestmentcostC1andtheaposterioricostrelatedtothe(occupationalandtechnologic)risk,sothat:

C=C1+C2 (2)C1=C1const+C(p)=C1const+C1/p (3)C2=C2const+C2p (4)C=C1const+C2const+C1/p+C2p (5)C=C3+C1/p+C2p (6)whereC1,C2andC3areconstantvalues.Establishingtheacceptableoccupationalrisklevelinrelationto

theeconomicoptimum,meanstoprovideabalancebetweentheincre-mentoftheriskrelatedexpensesconcomitanttothediminutionoftheinvestmentcosts,sothatthecostpriceshouldnotincreasealotabovetheminimumprice.

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fig. 3 –Graphic presentation of the structure of the overall cost price C

Establishing the acceptable occupational risk level in relationto theeconomicoptimumand theoptimalprobability regarding theoccurrence of an unwanted event (such as occupational accidentsanddiseases)isperformedbyderivingthecostfunctionCfromtheevaluationvariablep:

dC/dp=0⇒C2-C1/p2=0 (7)p0=(C2/C1)

1/2 (8)

Weintroduce(8)inequation(5),bytakingintoconsiderationonlythecoststhatdependonprobability.Consequently,weget:

C0=C2p0+C1/p0 (9)C0=2(C1C2)

1/2 (10)Whether∆deviationofthecostpriceagainsttheminimumprice

isconsideredthenitispossibletoestablishtherangeinsidewhichthevariationofprobabilities(withtherelatedrisklevels)don`tinfluencewithmorethan∆theminimumcalculatedcostprice.(C0)

An analytical equationof the aspects said above shall take thefollowingform:

C0(1+∆ )=C1/p+C2 p (11)

ByreplacingthevalueofC0from(10)in(11)weshallget:2(1+∆)(C1C2)

1/2=C1/p+C2p (12)

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Ifwearrangethetermsoftheequationinaccordancewithpweshallget:

p2-2p(1+∆)(C1C2)1/2+C1/C2=0 (13)

Theequationhasthefollowingresults:p1=(1+∆)p0-[(2+∆)∆]

1/2p0 (14)p2=(1+∆)p0+[(2+∆)∆]

1/2p0 (15)

fig. 5 –Graphical presentationof the acceptable occupational risk level

Subsequently,itispossibletodeterminethevaluesofp1andp2, basedontheresultsgainedabove,aswelltherangebetweentheserootswhichcorrespondstotheacceptablerisklevel,whenthevariationsofthe probabilities regarding the occurenceof unwanted events don`tinfluencetheminimumcostpricewithmore∆ .

Forexample,ifadeviationof5%fromtheminimumcostpriceisadmitted(∆=0,05)thevaluesofp1andp2shallbethefollowingones:

p1=(1+0,05)p0-(0,1025)1/2p0=0,7p0 (16)

p2=(1+0,05)p0+(0,1025)1/2p0=1,4p0 (17)

Ithastobeunderlinedthefactthatavariationof5%ofthecostpriceagainsttheminimumvaluegivesaratherlargerangefortheoptimumdomainof theoccupational risk level.This allowsa comprehensiveconsiderationof themain and secondaryoccupational accidents anddiseasesriskfactorssoastocarryingontheactivityinoptimumeconomicconditions,withanacceptablelevelofoccupationalsafety.

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Establishing theacceptable risk level isacompromisebetweentheaspectstowhichtheresponsibleentity(organization,body,legalentities)agreestotakeriskfromaneconomicpointofview,whetherthis entityhas considered, apriori, thepossibleoccurrenceof risks(togetherwith the safetymeasures that should be applied) and theexpensesthatshouldberecoveredaposterioriwhetherriskhasbeenignored,bytakingintoconsiderationthefollowingelements:

costs involvedwith the removing ofmaterial and human �damages;costsgeneratedbytheunavailabilityofthesystem; �impactinthemedia. �

5. Conclusions Evalu � ating the occupational safetymeans to determine(measure)theextenttowhichtheworkingsystemsdeviatefromtheidealstatewhenthereisnopossibilityfortheoccurrenceofoccupationalaccidentsanddiseases;Evaluationofoccupationalaccidentsanddiseasesrepresentsan �indirectmeanstoassesstheoccupationalsafetybyassigningvalues to the indicator called “risk level for occupationalaccidentsanddiseases”;Thegeneralmanagementofanyactivityrequiresananalysis �andevaluationoftheoccupationalrisksinceworkingprocessalwaysinvolvestheoccupationalsafetypolicy;Establishing the acceptable occupational risk level against �aneconomicoptimumvaluerequiresabalancebetweentheaugmentationofexpenses related tooccupationalaccidentsanddiseases risks at the same timewith the diminutionofexpensesforinvestmentssothatthecostpricesshouldreachareasonableamount;

bibliography:DesrochesA.,1. Concepts et methodes probabilistes de base de la securite,Lavoisier-TEC&DOC,Paris,1995KaplanS.,GarrikB.J.,Onquantitativedefinitionofrisk.–Risk2. AnalysisanInternationalJournalvol.1,nr.1,martie1981Matei I.,MoraruR., BăbuţG., -Reflecţii privind fixarea3. pragului de probabilitate în studiile de securitate amuncii,RevistaRiscşiSecuritateînMuncă,3-4/1996,pag.53-56.MoraruR.,BăbuţG.,Analizăderisc,EdituraUniversitas,20004.

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VasilescuG., D.,Metode neconvenţionale de analiză şi5. evaluarearisculuiprofesional-EdituraINSEMEX,2008DrăghiciA.,Contribuţii la stabilirea gradului de poluare a6.atmosfereişimăsuripentrureducereanocivităţiipoluanţiloratmosfericiînValeaJiului,Tezădedoctorat,2007

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Silvia GheRGhel, Doctorant à l’Université „Lucian Blaga”- Sibiu, Roumanie

LA pOLITIqUE DE L’EMpLOI DE LA ROUMANIE DANS LE CONTExTE DE

L’ADhéSION à L’UNION EUROpéENNE

Lors du sommet qui s’est tenu à Lisbonne en mars 2000, les dirigeants européens ont présenté une nouvelle stratégie, connue sous le nom de «stratégie de Lisbonne». fondée sur un consensus entre les États membres, pour moderniser l’Europe. La stratégie de Lisbonne a été simplifiée et relancée en 2005. L’Union s’est aujourd’hui fixé un nouvel objectif stratégique pour la décennie à venir : devenir l’économie de la connaissance la plus compétitive et la plus dynamique du monde, capable d’une croissance économique durable accompagnée d’une amélioration quantitative et qualitative de l’emploi et d’une plus grande cohésion sociale.

LesEtatsmembres de l’UnionEuropéenne doivent adopter laStratégieEuropéenne d’Occupation (conçue dès 1997 – le ProcèsdeLuxembourg),laquelleconstitueleprincipaloutilpourassurerladirectionetlacoordinationdespolitiquesd’occupationdanslesEtatsmembres.LorsdesréunionsduConseildel’EuropedeLisbonne(mars2000),l’UnionEuropéennes’estfixédenouvellesciblesstratégiquespourles10ansàvenir,laStratégieEuropéenned’OccupationayantétéintégréedanslaStratégiedeLisbonne.

Enmars2005, leConseilde l’Europea relancé laStratégiedeLisbonnemoyennant une réorientation vers ledéveloppement et l’occupationenEurope.ChaqueEtatmembreélaboredesprogrammesnationauxderéformesconformémentauxgrandes lignesdirectricesintégréespourlacroissanceéconomiqueetl’occupation.Lastratégieutilisedesindicateursenvuedel’évaluationdesperformancesdesEtatsmembresdansledomainedespolitiquesd’occupation.Cesindicateursassurent,enmêmetemps,labased’analysedesprogrammesnationauxderéformes.

Le Fonds Social Européen représente le principal outil pourl’aboutissementde laStratégieEuropéenned’Occupationetpour lerenforcementdescapacitésinstitutionnellesetadministratives.

A présent, la politique d’occupation de l’Union Européenneest soutenuepar lesLignes directrices intégrées pour la croissance

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économiqueetl’occupation2005–2008,quiétablissentlesdirectionsconcrètesconcernantl’améliorationdelaparticipationetdumaintiensur lemarchédutravail, lapromotiondel’adaptabilitédesouvriersetdesentreprises,l’augmentationdesinvestissementsdanslecapitalhumainparl’éducationetlaformationprofessionnelle.

les lignes directrices pour l’occupation,tellesquerecommandéeparlaCommissionEuropéenne:

1. l’implémentation des politiques d’occupation ayant pour but l’occupation totale, l’amélioration de la qualité et de la productivité du travail, le renforcement de la cohésion sociale et territoriale.Lespolitiquessedoiventd’œuvreràl’obtentiond’untauxmoyengénéral,surl’ensembledel’UnionEuropéenne,de70%,d’aumoins60%pourlesfemmesetde50%pourlestravailleursâgés(55–64ans),ainsiqu’àladiminutionduchômageetdel’inactivité.LesEtatsmembresdoiventétablirdesciblesnationalespour le tauxd’occupationpour2008–2009.

2. la promotion d’une approche du travail tout au long de la vie moyennant:despolitiquesd’occupationpourlesjeunesetdediminutiondutauxduchômageparmilesjeunes;desactionsfermesenvuedel’éliminationdesdifférencesdegenre,encequiconcernel’occupation,lechômageetlessalaires;dessystèmesmodernesderetraitesetdesanté,laprolongationdelavieactiveetledécouragementdesdépartsàlaretraiteprécoces.

3. Assurer l’insertion sur le marché du travail des demandeurs d’emploi et des groupes démunis moyennant :desmesuresactiveset préventives sur lemarché du travail, telles que : l’identificationprécocedesbesoins,leconseilpourlarecherched’emploi,l’orientationet la formation professionnelle, les services sociaux nécessaires àl’encouragementde l’insertionsur lemarchédu travaildesgroupesdémunis,ainsiqu’àlacohésionsocialeetterritorialeetàl’éliminationdelapauvreté.

4. l’amélioration de la corrélation avec les besoins du marché du travail moyennant : lamodernisation et le renforcement desinstitutionsdumarchédutravail,toutspécialementdansledomainedesservicesd’occupation;uneplusgrandetransparencedel’occupationetdesopportunitésdeformationauniveaunationaleteuropéen,afindefaciliterlamobilitépartoutenEurope;unemeilleureanticipationdes besoins de formation, unmanagement adéquat de lamigrationéconomique.

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5. la promotion de la flexibilité combinée avec la sécurité de l’occupation et la réduction de la segmentation du marché du travail par l’adaptationde la législationde l’occupation, la reconsidérationdu niveau de flexibilité offert par les contrats permanents et nonpermanents;unemeilleuresantéetsécuritéaulieudetravail,ladiversitécontractuelleetlesaccordssurletempsdetravail,afind’améliorerlaqualitéetlaproductivitédutravail;desactionsfermespourtransformerletravailnondéclaréenoccupationlégale.

6. Prévoir des stimulants pour l’occupation et autres coûts du travail moyennant:lastimulationd’uncadrepropiceausystèmedenégociationdessalaires,toutenrespectantlerôledespartenairessociaux,etquisedoitderefléterlesdifférencesdeproductivitéetlesévolutionsdumarchédutravailauniveausectorieletrégional.

7. l’élargissement et l’amélioration des investissements dans le capital humain, par : l’élaborationde stratégies efficientespourl’apprentissagetoutaulongdelavie,conformémentauxengagementseuropéens,l’augmentationdel’accèsàl’enseignementprofessionnelinitial, secondaire et supérieur, y compris par l’apprentissage et lesstagesenentreprise.

8. l’adaptation des systèmes d’éducation et de formation aux nouvelles exigences de compétences,moyennant : unemeilleureidentificationdesbesoinsoccupationnelsetdescompétences–clésetl’anticipationdesbesoinsdequalification;l’élargissementdesoffresd’éducation et de formation professionnelle ; assurer l’attractivité,l’ouverture et les standards de haute qualité pour les systèmesd’éducationetdeformationprofessionnelle.

LesEtatsmembresdoiventétablirdes engagements et des cibles enconcordanceaveclesLignesDirectricesetlesRecommandationsdel’UE.

LaRoumanie s’est alignée à la nouvelleStratégieEuropéenned’Occupation,lapolitiquedansledomainedel’occupationdelaforcedetravailétantenconcordanceaveclesobjectifsetleslignesdirectricesdecettestratégie.Afind’établirlesprioritésdelapolitiqueoccupationnelle,nousavonscommepointderepèrelesprogrammesetlesdocumentsduGouvernementroumain,laStratégiededéveloppementdesressourceshumaines,élaboréedanslecadreduPlanNationaldeDéveloppement2004–2006,leProgrammeEconomiquedePréadhésion2003,ainsique les études spécialisées sur les évolutionsdumarchédu travail,réaliséesparl’InstitutNationaldeStatistique,laCommissionNationaledepronostic,l’InstitutNationaldelaRechercheScientifiquedansledomaineduTravailetdelaProtectionSocialeetc.

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Envuedel’adhésionàl’UnionEuropéenne,laRoumaniearéaliséengrandemesurel’harmonisationdelalégislationinterneavecl’acquiscommunautaire,encequiconcernelemarchédutravail,l’égalitédeschances, la formationprofessionnelle et dans d’autres domaines enrapportavecl’occupationdelaforcedutravail.

Lespolitiquesactivesdumarchédutravailsontprincipalementsubventionnées du budget des assurances pour le chômage, ce quiassureunesourcedefinancementconstante.Dutotaldesdépensesdubudgetdesassurancespourlechômage,lequotadesmesuresactivesrestetoujoursàunniveauélevé(25%en2003,19%en2006),cequidémontreunsoutiendurabledelapolitiquedeluttecontrelechômage,sachantque lesmesuresactives représententunobjectif stratégiqueprioritaire,tantàprésent,qu’àl’avenir.

Le principal outil législatif d’implémentation de la politiquerelativeaumarchédutravailestlaLoinr.76/2002relativeausystèmedesassurancespourlechômageetlastimulationdel’occupationdelaforcedetravail,modifiéeetcomplétée;cetteloicréelesprémissespourassurerunniveauélevédel’occupationetdel’adaptabilitédelamaind’œuvreauxexigencesdumarchédutravail.

L’aboutissement des objectifs duServicePublicRoumainpourl’occupationetlaformationprofessionnelle(ANOFM)seréaliseparlesmesures activessuivantes,lesquellesdoiventmeneràl’augmentationdutauxdelapopulationoccupée,entantqu’objectifstratégique:

l’activitéd’informationetdeconseilprofessionnel effectué �parlebiaisdesfournisseursdeservices;desservicesdemédiationdutravail–laboursegénéraledes �postes de travail pour toutes les catégories de demandeursd’emploi;desboursesàlademandedumarché;desservicesd’assistanceetdeconsultancepourledémarrage �d’uneactivitéindépendanteoupourlacréationd’entreprise;accorder des allocations pour les chômeurs qui trouve un �emploiavantlafindelapériodedechômage;motiverlamobilitédelamaind’œuvre; �subventionnerlesemploisparl’embauchedesressortissants �desétablissementsscolaire(primed’embauche),despersonnesàhandicap,despersonnesdeplusde45ans,oudesparentsuniques(famillesmonoparentales),l’occupationtemporairedelaforcedetravail,l’embauchedeschômeursquisontàmoinsdetroisansavantlaretraiteetc.accorderdescréditsavantageuxpourlacréationdenouveaux �emplois;desfacilitéspourlesemployeurs. �

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Dans le contexte des documents stratégiques nationaux, les priorités futures de la politique d’occupation de la force de travail sont:

La promotion de l’adaptabilité de la main d’œuvre, de l’apprentissage tout au long de la vie et de la formation professionnelle continue. Danscesens,jouentunrôleimportantlesprogrammesdeformationprofessionnelle continue, qui ont pour but lamaximisation del’utilisationdesnouvellestechnologiesdeproductionpourlessecteurséconomiquesàhautpotentieldevaleurajoutée,desprogrammesdeconseilprofessionnelpourledéveloppementdelacarrière,desactivitésdedéveloppementdescompétencesdemanagementdansledomainedesressourceshumainesetlapromotiondelacultured’entreprise.

La lutte contre les effets du chômage structural, dûauprocessusderestructurationdel’économieparlamiseenpratiqued’unesériedemesuresactivesetpréventives,principalementdestinéesauxjeunes,auxchômeursdelongueduréeetauxpersonneseffectuantdesactivitésdanslemilieururaletquineréalisentpasderevenusmensuelsouréalisentdesrevenussousleniveaudel’indemnitédechômage,l’accentétantmissurlesprogrammesdeformationprofessionnelle,lesprogrammesdedéveloppementdelacultured’entreprise,lesfacilitésoffertespourl’accèsauxempruntsdestinésaudémarragedesaffairesindividuelles,parlapromotiondesschémasdemicrocrédit.

La promotion de la cohésion et de l’inclusion sociale pour les groupes vulnérables (tziganes, jeunes quittant le système nationalde protection de l’enfant, personnes handicapées etc.)moyennantl’améliorationdel’accèsauxmesuresactivesd’intégrationsurlemarchédutravail,l’égalitédeschancessoutenantleprocessusdeluttecontretoutesformesdediscriminationsurlemarchédutravaildesgroupesditsvulnérables.

La Roumanie s’est alignée à la Stratégie Européenne pourl’Occupation,révisée,2005–2010.C’estdanscecontextequ’ontétéélaboréslesPlansNationauxd’Actionspourl’Emploi(PNAO)

LepremierPNAO2002–2003aétéélaboréconformémentauxLignesDirectricespourl’Occupationdelamaind’œuvrepour2001etaconcernédesactionsquelaRoumanies’étaitproposédemettreenpratiqueàcourtterme,envuedel’augmentationdel’occupationdes emplois et de la diminution du chômage, l’encouragement del’apprentissagepermanent,l’efficienceetlaflexibilitédumarchédutravail,laluttecontreladiscriminationetl’exclusionsociale;

LedeuxièmePNAO2004–2005aétéélaboréconformémentàlaSEOrévisée,respectivementauxLignesDirectricespourl’Occupation

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approuvéepourl’an2003etaétéstructuréconformémentauxtroisobjectifs stratégiques interdépendants : la totale occupation des emplois, la croissance de la qualité et de la productivité du travail, le renforcement de la cohésion et de l’inclusion sociale,ainsiqu’auxLignesDirectrices.

Le Plan Nation dans le domaine Occupationnel, PNAO2006,aeupourbutl’améliorationdel’occupationprofessionnelledanslemilieurural et l’insertion professionnelle des personnes d’ethnie tsigane,l’améliorationdesdifférenceszonalesetrégionale,uneutilisationplusefficiente des fonds communautaires, et tout spécialement leFondsSocialEuropéen,etc.

Le Programme Opérationnel Sectoriel du Développement des Ressources Humaines (POSDRU)établitlesdomainesprioritairesetmajeursd’interventiondelaRoumaniedansledomainedesressourceshumaines,pourlapériodedeprogrammation2007–2013.

ParleProgrammeOpérationnelSectorielduDéveloppementdesRessourcesHumaines (POSDRU)onprévoitd’importantessommesallouéesparleMinistèreduTravail,delaFamilleetdel’EgalitédesChances,envuedel’aboutissementdesonobjectifgénéral,circonscrità laStratégieEuropéennepour l’Occupation : le développement du capital humain et la croissance de sa compétitivité, par la connexion de l’éducation et de l’apprentissage tout au long de la vie au marché de la main d’œuvre et la facilitation de grandes opportunités pour une future participation au marché du travail moderne, flexible et inclusif, quimène,jusqu’en2015,àl’intégrationdurablesurlemarchédutravailde900.000personnes,paruneutilisationlaplusefficientepossibleduFondsSocialEuropéen.

La nécessité d’assurer des ressources humaines préparées etcompétitivessur lemarchédu travaileuropéensurgitde laprisedeconsciencedufaitquelesavantagesdelacompétitivitédéterminantlacroissanceéconomiqueactuelledelaRoumanienepeuventassurerundéveloppementdurableàlongterme,comptetenudesfortespressionsexercéesparleprocessusdeglobalisationetl’intégrationcontinuedesnouvellestechnologies.Seuleunemaind’œuvreflexibleethautementqualifiéepourraréagirauxchangementsconstantsenregistréssur lemarchédutravail.

L’obtentiond’untauxdeparticipationleplusélevépossiblesurlemarchédutravail,commefondementd’uneéconomiecompétitive,suppose la mise en pratique des politiques d’augmentation

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de l’adaptabilité et de la flexibilité de lamain d’œuvre et des investissements dans les servicespourledéveloppementdesacapacitédeproduction.

Lemarchédutravailestlemarchéleplussoumisauxréglementations,ainsilaréglementationdumarchédutravailaétéunprocessustrèsactif,quis’estdéroulésurtoutpourl’intégrationdelaRoumanieàl’UnionEuropéenne(leTraitéd’Adhésionaétésignéenavril2005etestentréenvigueurau01.01.2007);lesréglementationsportentsur:lesrelationsdetravailindividuellesetcollectives,lagestiondutravail,lesactivitéssyndicales,desassociationspatronales,desorganisations tripartites,bipartitesetledialoguessocial.

S’il s’agit des tendances du marché du travail actuel et en perspective,ilfautmentionner:

Les ressources de travail continu doivent être limités et la populationtotaleendéclin,àmoyenterme.LaCommissionNationaledepronosticestimequelapopulationoccupéedelaRoumanieseraenlégèrebaissechaqueannée(0,1%)etlapopulationaptepourletravail(15–64ans)augmenterade0,2%touslesans.

Des changements récents dans la structure occupationnelle, respectivement : la réduction de l’occupation dans l’agriculture(réduction de la population à ne pas réaliser des revenus salariauxprovenantdel’agriculture)etdansl’industried’extraction;lahaussedel’occupationdanslesecteurdubâtimentetdesservices,àtendanced’élargissement ; dans le secteur des utilités publiques, le degréd’occupationestrestéaumêmeniveau.

La hausse du nombre des personnes de la tranche d’âge 15 – 59 ans etladiminutionaiguëdelatranched’âge1–4ans(suiteàlacroissancenaturellenégative)engendrelevieillissementdelapopulationactive(cesdernièresannées,onadéjàpuremarquerunphénomènepareil),ayantdesconséquencessurl’emploietlespolitiquesd’occupation.Ilestpossiblequelaréservedisponibledemaind’œuvrecommenceàdiminuer,sinondansunavenirproche,toutaumoinsàmoyenterme.

L’évolution de la productivité du travail a déjà enregistré une tendance croissantemaisinsuffisammentgrande(de27,9%en2000à35,3%en2004,derrière lespaysde l’UnionEuropéenne,pour lamajoritédesactivités).Laplupartdesentreprisesfondentleursstratégiessurlaréductiondescoûts,etnonsurlahaussedelaproductivité.

La réduction de la population active et le vieillissement de la main d’œuvre peuvent avoir comme conséquences des problèmes

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structuraux sur le marché du travail. Lestendancesdémographiquesetdumarchédutravailpeuventréclamerunepolitiqued’encouragementdelapopulationâgéeàresteractive,celanefonctionnerapassi lestravailleurs n’ont pas les aptitudes nécessaires conformément auxexigencesdesentreprises.

les pistes d’actions contenues dans les plans nationauxd’occupationprofessionnelle,caléessurlesLignesDirectricesdelaStratégieEuropéenned’occupationportentsurl’accomplissementdesobjectifssuivants:

ladiminutionduchômagedelonguedurée; �ladiminutionduchômageparmilesjeunes; �ladiminutionduchômageparmilesgroupesvulnérablessurle �marchédutravail(ressortissantsdesétablissementsscolaire(primed’embauche),personnesàhandicap,personnesdeplusde45ans,ouparentsuniques(famillesmonoparentales)oubiendespersonnesd’ethnietsigane);ledéveloppementdelacultured’entreprise; �assurer de la formation professionnelle pour le plus grand �nombredepersonnespossible;deschanceségalespourlesfemmesetleshommes; �l’augmentationdesallocationsfinancièrespour lesmesures �activessurletotaldesdépenseseffectuées;l’améliorationdelaqualitédesservicesoffertsparlesagences �pourl’emploi.

Conclusions : Un des principaux objectifs de la politiqueéconomiquedetoutpaysestd’assurer l’emploi total.Leproblèmedel’occupationprofessionnellereprésenteunepréoccupationimportantede l’analysemacroéconomique. Or, conformément à l’analysemacroéconomique,parl’emploitotaloncomprendunesituationoùletauxduchômageatteintuncertainniveauaccepté(letauxduchômageconsidérénormalestd’environ4%).Voilàpourquoionestimequeletermed’emploiélevéseraitplusapproprié,plutôtqueleterme«total».Pourl’aboutissementdecesdesiderata,ils’avèreessentield’améliorerles capacités administratives des institutions publiques centrales,régionalesetlocalesetcellesdespartenairessociaux.

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bibliography: CaraganciuAnatolie,FetiniucValentina,CărareViorica„Eco-1.nomiedanschangement:recherchesetopinions”,IEFSdeASM,Chişinău,2006.PaulLucian„UnionEuropeenne”,Maisond’editiond’Uni-2. versité„LucianBlaga”,Sibiu,2004Mărginean Silvia „Mondialisation et régionalisation”,Mai-3. sond’editionUniversitaria,Sibiu,2005RisteaCristache-coordonnateurLaconduited’occupationde4. main-d’oeuvre–traité1,ANOFM–CNFPPPRâşnov,2007Actesnormatifsetpublications:Loinombre76/2002,regar-5. dant le systèmed’assurances pour chômage et stimulationd’occupationdemain-d’oeuvre,MOnombre103/2002.Sur leweb:6. www.insse.ro;www.anofm.ro;www.fse.anofm.ro;www.mmssf.ro;www.euractiv.ro

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Hageanu Cristina-CODRuŢA.Lecturer, PhD, „Lucian Blaga” University, Sibiu

SOCIAL pOLICIES AND ThEIR INFLUENCE ON ThE TENANT'S RENTAL CONTRACTS

The present paper analyzes the consensual character of the renting contract in the stage in which the intervention of the state in the relationships between individuals is more often present. It is hereby shown to what extent are the contractual dirigisme and the adhesion contracts present and there is given a short presentation of the correlative stipulations from the French, American and Italian law. In conclusion, it is stated that in the Romanian judicial system, the renting contract is a consensual contract, freely negotiated between the contracting parties. Exceptionally it is an adhesion contract the renting contract that has as an object the apartments belonging to the state rental market, regardless of their type: social, necessity, etc. In order to diminish the negative impact of these contracts on the tenants, the legislator has imposed by the dispositions in force, some contract templates.

Therentingcontractisaconsensualcontract;therefore,itissealedsolo consensus, bythemereagreementofwillof thepartieson therentedobjectandoftheprice.

The consent of the partiesmust be perceived as an element ofjudicialwill1andasaresult,itisgovernedbytheprincipleoffreedomoftheciviljudicialpapersandoftheautonomyofwill.Obviously,thisfreedomisnotanabsoluteoneanditshouldnotbemistakenforthearbitrary,butislimitedbytherequirementtoobservetheimperativelegalnorms,thepublicorderandtheethics(Art.5Civilcode).

Theprincipleof thewill autonomy,consecrated legally for thefirst timeby theFrenchCivilCode in 1804, underwent a series oflimitations,whichdeterminedsomeauthorstospeakevenofacontractcrisis2.Thelimitationsthatareacutelyfeltalsointhecaseofrentingcontractconsistmainlyin:

a) the development of adhesion contracts and the contractualdirigisme.

a)Accordingtothemannerinwhichthewillofpartiesisexpressedwhen sealing contracts, these are classified into three categories:negotiatedcontracts,adhesioncontractsandcompulsoryorimposedcontracts.

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The adhesion contracts3 are those contractswhose stipulationsareentirelyoralmostentirelyestablishedbyoneof theparties, fortheotherpartybeingonlytheoptionofadheringornottosuchapre-drafted contract.These contracts are signed, as a rule, in thefieldsinwhich there isamonopolyofcertain laborconscriptionssuchasprovidingelectricity,buttheyarealsoapplicableinthecaseofstateapartmentrentalmarketandthattheyarenotcompulsorycontracts4, respectivelycompulsorytobesignedandwithdispositionsdeterminedexclusivelybythelaw(forexamplethecompulsorycarinsuranceforcivil responsibilityandpartially thecollective laborcontracts). It istruethatthelawstipulatescertaincompulsorymentionsfortherentalcontract,andthereisevenadraft-contractbutnobodycanneitherbeobligatedtosignthecontractnorbesanctionedfornotacceptingit,asitisthecasewiththecompulsoryorimposedcontracts.Thepartyhasatleasttheoptionofcontractingornot.Inthecaseofcompulsorycarinsuranceforcivilresponsibility,forexample,notsigningthecontractisconsideredoffenceandsanctionedaccordingly.Theinclusioninthelawofarentaldraft-contracthasasapurposetheprotectionofthetenant,asaweakerpartyofacontract,fromthepossibleabuseofthelessorwhocouldotherwiseimposeunfairdispositions,takingadvantageoftheneedforaccommodationoftheotherparty.

Itisalsodiscussableiftherighttocontractrenewal,stipulatedbytheGovernmentEmergencyOrderno.40/1999,doesnottransformthiscontractinanimposedorcompulsoryone.Inregulatingtherighttorenewal,itwasstipulatedthat,attheendoftherentalperiod,thetenanthastherighttocontractrenewalforthesameperiod,ifthepartiesdonotmodifybyexpressagreementthedurationofrental.Thepropertyownercanrefusetherenewalonlyunderseveralcircumstance,expresslyandlimitativestipulatedbythelaw,andifherefusesunjustifiably,thetenantcanaddresstothecourtoflaw,whichcansubstitutethepropertyowner’sconsentbyacourtdecision.Obviously,this“judiciarysanction”couldleadustotheideathatwearedealingwithacompulsorycontract.Webelieve,nevertheless,thatwearenotdealingwithsuchacontract,becauseofthefollowingreasons:

Firstly,thetenantdoesnothavearenewalobligation,butonlytherighttoit,andnotsigningthenewcontractduetothetenant’swillisnotsanctioned.

Secondly, thecontractwill takeoverall thedispositionsof theprevious contract, even theduration, and thesewere the result of anegotiationbetweentheparties.

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Thirdly, the landlord isallowed,undercertaincircumstances torefusetherenewal,andthefactthatitwasstipulatedthepossibilityof refusal for the purpose of selling, gives the landlord the right,at least theoretically, to refuse the renewal any time,without beingsanctioned.

Thistypeofcontractsisinoppositiontothetypeofnegotiatedcontracts (in French,gré à gré) which are closed in a traditionalmanner,bydiscussingallthedispositions.Therearealsoincludedinthiscategorytheotherrentalcontracts,respectivelythosehavingasobjectaccommodationsurfacesownedbyprivateorlegalpersonsandthosecontractshavingasanobjectsurfaceswithotherdestinationthanaccommodation.

Thecontractualdirigisme5consistsinthestateinterventionintheprivatefieldofthecontractlawandisobviousinthebranchofrentalcontracts6.

Suchimperativeinterventionsofthestatepowerintherelationsbetweenindividuals,referringtorentalhaveconsistedin:

-theobligationofrentingtheapartmentnotusedbythelandlord,situatedintheurbanenvironment(Lawno.5/1973);

-thelegalprorogationofcertainrentalcontracts(Lawno.17/1996andthefollowinglaws);

-limitingtherentvalueforcertaintenancysurfaces;-therighttocontractrenewal,etc.The principle of contractual freedomwas rethought also in

the legislations of other states and evenwith implications in theaccommodationsspacelegislation.

Thus,inthebritish law, thisprinciplecalled“freedomofcontract”has,asinourlawsystem,twomeanings.

Inafirstsense, theexpressionisusedtodeterminetheattitudeoflawnottorestrictthetermsunderwhicheachcancloseacontract,supervisingespeciallythatthetermsofcontractshouldnotbetoosevereforoneortheotheroftheparties.

Thesecondsenseoftheprinciplesubmitstheideathatnopersoncanbeforcedbylawtocloseacertaincontract,anyoneisfreetorefusethecontractforanyreasonseemstobewell-groundedinthissystemknownasconservative,manyoftheprinciplesofcontractshavebeenchangedinthepastcentury,previouslytheyfunctionedinthelightofthe“laissèz faire”philosophy,accordingtowhichitwouldbewrongforthestatetointerveneintheprivateagreements.

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The present trend stressesmore the abuses the principle ofcontractualfreedomcangivebirthto,sothatbothsidesofthiswereconsiderablyrestricted,bothbylegislationandbyjudiciarydecisions.Thelegalrestrictionsoccurasexceptionsgroundedonthepublicinterestandtheywerealsotakenintherelationshipsbetweenthelandlordsandtenants7andinthelegislationofsalesandcredits.

Inthe french law, whichcreatedthenotionofadhesioncontract,itisadmittedtheinterventionofthestateagainsttheexcessofliberalism,butitiscriticized,especiallywhenitaimsatexecutingacontractalreadyclosedbetweentheparties.

In these cases, it is said8, the principlepacta sunt servanda isdefied,therespectofthegivenword,thecreditorlosesanycertitudeinexecutingthecontract,especiallythatwhatthelegislatormightcreateinthefuturerepresentsasecretforhim.

Thelegislator’sinterventionisjustifiedbythepublicorderandthesocialinterest,thegroupinterest,thecommonbenefitbeingconsideredsuperiortotheselfishinterestoftheindividual.Buttheappreciationofthisinterestisdelicate,especiallythatbythelegislator,thepoliticalconcept has precedence over the juridical concept.The legislationmeetings,itissaidintheFrenchdoctrine9,havethetendencytoprotecttheinterestsofthosewhosupportthesebetter(andnotoftheweak),inspiteofallthelegitimateandrespectableinterests,butlessefficientfrom theelectionpointofview.Aproof in this respect, theFrenchauthorsassert,isthenewregulationoftherealestatetenancycontract,whichdeliberatelysacrificestheinterestsofthelessorsinfavorofthetenants10.

Therefore,theycametoadeclineoftheprincipleofwillautonomy,towhichtheFrenchCouncilrefusedconstitutionalvalue(decisionfrom3August1994).Subsequently,thecourtsoflawhavethetendencytoassumearightofcontroloverthecontentofthecontractsthatwerenotfreelynegotiated,searchingforabalancethatshouldbefairforboth parties.Bymeans of legislation, it is also tried to protect theweakerparty,especiallybystandardizingthecontracts.Thus,thepartyimposingontheotheradraft-contract,towhichthefirstcanadhereornot,isbroughtinthesituationinwhichhasitselfimposedonitcontracttemplates,frequentlyattachedtotherespectivelaws11.

It is thusclear that thereoccurs a changeof thecontract laws,underaflexiblecontrolofthejudge,morethanunderarigidregulationofthelaw,withoutaffectingtheimportantprincipleofthefreedomofcontractinitsessence12.

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In the Italian law, the intervention of the state in the privaterelations is extremely strong felt in the tenancyfield, as a result ofadoptingLawno.431from9December1998.

This law regulates four types of contracts, namely the freecontract, the joint contract, the transitory contract and the studentcontract.Althoughforthesetypesofcontractstherearestipulated,byimperativenorms,someelementsandobligationsoftheparties,suchastheminimumandmaximumduration,criteriaforestablishingthemaximumrentvalue, etc., the real innovation is representedby theintroductionofanewcontracttype,thatofthejointcontract(ilcanaleconcertatto)13.Forthistypeofcontractthelawstipulates,asopposedtothefreecontract,thepossibilityofclosingcertaintenancycontractsinwhichtheduration,rentvalueandotherconditionsarenotestablishedbythepartiesindividually,butbytheunionorganizations,representativeofamajority,ofthetenantsandlandlords,underthesupervisionoftheMinistryofPublicWorksandofthemayoralty.

Thistypeofcontractistheonlyoneforwhichthelawandlocalpublicauthoritiesgrantfiscalfacilitiestothepropertyowners.

ThegeneralcriteriaonwhichthecontractdispositionsarebasedarenegotiatedinthiscasewithintheNationalConvention,summonedbytheMinisterofPublicWorks,towhichtheunionsofpropertyownersandtenantstakepart,aswellastherepresentativesofthelocalpublicadministration.Thecriteriarefertorent,durationandotherobjectiveparametersnotspecifiedinthelawandareredefinedeverythreeyearsinordertobeadequatetotheobjectivereality.

ThecontentoftheNationalConventionmustbefinalizedin90daysfromthesummoningofthesocialpartiesandwillbeintegratedintoadecreeofthePublicWorksMinister,endorsedalsobytheMinisterofFinances.

Ifanagreementcannotbereached,thecriteriawillbeestablisheddirectlybytheMinisterofPublicWorks,takingintoconsiderationthepredisposedorientationthatresultsfromthediscussionsofthesocialparties.

AftertheGeneralConvention,thesocialpartiescloseprovincialagreementswhichestablish,besidesrentvalue,duration,etc.,alsothepossiblefiscalfacilitations(besidesthosegrantedbythelaw)fromthebuildingtax,thatonlythemayoraltiescangranttothelandlordswhousethejointchannel.

Therulescomprisedintheterritorialagreementsarethenexpressedinatemplatecontract,whichallowstheiractualinclusioninthetenancy

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contracts.Therecanbeseveraltemplatecontractstomeetthedifferentrequirementsoftheparties.

ThisinnovationoftheItalianlawno.431/1998,calledtheZagattilaw, after the nameof its initiator, is considered to be a progress,because:

-itintroducesforthefirsttimeinItalyintheaccommodationbranchtheprinciplesofcollectivecontractingbetweenthepartiesandofthecollaborationwiththeinterestedinstitutions;

-itusesthefiscalkeyfactorsasinstrumentsofmarketcontrolandguidance;

-comprisesseverestandardsagainsttaxdodging,whichisverymuchpresentinthissector;

- institutes a National Fund for guaranteeing the access toaccommodationalsoforlesswealthytenants;

- itcomprisesseveraldispositionsof tenantsprotection,amongwhich the possibility to deduct the rent expenses from the tenant’staxableincome,adispositionwhichstimulatesthetenanttorefuseanyillicitcontract,defendinginthismannerahealthyconflictofinterestsbetweentheparties,capableofeliminatingthetaxdodging.

Thismannerofregulatingtherentalisbenefic,webelieve,becauseitdoesnotlinktheestablishingofimportantcontractelementstorigidlegislativenorms,whicharehardtomodify,buttomobileprinciplesthatcanbechangedeverythreeyears.

Thus, thecontract relationshipsareobservednotbecause theyareestablishedbylegalnorms,butbecausethejointrepresentativesofthepropertyownersandtenantsadoptedthem.Furthermore,thereisashiftfromtheexclusiveindividualrelationtoamodernonebetweentherealestatepropertyandtheuseofthesegoods.

Weconsiderthat,aslongasinourcountrytherealestatepropertybelongs entirely to the private property (and especially the smallpropertyowners),itisnecessarytoconstituteinthepropertysectoracultureofallthepartiesinvolved,byimposingthetenants’protection,becausetheaccommodationcannotbetreatedasanyotherconsumergoods, as they represent a vital need of the person, aswell as therighttowork.Theregulationofthejointcontractforcesthepropertyownerstofindnewwaysoforganizingandabettermanagementoftheirowninvestmentsandprovidesthetenantsaseriesofguaranteesbystandardizingthepropertyowners’requirements,bytheexistenceofclearerrulesandastrongercontractualstrength.

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OthernewsoftheItalianlegislationaretheintroductionofextra-judiciary conciliationwithin theNationalConvention to solve thelitigationsthatcanoccuronthedurationofthecontractthatbringstoamorerapidandcheapersettlementthantheoneattainedbyappealingtotheciviljustice14,aswellasthequalitycertificateoftheresidenceissuedbythecompetentmayoralty,whichensuresadvantagesforbothparties.Inthisway,thetenantisensuredthattheresidenceissuitabletothesecuritystandards,ofenergyconsumptionandotherlivingconditionsandthepropertyownerhasthepossibilityofchargingarentaccordingtotherealvalueoftheproperty.

Thesemeasuresofsocialprotectionofthetenants,outofwhichsomearetobefoundalsoinourcountry,(exceptthesuspensionofthepermanentcourtdecisionsofevacuation)promptoutissuesthatdrewalsotheattentionoftheEuropeanCourtofHumanRights.

Therefore, in the caseLunari versus Italy15, theCourt foundthattherewereviolatedArt.1oftheProtocolno.1additionaltotheEuropeanConventionofHumanRightsandArt.6,Paragraph1ofthesameConvention,respectively thecomplainantwasdeprivedof thepropertyprotectionandofafairtrialduetothestateauthoritiesrefusetocooperateinexecutingapermanentcourtdecisionofevacuation.

Theactualsituationwasasfollows:Thecomplainant,FulvioLunari,Italiancitizen,ownsanapartment

thathegaveforrentuntil1987.Inthisyear,thatmarkstheendoftherental contract term, the complainant obtains an enforceable courtdecisionforevacuatingthetenant.Thedecisionestablishesasatermfor evacuating the apartment themonthOctober of year 1988.Theclaimantobtainsapermanentcourtdecision,inthesensethatthetenantcannotbenefitfromthelegaldispositionsconcerningthesuspensionofevacuationbecausehedidnotpaytherentandthecommonexpensesshare.

BetweenOctober1989–April1993,thecomplainant,basedonthejudiciaryexecutorattemptstheevacuationofthetenantmorethan20times,butwithnosuccess,asaresultofthepublicforcerefusaltoofferassistance.

Moreover,bymeansofanothercourtdecision,thecomplainantisforcedtopaytheshareofthecommonexpensescorrespondingtohisshareofproperty,includingthatofthetenant.

TheapartmentwasevacuatedonlyinJuly1993,duetotheactionofthejudiciaryexecutor,assistedbythepublicforce.

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Concerningthefirstviolation,thatoftheArt.1oftheAdditionalProtocolno1oftheConvention,theCourtshowedthatthisgivestherighttothepropertyprotectionandcontainsbasicallythreerules:

-therighttotherespectofthegoods(Line1SentenceI);-deprivingthepersonfromhisproperty(Line.2SentenceII);-theregulationofusingthegoods(Line2).TheviolationclaimedbytheclaimantwasclassifiedbytheCourt

inameasureofregulationofusingthegoodsthatmustbeproportionalwiththelegitimatepurposeaimed.Art.1asawholerequiresthat,inthecaseofanyunwarrantableinterferenceofthestatestobekepta“justbalance”betweentheimperativesofthegeneralinterestandthefundamentalrightsoftheindividual.Whencontrollingtheobservanceofthisbalance,theCourtadmitstothestatesagreaterdegreeofestimation.Especially if itconcernsfieldssuchas thepropertywhichoccupiesacentralplace in the socialandeconomicalpoliciesof themodernsocieties, theCourt respects the decision of the national legislator,exceptwhenitistotallylackingareasonablebasis.

Actually,theCourtconsideredthat,adoptingemergencymeasuresconcerning the suspension of evacuations and stipulating certainexceptionsinapplyingthem,theItalianlegislatior16couldreasonablyestimate that themeans selected are appropriate for reaching thelegitimatepurpose.

Nevertheless, inthiscase, theclaimantobtainedanenforceablecourtdecisionforevacuatingthetenantinOctober1988,butmanagedtoobtaintheassistancethepublicforceforenforcingitonlyinJune1993(thisunderthecircumstancesinwhichthetenantwaslatewithpayingtherent,sohecouldhavebeenevacuatedduringthesuspensiondictatedbythelegislator);sotheCourtestimatedthattherestrictionsufferedbytheclaimantinusinghisapartment,especiallybecauseofthewrongapplicationofexceptionsfromthesuspensionofgrantingassistanceonbehalfofthecompetentauthorities,representsaspecialand excessive task,whichbroke thebalance that shouldhavebeenkeptbetweentheprotectionoftheindividual’srightstohavehisgoodsrespectedandtheexigenciesofthegeneralinterest.

AsecondviolationfoundbytheCourtwasthatofArt.6,whichstipulatestherighttoafairtrial.

Thisviolationwasnotedbecause,althoughthecomplainanthadtherighttoobtainwithpriorityassistanceonbehalfofthepublicforce,thetenantbeinglatewiththerentpayment,ittookalmost16monthforthisprioritytoberecognizedbyajudgeandalmost4yearsuntiltheyexecutedtheevacuationdecision.

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TheCourtalsoestimatedthattheGovernmentdidnotprovethatthesuspensionofexecutiontookonlythenecessarytimetofindasatisfyingsolutionforthepublicorderproblemsthattheItalianauthoritiesweredealingwith.Inaddition,itwasshownthattheGovernmentdidnotprove that during the 4 yearswas searching for a solution for theaccommodationproblemsof the tenant (whichwasasserted tobeapoorpersonandwithachild).

Bythesedelaysititconsideredtohavebeenviolatedtheclaimant’sright toa fair trial,and, implicitly to the reasonabledurationof thejudiciaryprocedures(thatalsoincludeforcedexecution).

InothercasesjudgedagainstItaly17,alsohavingasobjecttheviolationofArt.6Paragraph1duetothedelayofevacuatingthetenants,theCourtexaminedthedurationoftheevacuationprocedurefromamoregeneralpointofview,oftherightofaccesstoafairtrial.Inthesecases,theexecutionoftheevacuationdecisionhadbeendelayedexcessivelyduetotheprefect’srefusaltogranttheassistanceofthepublicforce;theCourtnotedthat,becausetheprefectwasthecompetentauthoritytoestablishthedateofforcedevacuationand,intheabsenceofanrealjudiciarycontrolofhisdecisions,thepropertyownersweredeprivedoftheirrighttoafairtrialinwhichtheirappealsshouldhavebeenjudged,asitisstipulatedinArt.6fromtheConvention.

Inconclusion,weconsiderthatintheRomanianjudicialsystem,therentingcontractisaconsensualcontract,freelynegotiatedbetweenthe contractingparties.Exceptionally it is an adhesion contract therentingcontractthathasasanobjecttheapartmentsbelongingtothestaterentalmarket,regardlessoftheirtype:social,necessity,etc.Inordertodiminishthenegativeimpactofthesecontractsonthetenants,thelegislatorhasimposedbythedispositionsinforce,somecontracttemplates.

References:1Hereisalsoincludedthepurposeoraimofthejudicialpaper.2J.Carbonnier,Droit civil,vol.II,PressesuniversitairesdeFrance,Paris,1962,p.313şiurm.3C.Stănescu,C.Bîrsan,Teoria generală a obligaţiilor, Editura All, Bucureşti, 1993, p.40.4 In theFrenchdoctrine itwas shown that the imposed rental contracts are thosewhichrepresenttheconsequenceofadivorce,ifoneofthespousesisthelandlordofthebuildingconstitutingthefamilyquarters;andthosewhicharetheconsequenceoftherightofautomaticrenewaloftherentalofruralstock;oroftherightofquasi-automaticrenewalofthecommercialrental,D.Mainguy,Contrats speciaux,EdituraDalloz,Paris,2000,p.216.5L.Josserand,Les tendances actuelles de la theorie des contrats, inR.T.D.C.no.1/

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1937,p.1-30.Thisauthoristheverycreatorofthecontractualdirigismetermandshowed“Thecontracthasceasedbeingfreeforbeingguided:aregulation,controlregimefollowedthereignofindividualwillautonomyandcontractualfreedom,andtheconceptsofprotectionismtendtoeliminatethatoffreetrade.’’6Referringtothelimitsbetweenwhichthelegislatormustintervene,webelieveitisinterestingtoreproduceafragmentofthepreliminarydiscoursegivenatthepresentationoftheFrenchCivilCodeprojectinfrontoftheStateCouncilbyPortalis,oneofthefoureditorsoftheproject.“Wearegoverninginabadmannerwhenwearegoverningtoomuch.Apersoncontractinganotherpersonhastobecarefulanddiligent;hemustsupervisehisowninterest,tolookfortheconvenientinformationandnotneglectwhatisuseful.Theroleoflawistoprotectusagainstfraudfromotherpeopleandnottomakeusrejectourowneffortofthinking.Ifitwasanyotherway,thelifeofpeople,under thesupervisionof the lawwouldbeonlya longandshamefulminorityandthissupervisionwoulddegenerateitselfininquisition.”,quoteafterH.etL.Mazeaud,J.Mazeaud,Fr.Chabas,Leçons de droit civi, ,Obligations .Théorie générale, tomeII,prémierevolume,EditionsMontchrestien,Paris,1985,p.38.Healsodeclared,referringtotheinterventionoflawinthecontractualfieldthat,ifwestartfromtheideathat,bymeansofthelaw,itmustbeblockedeverythingbadandtheabuses,itoffersthecitizensonlyaprejudicialprotectionandtheremedywillbeworsethantheharmitself.7Idem,p.4(“inthelawoflandlordandtenant”)8H.andL.Mazeau,J.Mazeaud,Fr.Chabas,Leçons de droit civil. Obligations.Théorie générale, tomeII,EditionsMontchrestien,Paris,1985,p.27-28.9Idem,p.29.10Ibidem.11IsthesituationinwhichtheRomanianlegislationisfound.SeeappendixesoftheLawno.114/1996.12A.Bénabent,Droit civil. Les obligation,EditionsMontchrestien,Paris,2001,p.20.Theauthorshowsthatthespiritofthejudicialcontrolisbasedonthe“newprinciplesofcontractualequality,ofcontractualequilibriumandfraternity,thelasttermofthethreedeterminingtheskepticism”.13 ***, La nouva riforma degli affitti,MaggiolliEditore,2001,p.4914Idem,p.60.Inthetextitisshownthat,bythisconciliationitisavoided“lajustiziacivile,concostietempiinacceptabili”.15TheEuropeanCourtofHumanRightsdecisionfrom14.12.2000translated,resumedandcommentedbyC.–L.Popescu,inR.R.D.A.nr.2/2003,p.145-147.16Inthesamesense,theRomanianConstitutionalCourtestimatedasreasonableandnotbreakingthejustbalancebetweenthepublicandtheprivateinterest,theunwarrantableinterferenceof the legislatorwhoordered the repeatedprorogationof some rentalcontracts,showingeventhat theregulationoftherentalcontracthasnothingtodowiththepropertyright.17TheEuropeanCourtforHumanRightsdecisionfrom30.11.2000,EdoardoPalumboversusItaly.

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PhD. stud., veronica DolineanSchi,Scientific researcher,

Institute of Economy, Finance and Statistics

ThE LINk bETWEEN ORGANIzATIONAL CULTURE AND SOCIAL pERFORMANCE

The paper, explores the relationship between organizational culture and social performance concepts. Thus, social performance is proposed as a concept that results from the development of high quality relationships at work, and culture as the framework that sustains such relationships. The information presented in this paper suggests that research and theory on the culture and performance link may consider more properly the view of organizational culture that can show and explain the social performance structure.

Theway people in an organization think, feel, value and actare guided by ideas,meanings and beliefs of a cultural nature.Thus,organizationalculture issignificantasawayofunderstandingorganizational dynamics in all its richness and variations.Cultureis central to organizational functioning because of the profoundimportanceofsharedmeanings,takenforgrantedideas.

Althoughthisisrecognized,thestudiesoncultureandperformanceare relatively limited in dealingwith cultural complexity.On onehand,excessivefocushasbeengiventotheincreasingofshort-termperformancefromtheinstrumentalculturaldesignandmanagementof limited symbolic elements.On the other hand, the concept ofperformance has until recently beenmostly conceived in terms offinancialandeconomicoutcomesandthisvisionstilldominates.Themainpurposeofthispaperistoexaminehoworganizationalcultureaffectsperformanceandeffectivenessfromabroaderandmorenuancedcultural standpoint.Therefore, the notion of social performance isexploredasviablealternative to improveourunderstandingsof theorganizationalcultureandperformancerelationship.

The linkbetweenorganizationalcultureandperformancehasarelativelylongtraditioninthefieldoforganizationalstudies.Fromitsemergenceinthe1950’s,itisonlyinthe1990’sthatarelativelylargenumberofsurveystudieshaveempiricallytestedtheassumedculture-performancelink.Someresearchersthatstudiessuggestthatthislinkhasbeenexaminedinliteraturethroughthreedistinctiveapproachesat

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least.Inthemostinstrumentaloftheseapproaches,cultureisconceivedasabuildingblocktobeengineeredanddesignedbymanagement.

Fromthatperspective,probablythemostextensivestudyoftherelationshipbetweencultureandperformancewasbyKotterandHeskett(1992),whoconductedanumberof relatedstudiesusing207firmsoverafive-yearperiod.Usingasimplemeasureofcorporateculture(perceiveddegreeofvalueconsensus), theyobserved that so-calledstrongculturesthatplaceahighdegreeofvalueonconsensusdonotnecessarilyresultinexcellentperformanceandcanevenbedestructiveunlessa focusonadaptation toachangingenvironment is includedamongtheirnormsandvalues.Theyconcludedthatfirmswithculturesthatweresuitedtotheirmarketenvironmentperformedbetterthandidthosewhohadanequally“strong”culturebutpossessedapoorerfitwiththeenvironment.

Theevolutionofresearchesthatfocusontheissuesoforganizationalculture as a predictor of organizational performance, concludethat evidence exists but is not very convincingly. Due to theoperationalizationsoftheculturevariableandespeciallyduetotheiruncertainvalidity,theseauthorssustainthatweareabletoaddressveryfewconcludingaffirmationsconcerningtheimpactofanorganization’sculture on performance.Other studies suggest the inexistence of acausalrelationshipbetweencultureandtheshort-termperformanceoforganizations.Consequently,valuesandnormsthatdefinecorporateculturehavealimiteddirectimpactonorganizationaleffectivenessintermsofworkbehaviorandwillingnesstowork.

Anotherapproachlinkingorganizationalcultureandperformanceemphasizes themanagers’ capacity of framing and defining socialreality.Thismeans that leaders exercisemore or less far-reachinginfluence on theway inwhich employees perceive andunderstandtheirtasksandtheirworkplace.Thus,leadersplayasymbolicroleinthedefinition,structuringandorderingofsituationsandexperienceinmeaningfulways.Fromthisperspective,itisclearthatbeingaleaderdenotesbeing capableofmanagingandordering themeanings thatpeoplegive to theiractions.Managementbecomes thenasymbolicactionandculture is seenasmediated inactions, languageuseandarrangementsprimarilyaffectingbeliefsandunderstandings.

Athirdapproachtowardsorganizationcultureandperformancefocuses on treating culture as a diagnostic instrument; as an aid inmakingwisedecisionsandavoidingtraps.Fromthatpointofview,culturestressesthedeepvaluesandbasicassumptionsoforganizational

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life;itisaterrainofpossibilitiesandpitfalls.Inthisapproach,cultureisconceivedasastrongerforcetowhichmanagersmustadapt,andunderstanding culture is important formanagers’ possibilities innavigatinginandwiththeorganization.

Theconceptofcultureseemstolenditselftoverydifferentusessuch as collectively shared forms of ideas and cognition; symbolsandmeanings;valuesandideologies;rulesandnorms;emotionsandexpressiveness; the collective unconscious; behavior patterns; andstructuresandpractices.Organizationalcultureisassociatedwiththeimportanceofsymbolismforpeople.

When organizations are examined from a cultural viewpoint,attentionisdrawntoaspectsoforganizationallife,suchasthewaysinwhichofficesarearrangedandwhetherpersonalitemsareorarenotdisplayed;thestoriesandjokespeopletell;therelationsamongpeople;andsoon.Detailsrelatedtotheseculturalmanifestationsmayprovideanin-depthunderstandingofthepatternsofmeaningsthatlinkthesemanifestations together, sometimes inharmony, sometimes inbitterconflictsbetweengroups,andsometimesinwebsofambiguity,paradox,andcontradiction.Culturealsoconcernsemotionandfeelings.Culturalprocessesareengagedwithmultiplechannelsofhumanawareness,including the five senses;mental ideas; emotional responses; andaesthetic,moralandintuitivecapabilities.Althoughsenses,ideas,andemotionsarecommonlyassociatedwithindividuals,sustainsthatitisthe interrelationshipof individual experiences across organizationalspace and time that defineswhatwe label culture. Sharing ideas,beliefsandvaluesimpliesexperiencingthembodily,sensitivelyandemotionally.

Ifculturalmeaning is sociallyconstructedandguides thinking,feeling and acting, then culture affects theway people organizetheir attachment to the organization, to theirwork and to others.Understanding,experiencingandfeelinginanorganizationalcontextallowspeople todevelopmultipleformsofattachment.Throughoutthesemultiple attachments, collaboration, coordination, learning,adaptation,commitment,trustandloyaltytakeplaceinorganizationaldailyactivities.Organizationsdependontheseprocessestoperforminaninnovativeandcoordinatedway.Performanceistheconsequenceof themeaning that these social attachments take.Thinking aboutperformance from a social and cultural perspectivemay avoid anexcessiveandprematurenormativeandfunctionalistviewofculture.Themorepopularconceptualizationoforganizationalcultureargues

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that‘good’,‘strong’or‘valuable’culturesarecharacterizedbynormsbeneficialtothecompany,tocustomers,andtomankind.Veryoftenwemayfind assumptions that “good” and “effective” cultures arecharacterizedbynormsandvaluessupportiveofexcellence,teamwork,honesty,commitment,etc.Incontrastwiththatassumption,wemayargue the reverse: these are consequencesof culturalpatterns in anorganizationthatcannotbeforgedanddesignedartificially.Ontheotherhand,performancemaybeseenasassociatedwiththecapabilityofanorganizationfordevelopingandsustaininghigh-qualityconnectionsbetween people at work. Culture is the context in which theseconnectionscanmakesenseandhavevalue.Asavehicleforimprovingthequalityofconnectionsatwork,wemayrelateculturaldynamicswiththesocialdimensionsofperformance.High-qualityconnectionsatworkmaycontributetothesocialperformanceandeffectivenessofacompanythroughatleastfiveways:

–enhancingthecapacityofpeopletocooperatewithinandacrossunits;

–facilitatingeffectivecoordinationbetweeninterdependentpartsofanorganization;

– strengthening employees’ attachments to their workorganizations;

–facilitatingthetransmissionof“purpose”–akeyconsiderationfororganizationsthatrelyontransmissionofvaluesasameanstobuildloyaltyandassurecompetitivesuccess;

–encouragingdialogueanddeliberationandthereforefacilitatingorganizationallearning;

– improving the capacity for adaptation and changewithin thecompany.

Theability toappreciatecultural complexitymay improvedbybeingabletothinkofcultureasafluid,ongoingandopenprocess.Itisimportant,then,toacknowledgethatcultureisnotjustsomethingthatcanbeactivelymobilizedtomakepeoplethink,feel,valueandbehaveinaccordancewithmanagerialorpre-establishedwants.Sometimes,cultureworksasasourceofemployees’resistancetomanagerialgoals,strategiesandcontrol.

Culture and performancemay be thought of as interrelateduniverses.This paper proposed an understanding of organizationalcultureasacontextthataccommodatesthedevelopmentofthewaypeople interact and through that interaction givesmeaning to theirsocialreality.Sharedvalues,ideas,understandings,andexpressiveness

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embodyandexplainthenatureofinterpersonalconnectionatwork.Inthatmanner,cultureplaysanimportantroleintheconstructionandmaintenanceofhigh-qualityrelationshipsinorganizations,andthusintermsofsocialperformance.

bibliography:Alvesson,M.(2002).Understandingorganizationalculture.1.London:SagePublications.Dutton,J.E.(2003).Energizeyourworkplace:howtocreate2. andsustainhigh-qualityconnectionsatwork.SanFrancisco:Josse-Bass.Fletcher, D. (2002).A network perspective of cultural3. organizingand“professionalmanagement”inthesmall,familybusiness.SmallBusinessandEnterpriseDevelopment.Hatch,M. J. (2000).The cultural dynamics of organizing4. andchange.InN.M.Ashkanasy,C.P.M.Wilderom,&M.F.Peterson (Eds.),Handbookof organizational culture andclimateThousandOaks:SagePublications.Kotter,J.P.,&Heskett,J.L.(1992).Corporatecultureand5. performance.NewYork:FreePress.Martin,J.(1992).Cultureinorganizations:threeperspectives.6.NewYork:OxfordUniversityPress.Wilderom,C. P.M.,Glunk,U.,&Maslowski,R. (2000).7.Organizational culture as apredictor of organizationalperformance.InN.M.Ashkanasy,C.P.M.Wilderom,&M.F.Peterson (Eds.),Handbookof organizational culture andclimateThousandOaks:SagePublications.

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Section iv. economic and social policies for european Integration

Prof. Eng. Giorgio teSeleanu Ph.D. President Concept & Pantheongroup – Italy,

University Of Macerata - Italy

ThE ROLE OF ThE SMALL AND MEDIUM -SIzED ENTERpRISES IN ThE pROCESS OF

INTERNATIONALIzATION

The Role of the sMes in the economyTheroleplayedthesmallandmedium-sizedenterprises(SME)in

theeconomyisveryimportantbecauseofthehelpthatgivefortheeco-nomicdevelopmentandthejobcreation.TheSMEs,inbothadvancedmarket economiesandeconomiesintransitionandtheirconsiderableCONTRIBUTION to employment and economic dynamism in themostindustrializedcountriessuggestthatthisexperience canbeusedforsustainabledevelopmentofdevelopingcountries.ItisclearthatavibrantSMEsectorcanbringgreatbenefitstodevelopingcountries.

TheroleoftheSMEsincommunitydevelopmentoftenremainsobscuredby the informal nature of their actions.However, there isquantifiableevidenceexistsinanumberofstudiesonsmallbusinessandtheenvironment,providingasenseofhowimportantthissectorisforsustainabledevelopmentinemergingeconomies.

SMEsaremorelikelytohavetiesofdependenceandfamiliaritytotheircommunities,whichwillensuretheyprotecttheirreputationand relationships among neighbours and customers.The aim is toimprovetheloyaltyofthecustomersandtohavebetterrelationswiththecommunity.

In confrontationwithmarket saturation or intense domesticcompetition,thosefirmsthathavetheabilitytoidentifyandexploitexchangeopportunitiesabroadthereforeseektomaximizetheirprofitsbyenteringinternationalmarkets.

small and Medium - sized enterprises – DefinitionTherearetwogroupsofcriteriatodefinetheSMEs:quantitative

and qualitative.

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From aquantitative point of view, the term SME refers tocompaniesinallsectorsas longas itssizeisnot toobig.Therearesome indicators used to create the definition of theSMEs: profits,invested capital, balance-sheet total, earnings, total capital, equity,marketposition,productionandsalesvolume,numberofemployeesandturnover.Butthemostimportantquantitativecriteriasare:thenumberoftheemployeesandtheturnover.

Qualitativecriteriagenerallyprovideinformationonthenature– the characteristic properties – of SMEs. In order to differentiatebetweenSMEsand largecompanies, relationshipsbetween ‘owner’and ‘company’ in the frameworkof ‘personalprinciple’,and ‘unityofleadershipandcapital’arerecommendedasthequalitativecriteria.The‘personalprinciple’meansthat thecompanymanagerperformsa central role in the business decisionmaking, he has anoverviewof fundamentally all technical, administrative and organizationalproceduresinthecompany.‘Unityofleadershipsandcapital’meansthatthecompanymanagerandproprietorisoneandthesameperson,theowner-managerismuchmoreself-sufficientandindependentthanthecontractedmanagementoflargecompanies.

TheEuropeanUnion(EU)setthefollowingcriteriafordefiningtheSMEs:

lessthan250workers;1.amaximumof40millioneurosannualturnover;2. amaximum27millioneurosannualbalance-sheettotal;3. minimum of 75% of company assets owned by company4. management;owner35.

Internationalization of small and Medium-sized enterprises - Dimensions

In the presentworld economy, nomarket is forever safe fromcompetition and no company can afford to stake its future on theassumptionthatit‘owns’itshomemarket.Therefore,duetoincreasingcompetitivepressureandprotectiontheyformerlyreceivedfromtheirgovernments,itisparticularlynecessaryforSMEstointernationalizeindevelopingcountries.

Becauseof the increasingcompetitiveness, theSMEsectorhasbecomevital for the national economydue to their impact on jobcreationandincreasingscopeforsuccessinexportmarkets.Alsointheinternationalenvironmentduetothechangesandtothenecessity

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ofintegration,consistentwithothereconomies(developed,developing,andtransition),astrongsmallandmedium-sizedsectorisnecessaryfortheeradicationofpoverty,specificallythroughemploymentgeneration,andfortherestructuringoftheinstitutionalbusinessframework.

Finally,andequallyimportant,thedevelopmentofnewandexistingexportmarkets is seen as a powerful tool to promote employmentcreation.Inordertocopewithnewsituations,manyenterpriseshaveshifted their activities toward internationalmarkets. Such a shift inorientationtowardsmorediscerninganddemandingexportmarketshasforcedthemanufacturingsectorstostriveforasubstantialimprovementin their competitiveness through adoption of different policies andstrategies.

In the process of internationalization, an important questionremains to be settled:why internationalization?What factors leadafirm from little or no involvement to, in some cases,widespreadinternationalinvolvement?Growthisnotspontaneous,itistheresultofdecision;therefore,ifwearetounderstandtheprocessesthenwehave to explainwhy a companyundertakes to become involved ininternationaloperations.Itisnotenoughtobeafirmwithresourcesandopportunitiesintheenvironment;internationalizationmustbewantedandtriggeredbyanentrepreneurwhomakeskeydecisionsandcarriesouttheinternationalization.

Thus,giventhecentralroleofentrepreneursininternationalizationofSMEs,itisimportanttoclarifywhyentrepreneurundertakestoentertheinternationalmarketandtoidentifythedrivingforcesthatinfluencetheentrepreneur’sperceptions,decisionsandactionsthatconsequentlyleadthefirmtowardsinvolvementininternationalmarkets.

The process of internationalization of SMEs is an entrepreneurial and opportunity-based process. Inthisprocess,duetotheinitiatingforcesandentrepreneurs’alertness,entrepreneursperceiveandsubsequentlydue to their skills and experience realize and take advantage of internationalopportunities.Thisisreflectedinthereceptivenessattitude,entrepreneurial orientation,proactivebehaviouroftheentrepreneursandtheinternationalorientationof thefirm.Therefore,itwouldappearthatentrepreneursgenerallyhaveanimpacton internationalizationofSMEsintwodifferentways:oneimpactreflectthemental orientation or “way of thinking” andtheotherimpactsindicatethebehaviourand“actionoriented function” oftheentrepreneurresultinginrealizationof the internationalmarket opportunities and internationalizationoftheSMEs.

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Somefirmsmayinternationalizeearlybecauseatopmanagementteamwithpreviousinternationalexperiencemaybewillingandabletopursuenewcombinationsofkeyresourcesacrossnationalbordersearlyoninthefirm’sexistence.Forinstance,theyarguedthatafirmmight changegradually the nature of its activitieswithin a foreigncountry,thatis,fromonlyexporttofully-ownedoverseasproductioninvestments, aswell asacross countriesbyexpandingover time tocountriesthataremorephysicallyandculturally.Theteam’slevelofinternationalknowledgeandexperiencehasapositiveinfluenceonthefirm’sdegreeofinternationalization.

On thecontrary,otherfirmsprefer to learngraduallyabout theinternationalarenabyenteringfirstmarketsthatareperceivedtobeless risky– that is,beinggeographicallyandculturallyclose to thedomesticmarket–beforeentering“more risky”distantmarkets. Inshort, thebehaviouralapproachtowardsinternationalizationfocusesonafirm’sgraduallyincreasinginternationalinvolvementthroughaseriesofincrementalsteps.

The internationalization of a firm is not a one-dimensionalconcept (to be analyzedonly through the operationdimension) butamultidimensionalconcept,weshoulddecidewhichdimensionsofinternationalizationareofourinterest.Incomparisonwithdecisionssuchastypeofproduct,numberandqualityofpersonnel,organizationstructure,andfinancialissuesthatarecommonactivitiesinanygrowthstrategy,“entrymode”and“marketselection”areconsideredasthecorecomponentsanddistinctivefeaturesof internationalizationandother types of growth strategies.Entrymodes are the institutionalarrangements such as exporting, licensing, foreign investment, etc.that enable firms to enter amarket.Therefore, in addition to thedrivingforcesof the internationalization,weare interested toknowhow SMEsrealizetheiroperations(entrymode)andwhere theylocatetheiroperations.

Theprocessofforeigninvestmentdecisioninvolves“anintricatestructureofattitudesandopinion,socialrelationshipsbothinandoutsidethefirm,andthewaysuchattitudes,opinionsandsocialrelationsarechanging.Itcontainsvariouselementsofindividualandorganizationalbehaviour,influencedbythepastandtheperceptionofthefutureaswellasbythepresent.Itiscomposedofalargenumberofdecisions,madebydifferentpeopleatdifferentpointsintime.”Thehugenumberofvariablesinfluencetheexportbehaviouroffirmsbutsimplelistingofreasonsforexporting,exportstimuli,etc.isnotlikelytocauseanyprogressinexplainingorpredictingtheprocessofinternationalization.

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Ainternationalizationstrategyconsistofacombinationofexportation,alliancesandforeigndirectinvestmentstrategies.

Accordingtoclassicalinternationaltheories,supplyanddemandopportunitiesdrivethe

internationalexchangeactivitiesoffirms.Takentogether,they �assumethatinternationalexchange opportunities exist, and the internationalization �of firms arises largely from industry structure andmarketconditionsratherthanindividualmanagerialfactors.

Theprocessoftheinternationalizationcanbedescribedasagradualacquisition,integrationanduseofknowledgeaboutforeignmarketsandoperationsthatisorganizedaroundstrategicchoicesandorganizationalforms,whichareinfluencedbymanyotherfactorsaswell.

Thesefactors includeforcesfacilitatingor inhibitingexporting,informationneedsandtheacquisitionofinformation,foreignmarketselectionandentry(includingtheeffectsofculturaldistance),expansion,andmarketingstrategies.

Exportationwastheinternationalizationstrategythemostutilized.This is followedby the distribution rights strategy and importationstrategy.

Themainfactorsthatmustbeanalyzedwhensomeonedecidestotacklewiththeinternationalmarketare:

exports1. ThefirstobstaclefortheSMEsisthelackofknowledgeoftheforeignmarketandthentheimporttariffsindestinationcountriesandthelackofcapital.

Strategies against increasing competition2. Thebestwaytofighttheincreasingcompetitionistoimprovethequalityoftheproduct,toincreaseworkinghoursandtocuttheproduction.

New products and the barriers to innovation3. Innovationisveryimportantforthecompanybecauseanewproductproducemuchincome.Butthebarriersare:theaccesstofinance,thescarcityofskilledlabour,alackofmarketdemandandthehighcostofhumanresources.

Dependency from regional markets4. Forasuccessful internationalbusiness, theSMEdoesn’thavetobedependentontheregionalmarket

Availability of an appropriate workforce5. Aprimaryproblem is the availability of an appropriateworkforce.FindingandhiringtheappropriateworkforceisachallengeformanySMEsintheEU.

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Administrative regulations6. Administrative regulations have a considerable importance forthe companybecause this is one of themain issues that limits thebusiness.

Companiesinvestabroadinordertolowertransactioncoststhroughtwoeffects:thelocationeffectandtheownershipeffect.Thelocationeffectdetermineswherevalue-addingactivitiestakeplaceandtheownershipeffectexplainswhoownsandcontrolstheactivities.

Investmentabroadismotivatedalsobyattemptstoguardassetssuchasinformation,skills,technologyorproducts,ortoobtaincontrolover resources, thereby protecting the firm from uncertainty andreducing transactioncosts.The rationalabilityof thefirm toassessthecostsandbenefitsofinternalandexternaltransactioncostsandtoimplementdecisionsisconsideredimplicitinthesemotives.

Thereisacertainnumberofdynamicfactorswhichexplainwhyanimportantnumberofenterpriseschoosetoprogressgraduallyintheirinternationalizationprocess.Thesefactorsare:

resourceavailability, �thelevelofforeignmarketacquaintance, �theimportanceofcommunicationnetworks, �theperceivedrisksand/orincertitude, �thewillingnessofthemanagertoenterforeignmarkets. �

Learningabouttheorganizationofacompanyisveryimportant.Organizational learning effort is based on existing knowledge anddeveloping new knowledge.This description of learning effort isconsistentwithpriorresearchthatarguedthatorganizationallearningincludestwomodes,thatis,exploitationandexploration.

Exploration involves the search for newknowledge, skills andprocesses,whereasexploitationinvolvestheincrementalimprovementofexistingknowledge,skillsandprocesses.Butmanytimesexploitationbyitselfmaynotbesufficientinthelongruntomaintainacompetitiveadvantage,sincetheenvironmentinwhichanorganizationoperateschangesovertime.Sucheffortmaybeaimedatlearninginsidehomecountry borders (that is, domestic learning effort) or outside theseborders(thatis,internationallearningeffort).

Inordertoexaminetheimpactonfutureinternationalizationofhowmuchemphasis afirmplaceson learningactivities ingeneral,wealsoexaminedtheeffectsofdomestic learningeffortonafirm’sinternationalizationintent.Wesuggestapositiverelationshipbetween

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domesticlearningeffortandthepropensitytointernationalizefurther.Byemphasizingdomesticlearningactivities,thefirmmayindirectlybecomemoreknowledgeableandconfidentabouthowtolearnfromitscurrentandpotentialstakeholders(forexample,personnel,customersorsuppliers)inthedomesticmarket.

As firms acquire knowledge in their domesticmarket, theirknowledgebasemayexpandsuchthatitprovidesthefirmwithbetterincross-borderactivities.Somesignificant factorsmustbe taken inconsideration:localcompetitors,competitiveagreements,legislationandbusinessnormsthatareused.

Uncertaintyinforeignmarketsmaybeovercomebyexchanginginformationwithorganizationswhoaremorefamiliarwiththespecificlocalcontext.Therefore,whenafirmproactively seeksforadditionalforeignsuppliers,customers,andalliancepartnersinagivencountry,afirmmayovercometheuncertaintythatariseswhenincreasingtheintensityofitsactivitiesinthatmarket.

The notion ofproactiveness reflects the firm’s propensity toundertakeacontinuoussearchforopportunitiesandreflectsthefactthat the companymonitors environmental changes in a variety ofcountriesonafrequentbasis,evenifithasnotundertakenanyformalbusinesstransactionsinthosecountriesyetordoesnotintendtodosointheshortterm.

Therearealsorisksthatthecompanymustconsiderwhenitdecidesto internationalize.

SMEsareconsidered tobeatagreater riskof failure,partiallybecause company directorsmay have less collectivemanagementexperience or business expertise than larger companies. ForeigninvestorsoftenshyawayfrominvestinginemergingeconomySMEsbecause of unfavourable investment climates and the uncertaintyofsufficient returns.Theresult is thatsomeSMEssecurefinancingonlybyagreeingtoahighamountofcollateralandshorterpay-backperiodswhiletherestmusteitherrelyontheirpersonalnetworksorhigh-interest,illegalloanstogeneratestart-upcapital.

AlsothesizeisadisadvantagefortheSMEbecauseitdoesn’thaveenoughinformationandenoughfinancialresourcesforimplementingdirectinvestments.

Firmsthatengageinradicalinnovation,undertakebold,aggressiveactions,orarewillingtoassumerisks,maybemorelikelytodevelopalong-termbusinessabroad,substantialpresenceintheinternationalcountries,comparedtofirmsthataremorereactiveorconservative.

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The internationalization process in the european unionSince1992, theEuropeanUnion(EU)hasbecomearealityfor

Europeanfirms.Withinthisfreetradezone,evenmorestepsarebeingtaken tounite thecountries,botheconomicallyandpolitically.Thistransitionchangesthenationalandinternationalbusinessenvironment.Forsmallandmedium-sizedfirms-andfortheircompetitors-ithasbecomeeasiertobroadenthefirm’sactivitiesinternationally.Besidestheestablishmentof theEU, thedemocratizationofEasternEuropealsobringsnewopportunitiesaswellasthreats,becausesomeofthesecountriesarelikelytoentertheUnion.

Severaltheoriesandconceptshavebeensuggestedtocapturetheprocessofinternationalization.Amongthese,thesocalledstagemodelsreceivemuch attention.These theories assume that the process ofinternationalizationshouldfollowaprescribedpathtobesuccessful.

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Budiono Gatut l., PhD in Commerce, Researcher of University of Pancasila, Indonesia

TRIwIDIAsTuTY Doctor in Economy, Researcher of University of Pancasila, Indonesia

WORLD ECONOMy GLObALIzATION: INDONESIA’S FENOMENA, AChIEVEMENT

ITS RISk AND pRObLEM SOLVING

Today Indonesia suffering huge debt and experience inefficient agriculture, oceanic even industrial product, prone to impediment its economic growth. Unmatch with world high mass and efficient productive industrial countries. Indonesia now is oil importer country, experience unbalance international trade, hamper its economy prosperity. World, US and EU business with Indonesia hopefully under equal mutually benefit. Indonesian democracy continues causing prolonged economic disturbance laws uncertainty results higher social cost driving away investors who should investing their capital to Indonesia. World economic forum have unbalance policy trading with indonesia pressing economy of Indonesia downward hard to compete future Globalization. In this coming future 10 years Indonesia keep uncompetitive facing global business.

state Debt Increasing economy Crisis of IndonesiaHugeamountofstatedebtofIndonesiaincreasestheIndonesia’s

economicalrisks.Indonesiaisanunderdevelopagriculturalandoceaniccountrynotanindustrialstate,canIndonesiacompetewiththemassandhighefficientheavyindustrialstatewithveryefficientproductivityinanyproduction;meanwhileIndonesia’soceanicandagaricsproductionisinsufficient.

Indonesia is now really having a high serious economicalproblem,difficulttobeadvancingitseconomyfacingarealpressureofGlobalization economy potentive to state financial failure andIndonesia’s economical position in general. SomeGlobal economypressureasjoltsinthecapitalmarketcondition,highfluctuativemoneymarket, risingoilpriceup to level$147perbarrel althoughnow ithasreduceto$135perbarrelisstillburdeningIndonesia’seconomicconditions(SrimulyaniIndrawati,2008).TheHigheconomicalpressurenamelythehighyieldIndonesiashouldpaytotheinvestorswithregardtotheStateLetterofDebttoforeigninvestorsreaching13,4percentsupto13,5percentsthereisanincreaseof200basepoints;sobisnisis

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bisnisnofriendshipandforeigninvestorcountriesiskeepuptakingtheir benefit from Indonesia regardless Indonesia is still having aneconomicalcrises,furthermoreironicallyforeigncountriesaretakingprofitwhenaverIndonesiaisfacingitseconomicalcrisesandtheygotmoreprofitfromIndonesia’sworseneconomiccondition.SoIndonesia’sinternationalbusinessfriendshipmeanstheIndonesia’sfinancialandeconomicalburdenheavierandmoredifficultfromtimetotime.

Themaincauseofhighyieldofforeigndebt is theproblemofsubprimemortgage.Thecompanybusiness leader inUSwasdowngrade;thebankingleadergotlossduetosubprimemortgageproblemduringmediaofyear2007.ThelossexperiencedbytheUSbankinghasforcedforeigninvestorstobeprudencetoinvesttheirmoneyandtheclearresultistheIndonesia’sStateDebtLetteryieldmovedhigherandexperiencedburdenforIndonesia’sgreaterdebt.AnotherreasonIndonesia’sStateDebtLettermovedupduetogeneralcrudeoilpricejoltupdrivinginvestor’stendencytobemoreprudencetoinvesttheirmoney.

TheresultisallwentwrongforIndonesia,damnedifIndonesiahavetheforeignloananddamnedifIndonesiadonothavesuchforeignloansduetheireconomicprogresswillbehampered.Hence,althoughtheglobaleconomyisstillfluctuative,neverthelessIndonesiawillnotchangetheirpolicytohaveforeigndebttargetandpublishitsCountryStatementofDebt.TheforeignloanreachingRP48,1trillionwiththepublishofCountryStatementofdebtintotalnetRp117,8trillion.ItisaverydifficulteconomicconditionforIndonesiacase;itsbadwhenpoorIndonesianedaforeignfinancialhelpinreturnIndonesiabecomeamilchcowbenefitingrichcountryinafluctuativeworldeconomicalpressure.ThatistheglobalizationrealconditionforIndonesiacase;capitalistbusinessexploitingthepoornessofIndonesia.

Theregionalcooperationcountriesdidnotcareaboutmembershipconsiderationoftheeconomiccooperationorganization.Whenitcomestoaneconomicalbenefitthenthemainthingtodoisindividualprofitmakingoforganizationprofitorcountrywherethebusinessmencomefromnotmembershipoftheeconomiccooperationorganization,hence,regardlessofmutualunderstandingorhelpingeachotherinbusinesswithinspecificeconomicregionalcooperation.Factually,whenIndonesiaisexperiencingafinancialdifficultiesasahigheconomicburden,injustinvestorsimplementingahighyieldburdeningIndonesia’sfinancialconditionsimultaneouslywitharisingonhigherinterest.Actuallyiftheyarereallyhaveafriendshipindeedwithindonesia,thereshouldbe

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nohigheryieldwhenIndonesiaisexperiencinganeconomicalpressureinsteadofhelping Indonesiawith loweryield.Hence, helpingeachothersincerelyinbusinessisreallyimpossibleinternational,regionalorevenglobalexperienced.

Oil Crisis and Deficit Balance of Trade IndonesiaexperiencingbalanceoftradedeficitcrisesonApril2008,

valuedofUS$524millioncausedbydecreasingIndonesia’sexportsandincreasingoilandnonoilimports.Theexportdecreaseduetogreasy,vegetableoilproductorcrudepalmoilexportdeclining.Anotherfactwastheoiltradedeficitsharprocketingforaperiodof4monthsduring2008.Theuncontrollableworseningbalanceoftradedeficithadbeenexperiencedforthelastfiveyears.Intheyear2002and2003deficitexperiencedonlyforapproximatelyUS$2billion.Intheyear2004morethandoubledincreasingbecomeUS$4,2billion,andcontinuetojoltuptoaveragelyUS$8,5billionduringtheyear2005upto2006.Theskyrocketingkeepcontinuealongtheyear2007tobeUS$10billion.DuringJanuari-AprilperiodtheoildeficithadreachedUS$5billion.Iftherocketingtendencykeepupcontinuingduring4moremonth,thenthebalanceoftradedeficitwillreachUS$15billion.ItwillbeabigproblemforpoorcountrylikeIndonesia.

Actuallysuchworsenconditionisnotnecessarytohappen.Intheunpredictableturbulencebusinessinteractionglobally,IndonesiashouldactuallyabletoactivateanymeanstoboostIndonesia’seconomicac-tivitiesglobally.IfindonesiawasawarethecadangandevisawillnotnecessarytodropuptoapproximatelyUS$2billion

IftheleadersofIndonesiawasabletobevigilantwithIndonesia’seconomiccondition,actuallyforeignexchangereserveisnotnecessarylesseninguptoUS$2billionwithin2weeksfromUS$58,8inMay2,2008tobeUS$56,9billioninJune2008.Thisspecificlackingoffo-reignexchangereservepotentivetodecliningthevalueofIndonesia’scurrencyRupiah.Thespecificdecliningrupiahvaluecausingpotentialinflationpressure.TheinflationactuallycanbemanagebetterwhenthemainconsumptiongoodsstockanddistributioncanbewellmanagebytheleaderofIndonesia.Thehighinflationisnotmerelysinglecausedbytheoilrisingprice,beforeoilpricerisingtheLPGenergyandcer-rosenehadalreadyjoltupdrivingupinflationautomatically.TheApril2008inflationrate0,57percent,andthreeforthcausebyhouseholdconsumptionaspriceofwater,electricity,gaseous,andotherenergy.

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Theinflationkeepupcontinuingworsenedbythefoodspriceskyrocketing.TheIndonesia’sgovernmentnegligentisthemaincauseofcoreinflationformationcomparehigherthanIndonesia’sneighbouringcountries.

ThegovernmentofIndonesiafatalactionisthenaturalresourcesmanagementasoilwhich isvery lackingtoday.ThegovernmentofIndonesiawasunabletocontroloilproductioncapacity,becausemanydecadetherewerenonewkilangminyakexplorationandnoadditionaloilproduction.Suchexperienceisthemaincauseofdecliningoipro-duction,hence,Indonesiawasunabletoboostpetrochemicalindustryandthousandofindustryhilirbusinessmencompetitivenesstocompetewithitscompetitorswhicharefacinghardereconomicalpressureduetolackofnaturalresouce.Suchbadexperiencepressingmanufactureindustries downunable tomaximize its contribution to Indonesia’seconomicgrowthsteadinesssimultaneouslyavoidingsocialpressure.

Moreover themanufacture industry have gotten high pressurecontinuously frommanydirection in thecontrary.Themanufactureindustriescouldonlyhaving4.6percentgrowthwithinthelastthreeyears;neverthelessithadevenweakeningtendency.

Theboomingofoilserahadalreadyover,nowIndonesiahasnomoreoil,neverthelessthereareanotherboomingcommoditynamelycopra,rubber,chocolate,crudepalmoil,porridgeofpaperandpaper,tin,coal,aluminum,nickel,copper,gold.

Neo liberalism TheNeoliberalismoccurenceisaclearfactsinIndonesiasignificantlyworseningIndonesia’seconomicalactivity.ThehighriskStateOwnedCorporationsellingtoForeignMultyNationalCorporation(MNC)benefitonlytoglobalMNCoperatinginIndonesia.Thereare37BUMNdiprivatisasimelaluiInternationalPublicOffering(IPO)instockmarketandstrategicsalesdirectlytointendedforeigninvestors (Bisnis Indonesia,5/2/2008).The Indonesia’s privatizationjoltduringtheyear2008isareflectionofNeoliberalismagendahavealready set up by capitalist countries, the InternationalMonetaryFunds(IMF),theWorldBank(WB),AsiaDevelopmentBank(ADB)andcorporatecommunities.ThegovernmentofIndonesiasellingallitsStateOwnedCorporationtoMNCisthemaintarget.Thereasonsset behind such intention is country’sfinancialmore efficiencyandadditionalprofitability.TheforeigninvestorstrongholdprivatizationreflectedbytheKrakatauSteelcompanyrejecttosellsuchcompanytoforeigninvestors.TheKrakatauSteelcompanyactuallyneverinvited

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investorstobuyitsassets,neverthelesssuchforeigninvestorkeepupinsistingtobuysuchcompanystatedbyFazwarBujangtheDirectorofKrakatauSteelcompany(Kompas,5/2/2008).

SomeStateOwnedCompanieshadbeensoldduringyear2008namely: PTAsuransi Jasa Indonesia, PTKrakatauSteel, PTBankTabunganNegara,PTSemenBaturaja,PTSucofindo,PTSurveyorIndonesia,PTWaskitaKarya,BahteraAdiguna,BarataIndonesia,PTDjakartaLloyd,PTSarinah,PTIndustriSandang,PTSaranaKarya,PTDokKodjaBahari,PTDokandPerkapalanSurabaya,PTIndustriKeretaApi,PTDirgantaraIndonesia,PTKertasKraftAceh,PTINTI,ViramaKarya,SemenKupang,YodyaKarya,KawasanIndustriMedan,KawasanIndustriMakasar,KawasanIndustriWijayaKusuma,PTSIER,PTRekayasaIndustri,andKawasanBerikatNusantara,PTGarudaIndonesia,MerpatiNusantara,danIndustriGelas.SuchStateOwnedCompanyhadbeensoldbysalepricesimilartoyear2002experiencewhenthegovernmentofIndonesiasold41,94percentthePTIndosatstocktoSingaporeatsalepriceUS$608,4million.

The state selling agenda in accordance toWashington policypackageconsensusbetweenIndonesia’sand theUSGovernmentasmainmenuof IMFstructuraladjustmentprogramon IndonesiahascorneredIndonesiatoallwentwrongcondition.ThecertainIMFpolicynamely:1)theexecutionoftightmoneypolicy,includingnullificationGovernment subsidy inmany forms, 2) the execution of financialsectorliberalization,3)theexecutionoftradingsectorliberalization,and4)theexecutionofcountry’sStateOwnedcompanydownpressureIndonesia’seconomythatdependingmajoritytoforeigndebtandotherformforeignloan.TheprivatizationinIndonesiaundertakenduringNewOrderGovernmenterawasforthesakepayinghugemountingstateforeigndebt.Intheyear1991statedebtdoubledrisingtobeUS$45,725billion.Totalforeigndebtcontinueincreasingintheyear1995,amountingUS$59,588billion.ThetotalincomeduetoStateOwnedCompanyprivatizationduringtheyear1995-1997wasablereducingstate total debt to beUS$ 53,865 billion in the year 1997 (BisnisIndonesia,5/2/2008).

Ironically, advance democratization of Indonesia is unbalancecomparetoseveredowngradingitseconomiccondition.Thesociety’srealincomepercapitakeepdownpressed,risingupunemployment,andloweconomicgrowth.ThewesterncountriesforeigncapitalinflowandlongtermForeignDirectInvestmentalwaysdirectedtoChinaandVietnam,very slight investment intention to Indonesia, if any, suchmajorityformedinshortperiodportfolioinvestment.

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Asof now, Indonesia had experienced very little benefit fromtheGlobalizationprocess today. It is very ironic for Indonesia thathashugepotentialnaturalresources,somechangingitsGovernmentandsuchGovernmenthadinvitedforeigninvestors,behavepolitelytoforeignacceptingGlobalization,andfurthermoretheGovernmenteconomical policy leans on foreign country.As a good examplecomparetoMalaysia:Malaysia’sformerPrimeMinisterDatukMahathirMohammadstatedthatMalaysiadependinghardonforeigndebtduringitsfirstphaseeconomicdevelopmentprocess,neverthelessgraduallyMalaysiasocietyhadbecomemorewelfareshifttheroleasinhabitantdevelopmentagentfunctionasthemaincontributortoitseconomicdevelopment.ItisdifferentcasetotheIndonesia’sexperience,uptonowkeepupdependingmainlytoforeigncommercialloanandfoundverydifficultgetofffromforeigndebthugeproblems.

Indonesiahadwipedoffmanysectors fromforeign investmentnegative list for foreign investors neglecting local businesspersons,saleprospectiveeconomicassetsverycheap,andfurthermorelettingforeigncountry’sconsultant involveinNationaleconomicpolicyinmanyGovernmentMinistriesalongmanyyears.Meanwhiletherealeconomicsectorwasnotimprovingatall;theexecutivesofIndonesiawerenotexperiencegrowthduetohighlycostbankloan.Ironicallycommonbusinesspersons in justwho in factpayall their costwithforeigndebtandotheraids.

TheeconomicpolicyofIndonesiaisliberalcomparetoChinaandVietnamthatarenotdoingso.Bothcountriesseriouslytriedtoreinlocal economicalpolicyexecutedby its fellowmenbenefit toavoidforeigneconomicalinterventiontotheircountryeconomicpolicy.Thein-depthforeigneconomicpolicyinterventionhadshockedIndonesia’ssocietywhenJohnPerkinsexplainhisroleasaneconomicdestroyeragentoperatinginIndonesiaforIndonesia’smoredependentandreinbyforeignusingaGovernmentofIndonesiaconsultantascamouflage(JohnPerkins,ConfessionofEconomicHitMan).ThereisaseriousconspiracyamonginternationalinstitutionIndonesiabeliefinitsroletohelpIndonesiaovercomingitsphenomenaleconomicproblems.TheeconomicdestroyeragentusedbyGlobalcapitalistthroughitMNCasidetoworkfortheircountrybenefit.Indonesiahasexperiencedmassiveeconomicaldevastating.TodayIndonesiasufferingsophisticatedhugeforeigndebt,poorinhabitant,dependingmoretoimportsfarawayfromthemainideastobe a modernandindependentstate.

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Thestrategicgeographicalposition,abundantnaturalresources,andgreatmarketpotentialofIndonesiaindeedhaveinterestingforeigncountriesandarousingtobedirectlyreinbyforeignnationaswellascolonialismera experiencedby Indonesia long timeagoormoderneconomycolonialismtoday.Worldbusinessisfullwith“deceive”andinthisGlobalizationera,somenationsnudgeinattentivenationbyvarietyofsophisticatedmeans.TohaveGlobalizationbenefitnewmentalityisbadlyneededandreorientingwellmannertocarryoutIndonesiastateforthesakeofIndonesiansocietywelfare.

Indonesianaswellasothernation-experiencedcolonialismtendtohaveinferiormentalityfacingthewealthierwesternnations;patron-clientmodeofinteractiontendencyoccurred,therelationshipunequalinnatureresultingtoapartyfeelsshouldbeprotectedbyotherparty.Thepartyfeelsprotectedcalled“client”,othernationwhoprotectingcalled“patron”.Thisrelationshipnotnecessarytendencytoexploitativeneverthelesseasilybreaksuptoit.Insomenationrelationshipmode,the“patron” tends todictateand to teach the“client’state.Helping“client”state,the“patron”statefeelasbestphilanthropist.

World Globalization lead to a big problemwhen the staterelationship becomes aPatron-Client unequal rightsmode becauseatthispointtheGlobalizationbecomesexploitationfunctions.Someempiricalfactsshowsome“client”injustenjoyingitspositionasapartywhoshouldbehelp.Theabilitytopayitsdebtandotheraidsconsideredasanachievement,hence,continuallyhavingthehugeamountofdebtconsideredasusualandnotaweakness,neverthelessinjustconsideredashighachievement.Thishashappenedinatrendtogivefullforeignconcessiontoexploitvarietyofminingtoforeignstate.IndeedmaybetheGlobalizationproblemswerenotmerelythe“patron”statewantstodominateneverthelessinjustthebigprobleminjustoccurreddueto“client”stateenjoyingitsdependencytoforeign“patron”.

The“patron”statedifficultunhamperedusingitsadvancementtoseekforbenefitsfromthe“client”state,neverthelessthe“client’statecancomeupfromtheburiedtakingapartsuchpatron-clientrelationshiphandcuffwithdevelopingindependency,selfconfidence,andreleasecertaindependencytothepatronstate.SuchactionhasdonebysomesuccesscountriesasSouthKoreaandSingapore,nowbothcountriesareable tostandequalat thesame levelwithwesterncountry.ThewonofHamasinlegislativeelectioninPalestine,AchmadinejadwonpresidentialelectioninIran,theoilcompanyconfiscationinBoliviaunderEvoMorales,andoilcompanyassetinVenezuelaunderHugo

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Chavesshowingtheworldsociety’slusterprotestregardingthe“patron-client”stateinterrelationship.

TheinferiorityofIndonesiannationhavemadethedestroyeragentbe active unimpeded.The lack of nation’s self-confidence creatinga poor insight situation, lackof initiative and innovation economicdevelopment plan; such nasty situation has used by the economicdestroyeragenttoboostMNCandforeigncountriesselfinteresttohavecontroloverIndonesia’smainStateOwnedCompanyAssets.

SupposingIndonesiahascertainintelligencemanaginginternationalbusinessopportunity,itisproperifIndonesiakeepupvigilantmanyinternational business entity tend to cunning Indonesia’s business.CanIndonesiamanageavoidingtrickyforeignentityconspiraciestowin competition?Does Indonesia have itsfirmnational tenacity toselfdeterminemanner,control,scheme,timeandsortofopennesstotheworldandusingeverysingleworldactionopportunitytoimproveIndonesia’seconomy?TheGlobalizationerashouldbefacewithstrongnationalismspiritasIndonesiadidtoitscolonialistlongtimeago.

TodaynationalismerashouldbeformincraftyactionstorealizeGlobalizationopportunitywiththespirittoimprovesociety’swelfareand dignity. TheGlobalization has broughtWorld competitioninternationalandinterstatewithitsmaindimensionsaseconomy,cultureandcivilization.Thenationdignitylevel,rankandprestigemoreandmoremeasurebywelfare,cultureandcivilizationlevelachievement.

WorldEconomicForumPushingDownEconomyofIndonesiaAs amatter of fact Indonesia possibly enjoying the economic

Globalizationpositiveimpactbybeingoneofeconomicdrivingengineduetowesterncountriesglobaleconomicsharedecliningto37percentduringtheyear2008frommorethan40percentintheyear1980,ne-verthelessIndonesia’seconomicshareisverylowintermsofleadership,regionalandglobalcoordination,in-justverybadlyneededtoimproveitsroleinglobaleconomyinteraction.ActuallyAsiaorIndonesiaarepossibleavoidingtheUSandEuropeeconomiccrisesnegativeimpactthatsuchregionpotentivetosuddenchangetobeprotectionist(Price-waterhouseCoopersreport,2008).ThemainproblemistheworldentityasIMF,WorldBank,andUnitedNationwerenotabletoovercometheGlobalchalenge.ThisisreallyanopportunityforIndonesiaandAsiasimultaneouslyformingafutureglobalbusinessrequirement.AsiaorIndonesiashouldhavetheirinternationaleconomyroletoguaranteeeco-nomicgrowthcontinuityduetoworldinternationalentitylackingrole,helpingeachotherandnottrappedinslefinterestorprotectionism.

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Indonesiahasexperiencedunbalanceincomeandkeepupdriveinflation.Indonesiapredictedtofacethreemainchallengenamely:in-flation,lackofincomeamongtheregionmembercountries,amongtheinhabitantofIndonesiaandlackofinfrastucture.Therichwillbecomericherandthepoorbecomepoorer(RajatM.Nag,2008).HighinflationthreatentheIndonesia’spoorinhabitant,buyingcapacitydrivendownduetoconsumptiongoodspricerisingup;ThegovernmentofIndone-siashouldbestowfoodsaidforthepoor.Worldshouldhelpeachotherunhamperingfoodsexport.

Indonesia’slackofinfrastructurepossiblythreatenitseconomicgrowthcontinuity.TheUSandUEprotectionismhashappeningdueto their economic declining tendencywhich hasmade theUS andUEpoliticiansupportallthemoredomesticproductprotection(LordLevene,2008)fromAsia’sincludingIndonesiaproduct.Actuallythisisunacceptedmoveandwillcausenegativeeffects.Thefactssimulta-neouslyaproblemUSandUEcitizenareinfavourwithsuchproductduetocheapercomparetoothergoods.TheProtectionismhaveitshighriskwillendtoatragedy(RalphR.Paterson,2008).

unfair wTO summit Conference. TheGeneva,Swiss,developingcountriesEconomicMinisterial

ConferenceorWorldTradeOrganization(WTO)concludeddiscussionresultsunfairtodevelopingcountries.Manyproblemskeepoccurringburdening developing countries andneed revision.The developingcountries objection incompatibility needs to notice.Variety ofcompromiseprincipleneedsbadlytoachieveanagreement(MariElkaPangestu,2008).Somepartsofagreementarenotreflectingworldequalbusinesstreatment;eveninflictafinanciallossforpoorcountrieslikeIndonesia.TheaggravateddebateregardingbananaimporttoEurope,poorcountriesbananaproducerswereleavingsuchmeetingtoprotesttariffbarberingproposedbyLatinAmerica.Suchdraftwasdecreasingbananatarifffrom11LatinAmericacountries.ThesecertainconditionsarebadfortraditionaleconomicdevelopmentofIndonesiatryingtobusinessstruggleglobally.Oneoftheclearestlessonsofglobalizationisthatunderdevelopedcountriesactuallydonotrequirebillionsofdollarsofaidfromwealthiercountriestobecomeprosperous.Ironically,mostof the countries that provide foreign aid alsomaintainprotectionistrestrictionsthatreduceopportunitiesforpoorcountriestoraisetheirincomesthroughexpandedtrade(ChristopherLingle,2005).

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Indonesia uncompetitive During Globalization.PredictablyIndonesiawillbedefeatedsignificantlyduringglobal

competition.Actually,Globalizationhassomecharracteristicsandpro-cessneededtobeunderstood;Globalizationisanintegrationprocess,mutual dependency internations, a dynamic inter region economicconversionprocess,neverthelesshumannaturecharracterthathumanbeingalwaysemphasizeindividualbenefitaboveother,hence,maybeGlobalization process could be possibly real threat for Indonesia’seconomicdevelopment.WillIndonesiareallyhaveitsopportunityfacingunbalanceeconomicalpower struggle in theGlobalizationprocess?Ontheotherhand, in just Indonesiawill faceGlobalizationthreats,thefactspreviousconditionhasshownabigthreatanditisstillabigquestions for Indonesia’s economical progress facingGlobalizationtoday.Maybe for specificconditionas inDavidversusGoliath, thesmallmaywinthebattle;neverthelesscommonly,thebigwillwintheGlobalization battle.

Factually, during firstGlobalization process the Indonesia’seconomyisseverelydeteriorating.Indonesiaiscapableonlytoimportrather than export competitively its product; Indonesia’s importsmountinguptoUS$8,7billion.PreviouslyIndonesiawasoilexportercountry,neverthelessitsoilimportisnowglowingup10,69percentfromUS$2.078,7millionbecomeUS$2.300,9millionandnonoilexportriseup2,42percentfromUS$6.324milliontobeUS$6.477,5million(MiminKarmiati, StatisticBureau of Indonesia, 2008). Ironically,incapableproducingoilinthefutureduetolackingofoilwellwiththeresultthatIndonesiashouldleaveoutOPECmembership.

TheoilimportdevelopmentofIndonesiaduringFebruary2001uptoFebruary2006showingoilimportisbiggercomparetooilexport.Theoilimportismorethanoneandahalfgreatercomparetooilexport.Asanexample,importamountofIndonesiafromChinaduringtheyear2003wasincreased30percent.MeanwhileChina’sexporttoIndonesiaduring2003mounteduptoUS$4,48billionincreasing30,79percentcomparetoyear2002.ExportvalueofchinatoIndonesiayear2002only reachesUS$3, 42billion. Itwas a clear example showing theIndonesia’smarketinChinacontinuestodecrease(TradingAttachéofIndonesiainChina,February2004).

Certain facts indicating Indonesia’s export capability isweak.HowcanIndonesiaexecuteUSandEUmarketpenetrationmeanwhilethesemarket regionput intoeffect tradeprotection fromanyAsiancountries including Indonesiawith the result that export values of

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Indonesia descend rapidly (Kompas, January 3, 2003).November2002,exportperformanceofIndonesiadrowned23,01percentbecomeUS$4,10billioncomparetoOctobermountedUS$5,32billion.Suchdecreasetriggeredbydecreasingoilexportperformance25,99percentorUS$4,182billion tobeUS$3,095billion.Additionally, thesharploweringduetodecreasingmachinesexportfromUS$623,1millionbecomeUS$364million, or lessenedUS$259,1million (SoedartiSurbakti,2002).

SummaryToday Indonesia sufferinghugedebt andexperience inefficient

agriculture,oceanicevenindustrialproductthreatiningitseconomicdevelopment in the future, these conditionprone to impediment itseconomicgrowth.ApprehensivelycanIndonesiamatchwithworldhighmassandefficientproductiveindustrialcountries?Indonesianowisnotanoilproducercountryanymoreevenimportinthecontrary,continuesexperienceunbalanceofinternationaltradeworseningfutureeconomyofIndonesiamaybehamperitseconomyprosperity.Indonesiasacrificeits future economy toNeoliberalism concept executed by corruptand unconceptual leadership unresponsible Indonesian, emphasizeindividualselfinterestunablestruggletoachieveeconomicprosperitycomparetointernationalcountriesandconqueredbyadvancewesterncountries domination economic plan.World,US andEUbusinesswithIndonesiashouldbeunderequalmutuallybenefit.ThebirthofdemocracyinIndonesiapreciselyincreaseeconomicalproblemdueto low literacyofmajority Indonesia,evoke riotsoccurence riotousbehaviour of Indonesian. Indonesian democracy continues causingprolonged economic disturbance laws uncertainty results highersocialcostdrivingawayinvestorswhoshouldinvestingtheircapitalto Indonesia.Meanwhile the advance countries carelesswith theeconomicalanguishofIndonesiaevenhandcuffingIndonesiawithhighinterestmountedforeigndebtbenefitonlyforinvestors.WorldeconomicforumpressingeconomyofIndonesiadownwardhardtocompetefutureGlobalizationandevenIndonesia’speoplesufferduetoGovernmentrepresivesocialpolicy;societyshouldbeserviceinsteadofpressuredownpitypoorIndonesianinhabitant.Inthiscomingfuture10yearsIndonesiakeepuncompetitivefacingglobalbusiness.

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RecommendationsTheGovernmentofIndonesiashouldnotdonothingjustenoughto

allowGlobalizationmarketmechanismrunningfreely.TheGovernmentofIndonesiashouldactivelygetinvolvedorganize,regulate,putinordertheeconomyofIndonesiaforthesakeofIndonesiasociety’swelfare;executeindustrialpolicymoreprogressivewithactiveindustrialpolicyintegratedwithenergyandagriculturalpolicy.

TheGovernmentofIndonesiashouldunderstandtheIndonesiansociety desire namely: Indonesia state should struggle to achievenationalselfautonomythroughaccelerationstateassetsredemption,completely remove foreign debts, national industrialization, socialsecurity,freetuitionfeeschool,nohouseflattenforthepoor,createnewemployment,equalincomeredistribution.

TosynergyallnaturalresourcestoobtainmaximumresultforthesakeofIndonesiansosiety’swelfare.FighthardertobeamarketleaderatleastinAsiaregion.MoreactiveperpetrateinternationalbusinessnegotiationtoboostbetterexporofIndonesiatopossibleincreasingeconomicgrowthofIndonesia.

WorldbusinesspartnerofIndonesiaexecutingbestequalbusinessactivitiestohelpbettermenteconomicconditionofindonesia.Worldbusinessmenbetternotonlyemphasizebusinessindividualprofitabilitybuthelpingeachotherconsideredasmostimportantindoingmutualunderstandinginternationalbusinesswithinregionorinterregion.Bydoingsuchactionsincerelytheworldeconomicglobalizationmayleadtoworldsociety’swelfareequally.

bibliography:BisnisIndonesia,5/2/20081.BisnisIndonesiaOnline,25/1/20082. DEPKOMINFORI(April24,2006)3. Indrawati,SriMulyani,FinancialMinisteroftheRepublicof4. Indonesia,Kompas,16/6.Karmiati,Mimin, PelaksanaHumasBadanPusat Statistik5. (BPS),Jakarta,Senin24/4/2008.KominfoNewsroom,21/1/2008.6.Pangestu,MariElka,Men7. teriPerdaganganIndonesia,KetuaKelompokG-33diGeneva,Senin,28/7/2008.

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Yurino,Ari,ProgramPrivatisasi2008:AncamanBagiRakyat8. Indonesia,Wednesday,12March2008.LaporanPriceWaterhouseCoopers(PwC),ForumEkonomi9.DuniauntukAsiaTimur2008,KualaLumpur,Malaysia,15Juni2008.RajatM.Nag,DirExecutiveADB,F10. orumEkonomiDuniauntukAsiaTimur 2008,KualaLumpur,Malaysia, 15 juni2008.Saragih,Simon,AsiaHarusUbahPolaPikirStrukturBisnis,11.KoordinasiKeamanandanPolitikLemah,Kompas,16Juni2008.Saragih,Simon,KetimpanganPendapatandanInflasiAncam12.Asia,KualaLumpur,2008.Christopher Lingle, GoodGovernance IncreasedTrade13.DecreasePoverty,theJakartaPost,September19,2005WorldBankReport, EastAsia& PacificUpdate,April,14.2008.

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Sandra teoDoReScu, PhD, Lecturer, Ecological University of Bucharest, Romania

ThE ROMANIAN REFORM OF pENSIONS SySTEM

VERSUS ThE REFORMS OF pENSIONS SySTEM IN UE COUNTRIES

Romania is at the beginning of the pension system implementation. It is very likely that, among all social classes, the reform of the pensions system is addressed less to the pensioners (retired workers). In fact, it is mainly addressed to the generations which are nowadays at the beginning of the career.In this paper I try to make a presentation of adopted reforms in UE and how our country could realize the implementation of the reform, comparative with the others countries which are part of UE.

Romaniaisatthebeginningofthepensionsystemimplementation.Itisverylikelythat,amongallsocialclasses,thereformofthe

pensionssystemisaddressedlesstothepensioners(retiredworkers).Infact,itismainlyaddressedtothegenerationswhicharenowadaysatthebeginningofthecareer.Forthosepersons,theintroductionoftheprivatelyadministratedpensionsandalsoofthefacultativepensionscouldcreateimportantbenefitsmaterializedbothinadecentincomefor the retirement age andby the economicgrowthvitiationof thecountry,withmorevisiblequick-actioneffectsatthewagescalelevelandabetteremploymentoffer.

Theproblemofnationalpensionsystemsisworseningmoreandmore acute, inmore andmore countries in theworld.Thepensionsystemspay-as-you-go (PAYG), based exclusivelyon the solidaritybetween generations is confronted tomore difficulty negotiableproblems.

Theoriginofthosedifficultiesliesinthedemographicevolutionandtendenciesregardingthe ageing of the people together with thebirthrate reduction, the increase of the expectation of life, inflation, in the more and more increased costs necessarily for the post-active period, in early retirement, in the raise of the life quality and,nottheleast,inthe decrease of the dependence rate (respectivelythedecreaseofthetaxpayers’numberandtheincreaseoftheretiredpersons’number).

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Regarding theEuropeanUnion, the demographic changeswillremodeltheentireeconomyandsociety.

According to theeuropean Commission’s magazine on employment and social affairs, Social Agenda,AnEuropeofallAges,May2005,thepeopleagedover65yearswillrepresentin2050over30%ofthetotalpopulation,againstthe17%inthepresent,whiletheweightofuntil24yearspeoplewillbereduced,inthesameintervaloftime,from30%to23%.

In many countries there are already worryingly financialconsequences of the demographical tendencies and is tried tofindequitablesolutionsforalltheexistinggenerationsatacertainmomentinthesociety,andalsoforthenextgenerations.

Someoftheadoptedmeasuresarereferringtotheincrease of the retirement age, the state benefit reduction and passing onto private administration. Othersolutionswhicharealreadypresentespeciallyinthedevelopedcountriesareconsistingofphased retirement, meaning thepassagefromtheactiveperiodwithinanormalprogramtoagradualretirement,byaflexibleprogramorareducedprogramforacertainperiodoftime,tohavemoreworkingpopulation.

Encouraging birth rate increase, biggerefforts forprofessional training, the increase of flexibility of the more flexible labor force and unemployment decrease representotherallowedmeasures.

Themain purpose of a pension system is to help people toaccomplishamoreequilibratedallocationof thefinancial resourcesalongcitizens’life.Thisthingisachievedthroughthetransferofapartoftheresourcesobtainedintheactiveperiodtothepost-active-period.

ItcouldbementionassomedistinguishedsuccessregardingthepensionssystemcountrieslikeHollandandtheScandinaviancountries,whichhavehadasabasiccommonelementintheirstrategyavarietyofpoliciesbasedonthemaximumreductionoftheunemployment,abalancedincomedistributionandthesubstantialeconomicperformancealongwiththeraiseoftheminimumwages.

Theconsequencesofabalancedpensionsystemwillbefoundatmacroeconomicandmicroeconomiclevel.Herethereareonlyafewofthem:

thecuttingoutthepressingoverthesocialinsurancebudget; �theeconomicgrowthencouragementthroughtheinvestment �of the treasuredup sums in the economy,workingupnewworkingplaces,theunemploymentreduction;thepeoplesavingshelptoraiseofthecapitalmarkets–the �mobilizedassetsincreaseandsupportthedevelopmentofbigprojectsonlongtermatthemacroeconomiclevel;thepension’sre � formaidsareformofthelabormarket.

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Nomatterwhatisthereformmodelthathasbeenadopted,itisveryimportanttheexistenceofanadequatefiscaltreatmentwhichwillallowthesustainability,willcreateabalancedaccountonshortterm–otherwisethemostdifficultaspect–,thefiscalviabilityonlongtermandthepaidstimulantstothetaxpayers.Theexpertsinthisdomainareconsideringasthebestmodalitythesystemwherethetaxationisdoneintheperiodofpension’spayment,whilethecontributionsareeducible.

Inbelgium it has been implemented recently some reformsdirecttargetedtotheanticipateretirements,aimingtoencouragetheparticipationinthelabormarketoftheagedgroupbetween50and60yearspersons, thusbeingachievedalsothesocalled“pactbetweengenerations”whichhasbeenadoptedattheendofthe2005year.Thisreformshouldhaveanimportantcontribution,meaningtheacceptabilityandthefinancialsustainability.

IntheCzech Republicanewpension’sreformwillbedevelopedafterthenegotiationofthefinalreportregardingthesocialinsurancesystem by the EuropeanCommission expert team.The proposedmeasures include the raise of retirement age, the change of thecomputingmethodology andof indexing the social allowances, therevisionofthenon-contributiveperiodsand,howmuchitispossible,anemergencyfunddevelopment,alsotheraiseofthestatecontributiontotheprivatepensionsystem.

InDenmark,afiscalpolicydetermineaquicklydebtcontractionhasbeenalreadypreviouslyintroducedandallimportantpoliticalpartiessustainitsfollow-upuntil2010,whileitisexpectedthepublicdebtsubstantialdiminish.Thenewregulationsintroducedin2004permittothepeople(inclusivetothoseagedover65yearsold,whoalreadyreceivedaretirementpension)tochooseeitheralateretirementpensionor remainingorcomingback in the labormarket inexchangeforagreaterquantumoftheretirementpension,receivedlateron.

InGermanythenewgovernmenthasannouncedhisintentiontorisetheretirementagefrom65to67yearsold(beginningin2012andendingin2035).

InGreece,whiletherecentreformshavebeentransformedintheactivelifeextensioninitiatives,therearesupplementarymeasurestoraiseemploymentrate,especiallyforwomenandagedpersons.Also,itcouldbetakenaccountthegradualequalizationprocessofmenandwomenretirementages,aswellasforthepeoplewhohascontributedtothesocialinsurancesystembefore1993.

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InSpain,themaintainofsustainabilitymaybeachievedthroughthemeasuresproposedbytheGovernment,especiallythroughacloserconnectiondevelopmentbetweenthecontributorylevelandpensionallowancesone,facilitatingsomemoreflexibleandgradualretirements,aswellascarryingontheanticipatepensionschemesrestructure.

InItalycarryingoneffectiveequalizationprocessoftheretirementages foemen andwomenwill aid the reduction of the differencesbetweensexesfromthepointofviewoftheretirementallowancelevelrightsandalsotopromotetheraiseofemploymentrateoftheagedworkingpeople.

Inholland thereareproposedsomeimportantprogressaimingtoremovetheobstacleswhichobligedpeopletorenounceatanactivelifeafter65yearsold;also,nowadaysareimplementedanditcouldbefurtherconsolidatedsomemeasurestargetingthedimishingoftheanticipate retirement possibility from the labormarket (anticipateretirementpensionanddisabilitiesschemes).

InAustriatheretirementageforwomenwillremainlowerthanforthemenduringalongtimeandwillberaisedfrom60to65yearsoldbetween2024and2033.Whiletheretirementoptionswillberestrictedforthepersonshavingalongcareer,afteratransitionperiod,until2014,itispossiblethatsuchlongcontributedperiodstodetermineachangeoftheretirementpensionsystem.

InPolandduetolegalageequalizationformenandwomenwillbedimishincomedifferencesbetweensexes,atthesametimeraisingtheemploymentrates.Othermajoredobjectiveswhichstillremaintobefulfilledreferthefarmer’spensionsandthepensionforthedisabilitypersons, the last one becoming amajored platform to anticipateretirementfromthelabormarket.

InPortugalcarryingontheretirementpensionsystemharmonizationand themeasures topromote a longactive lifewould contribute toconsolidatetheadequacyandsustainability.

In2005,finlandintroducedareformofthegainschemewhoseobjectiveistodiscourageanticipateretirementandtostimulateagedworkerstoextendtheiractivityinthelabormarket.Throughthisreform,Finlandmade important progressmeaningmaintainingoffinancialsustainabilityofhisownretirementpensionsystem,alongwithprovidesomeadequatepensionsandalsothissystemadjustmentdependingonsocialtransforming,particularlythroughamechanismtochangethepensionsaimingtheraiseofthelifeexpectation.Onlongterm,thelastreformswillraiseretirementagewithabout2to3yearsuntil2050.

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Swedenhassucceedtodevelopapublicpensionsystemwhichfulfillsbothadequacycriterionandfinancialsustainabilityone,undertheconditionswhentheemployeesarecompensatedtheprogrammeddecreaseofthesubstitutionratethroughmuchlaterretirementfromthelabormarket.

The reforms represent a difficultly achieved and implementedprocess,becausethemainproblemistofinancethedeficitproducedbypassingfromthePAYGsystem–basedonincomesredistribution–tothenewsystem,basedoninvestmentandsaving.

WorldBank,whoprovedconstantpreocupationstodefiningamoreefficientsystem,issustaningareformingmodelbasedonthreepillers,whereitiscombinedtheresponsabilityofthethreementionparts.

Piller I – consistsinthepensionofferedbytheGovernmentandisaimingtocoveraminimumincomelevelrequiredtolife,sometimesirrespectiveofthelevelofcontributionintheanctiveperiod;it isacompulsurysystem;

Piller II–supposestheprivateadministrationofapartofthecon-tributionpayedbyemployerandemployee9insomecountries,thisisevenanocupationalpensionsystem);PillerIIiscompulsory;

Piller III– representsasuplimentaryoptionalpension,createdfromtheemployeecontributionandwhoseaimisraisingincomeaftertheretirementmoment.

Piller II and Piller IIIneedpensionadministrationintheprivatsystem.

Asamatteroffact,everycountrydevelopsand/oradjustsitsownpensionsystem,inaccordancewiththespecificsituation,regardedundermultipleaspects:demograficalevoltionandperspective,economicandfinancialsituation,fiscalsystemandotherones.

Tosucceditisrequiredasystematicalandunitaryapprouchoftheentirereformingprocess.

MorethanahalfoftheactivepopulationoftheCentralandEastEurope(ECE)arebeginingtoinvestortakeintoconsiderationpensioninvestment in the individual private pension, along state pensions,and one fromfive persons belonging to that zone owns already acomplementaryproduct,asitispresentedbyarecentstudymadebyUNICREDIT.

Thistendencyshowstheskepticismaboutstatepensionsystem:onanaverageonly10%fromtheactivepopulationbelievesthatstatepensionwillbeenoughtocoverthedailyexpendituresafterretired.

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Thepeopleinthe30-39yearsagesegmentisthemostactiveregar-dingtheinvestmentinasuplementarypension.Onthewhole,almost60%of thisagecategoryofpopulationhasalreadybecometosaveregardingtheretirenmentperiodortakeaccountthispossibility.

Nowadaysyet,inRomania,accordingtodifferentresearches,only70%ofpeoplehaveaninvestmentproductsimilarwithprivatepension,comparativlyto20%averageintheregion.

Athough,atfirstsight,thisweightseemstobeextremelylow,itmustbeanalyzedtakengaccountthattheprivatepensionshaven’tyetbegintheiractivitiesinourcontry.

InRomania“therealstartof theprivatepensionsystem”tahesplacesomehowlatercomparattivlytothecountriesfromthisregion,theentranceintheEuropeanUnionandincomeraisewillhaveaseffectsaquicklyrecoveryofthelagsinthisdomain.Thisoneespeciallybe-causethepeopleisalreadyconsciousoftheutilityoftheproductoftheprivatepensionkind.

Theneedofromanianpeopleforprotectionproductsisveryhighandthedegreeoftheseproductscoverisstilllow.romaniapresentsagreatpotentialfromthispointofview,becausetheproductsarestillverycheapandcansatisfythecustomers’needs.

Theexpertsestimatethatnowadaysthedifferencebetweenromaniansfinancialprotectionneedsandexistingressourcesinthismoment,otherwisespeakingtheprotectiondeficit,isammountedup48billionEUR.

Pensionreformismainlydeterminedbythetoolittledimensionofthesocialinsurancebudget.Undertheconditionswheretheemployees’numberwhoareworkingandpayingsocialcontributions(CAS)havedimishedinthelast17years,fromthe8,1milionsin1990to4,6milionslastyearandtaxpayers’numberwhichsustainaretireperson(depen-dencereport)hasdimishedfrom3,43in1990to0,8in2006,thesocialinsurancebudgetistoopoortobeabletoofferdecentpensions,sothepurchasepoweroftheretiredpeoplehasdecreasedmorethan50%.

Unfortunately,demografictendenciesandRomanianpeoplemigra-tionphenomenatowardsotherlabourmarketaremaintainingalsoinfutureyears.Whatcanbedonetodiminishthedesequilibrium?Mainly:

-raisingtheretirementage,inthiswaytoavoidtodeterioratethedependencereport(until2015,retirementagewillincreaseto60yearsforwomenand65yearsformen);

-growingupthecollectedcontributionsto thesocial insurancebudget–nowadays,theirlevelisabout46%,fromwhom29,5%forpension;theraiseofthosepercentagecoteswouldputatoobigburdenonthewageexpenditure;

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-thecolectionrateimprovement–notallpersonswhoobtainin-comesforitstheymightalsopaycontributionstothesocialinsurancebudgetareregisteredinthesystemandalargeparteofthetaxpayersareparticipatingwiththeoficialincomelowerthantherealones.

Evenundersuccesfullyapllyoftheupmentionedmeasures,thedesequilibriumcouldbeonlyreduce,butnoteliminated.Consequantly,itisimposedtheadpotinofasolutiontooffersuplementaryincomesto thosefurnishedby thestatesocial insurancesystemmeaning theprivatepensionintroduction.

Fromthefirststepscarriedout in1994 inCheckRepublicandHungary,alongwiththebeginingofthethirdpiller,theoptionalprivatepensions,folowingwiththeexperienceofthePolishpensionreformin1999andtheaccumulatedexperienceofotherECEstatesduringtheperiodsincethenuntilnowadays,wecanspeakalreadyaboutarelevantexperienceinthisdomain.Thecontrieswhichcoveredthisway,withoutmissingthedifficulties,haveadoptsensiblenuancedsolutionstoanswerthesequetionsbringintoforthduringthereformperiod.InRomania,beingstiilatthebeginingofthemostawaitedstadyofthereform,theimplementationoftheprivateadministratedpensions,itmustbestillclearupessencialaspects,therearestillmanyoptionstoformulate.

bibliography:TheEuropeanCommission‘smagazineonemploymentand1.social affairs, SocialAgenda,AEurope of allAges,May2005Thereportconcerningtheprotectionandsocialinclusionin2. theEuropeanUnionstates2006–pensionssystem–Publishedin:MonApr0311:56:46EEST2006

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Alexandrin caRaGanciu, PhD., International Institute of Management „IMI-NOVA”,

andronic Roman, PhD. stud.

INTEGRAREA şI GLObALIzAREA ECONOMIEI

This article emphasizes some aspects regarding integrationist processes in world economy, as well as the phenomenon of globalization. Also, there are mentioned stages of world economy globalization, as well as problems referring to this phenomenon.

Pemăsură ce devine totmaimult o realitate contemporană,globalizareaajungesăfieşicelmaicontroversatconceptînliteraturaeconomică şi politică internaţională.Trăim într-o lumeglobalizată,şi totuşi nu există încă un consens cu privire la ceea ce înseamnăglobalizare, şi respectiv nu exista o definiţie universală a acesteinoţiuni.Globalizarea este termenulmodern folosit la descriereaschimbărilor în societăţi şi în economiamondială care rezultă dincomerţul internaţional extremde crescut şi din schimburi culturale.Descriecreştereacomerţuluişiainvestiţiilordatorităcăderiibarierelorşiinterdependenţeidintrestate.Încontexteconomic,estedesîntîlnităreferirea aproape exclusivă la efectele comerţului şi înparticular laliberalizareacomerţuluisaulaliberulschimb.

globalizarea economică–patruaspectesereferălaglobalizareaeconomică ce indică patru tipuri defluxuri peste graniţe, şi anumefluxuridebunuri/servicii,deexempluliberschimb,fluxuridepersoane(migraţia), de capital şi de tehnologie.O consecinţă a globalizăriieconomiceeste îmbunatăţirea relaţiilordintredezvoltatorii aceleiaşiindustriidindiferitepărţiale lumii(globalizareaunei industrii),darşioerodareasuveranităţiinaţionaleasuprasfereieconomice.FMI-uldefineşteglobalizareaca“creştereainterdependenţeieconomiceaţărilordinîntreagalumeprincreştereavolumuluişiavarietăţiitranzacţiilordebunurişiserviciipestegraniţe,fluxuldecapitalinternaţionalmultmailiberşimairapid,darşiodifuziunemailargăatehnologiei.”(FMI,World EconomicOutlook,mai 1997). BancaMondială defineşteglobalizareaca“Libertateaşicapacitateaindivizilorşiafirmelordea iniţia tranzacţii economicevoluntarecu rezidenţi ai altor ţări”. Înopinia luiDavidHeldşiAntonyMcGrew,profesoriuniversitaridinMareaBritanie„globalizareapoateficonceputăcaunproces(saumaimulteprocese)caretransformăîntr-oorganizaţiespaţialăarelaţiilorsociale şi a tranzacţiilor, exprimate prin fluxuri transcontinentale

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sau inter-regionale şi reţele de activităţi, interacţiuni şi putere”, iarpreşedintelefirmeimultinaţionaleABBspune„aşdefiniglobalizareacafiindlibertatepentrufirmamea,deainvestiundevrea,cîndvrea,pentruaproduceceeacevrea,aprovizionîndu-seşivînzîndundevrea,şiavînddesuportatcelemaimiciconstrîngeriposibileînmateriedelegeamunciişiconvenţiilorsociale”[3].Deci,aţîtoameniideştiinţăcît şi opinia publică nu au căzut încăde acord asupra unei singuredefiniţii.Unaestecert,cădimensiuneaeconomicăaglobalizăriiare,fărăniciundubiu,ofoartemareimportanţă,eafiindunadintrecelemaiimportantecauzeşiforţamotricepentruproceseledeglobalizaredin celelalte domenii.

Globalizareacaprocesintegraţionallanivelmondialnuaapărutconcomitentcutermenul„globalizare”,însăs-aconstituitlenttimpdemaimultesecoleşiînspaţiuşitimpactualmentepoateficaracterizatăcaunadincelemaiatrăgătoare,deci,şimaiavantajoase.Axându-seîntemeipeproceseleeconomice,globalizareadispunedeoistorieşievoluţieadecvatăperioadelordeconstituireşitrecereadelaosubformălaalta,fărăîndoială,deacumcunoscute:micro-,mezo-,macroeconomie,economienaţională,economieregională,mondoeconomie.Însensuldirect,globalizarease referă laultimele trei subformecaracteristicezonelor de dincolo de naţional iar înţelesul, pe care ni-l transmitenoţiuneadată,esteceadetendinţăcarecuprindetotglobul,deciesteotendinţădeîntruchipareaintereselordeansamblu,desprinsedeceleparticularealestatelor.

Primiicareauintrodusînuztermenulglobalizareaufostcercetătoriamericanicareînanul1983audeterminatprinacesttermenfenomenulde integrare a pieţelor unormărfuri şi produsede către companiiletransnaţionalemari.Procesuldeglobalizareareuncaractermultilateralşimultidimensional. Ştiinţa economică actualmente şi-a concentratatenţiadebazăasupracincidirecţii:globalizarea financiară, corporaţiile transnaţionale globale, regionalizarea economică, intensificarea comerţului internaţional, tendinţa spre convergenţă.

Uniieconomiştiîşiaccentueazăatenţialatrăsăturiledebazăaleglobalizării.Nominalizămdoarcâtevaprocese:

centralizareafinanciarăcrescândă,cuajutorulcăreiaseformează,seelibereazăşiseutilizeazămijloacecreditare,înurmăcăreiaareloccreştereaînsemnătăţiicapitaluluiasupraproducţiei;

creştereaacceleratăainformaţiei; �lărgireaoligopolurilor; �creştereanumăruluiantreprenorilortransnaţionali; �globaliza � reaputeriinaţionaledestat;dezvoltareatehnologiil � ordevîrf.

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Globalizarea poate fi interpretată şi ca stadie superioară ainternaţionalizării.Sferadebazăaglobalizăriiestesistemuleconomicmondial, producţia globală, schimbul şi consumul efectuat deîntreprinderiîneconomiilenaţionaleşipepiaţamondială.Rezultatuladâncirii procesului de internaţionalizare sunt interdependenţele şiinteracţiunileeconomiilornaţionale.Globalizareapoatefiinterpretatăşicaintegrareastatelorîntr-ostructurăapropiatăsistemuluieconomicunicinternaţional.

ProfesorulBakkerR.B.delaInstitutuldeŞtiinţePoliticedinParissusţineopinia,cădeoarecenuexistăodeterminareunicăaprocesuluideglobalizare,elmenţioneazătreiideidinpunctdevedereaştiinţeiinternaţionale:

globalizarea este un proces istoric, care s-a dezvoltat pe �parcursulmaimultorsecole;globalizarea înseamnă unificarea lumii, tendinţa spre �universalizare;globalizarea înseamnă recunoaşterea interdependenţei �crescânde, distrugerea suveranităţii naţionale sub acţiuneanoiloractoriplanetari, cumsuntfirmeleglobale, structuriletransnaţionale,etc.

Peparcurs,dominantadevenitmodelulneoliberalalglobalizării,caracteristicileprincipalealecăruiasunt:

dezvoltareagestiuniilanivelstatalşiinterstatal; �reducereacapacităţiiorganelordestatdeareglaşicontrola �economianaţionalăşidearezolvaproblemelesociale;creşterea puterii politice şi economice reprezentaţiilor �economieiglobale;interdependenţa„jucătoriloreconomiciglobali”deuncontrol �democratic;comprimarearoluluiONUdincauzacreşteriiputeriieconomice �a organizaţiilor financiare internaţionale (BancaMondială,FondulMonetarInternaţionaletc.).ÎnconstituireaşiextindereaprocesuluideglobalizareunroldeosebitîljoacăOrganizaţiamondială a comerţului (OMC), asupra căreia nu există uncontroltransparentşidemocratic.

Tendinţelenoiînprocesulglobalizăriieconomieisuntdefiniteînmoddiferit:

„economieglobală”,„integrareeconomicăglobală”,„competiţieglobală”,„globalizareapieţeimondiale”,„mondializareaeconomiei”,„interdependenţaeconomicăinternaţională”,„trecereadelaraportul

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economie naţională – economiemondială” la „economiemondială–economianaţională”(schimbarealoculuipriorităţilor).Însăesenţaconstă în reducerea continuă a importanţei factorilor naţionali şiintensificarea activităţii întreprinderilor internaţionale.Acest procesduceladispariţiadiferenţeiîntrecircuiteleinterneşiexterne.

Problemeleinternealefiecăreiţăriîncondiţiileglobalizăriidevinşiproblemeaîntregiisocietăţi,unadinproblemelemondiale,carenecesităeforturicomunepentruosoluţionaremaieficientă.Combinândfactoriipotenţialiinternişiceiexterni,esteposibilsăsegăseascăsoluţiaceamaipotrivităatâtsubaspectuleconomic,câtşisubcelsocial.

Istoriaevoluţieiprocesuluideglobalizare,reieşinddintermenifolosiţi în economie şi economia politică este o istorie a creşteriicomerţuluiinterstatalbazatpeinstituţiistabilecareautorizeazăfirmedindiferitestatesăschimbemaiuşorbunuri.

Termenuldeliberalizareesteocombinaţieîntreteoriaeconomicăaliberuluischimbşiîndepărtareabarierelorîncaresemişcăbunurile.Aceastaaduslacreştereaspecializăriiţărilorînexporturişilapresiunicaresătermineodatăpentrutotdeaunacutarifeleprotecţionisteşiaaltor bariere în faţa comerţului. Perioada liberalizării şi cea în careauruldefineastandarduleconomicestedeseorinumită“PrimaerăaGlobalizării”.Bazată pePaxBritanica şi pe schimbul de bunuri înnumerar,aceastăerăacrescutodatăcuindustrializarea.BazateoreticăafostmuncaluiRicardoînAvantajul comparativşiLegea generală a echilibrului a luiSay.Ceidoi susţineaucă ţărilevor facecomerţeficient şi căoriceneajunsuri temporare în cerere sauofertă sevorcorectaautomat.Instituireastandarduluiînaurs-arealizattreptatînţărileintensindustrializateîntreanii1850şi1880.

“PrimaerăaGlobalizării”secredecăs-arfiîmpărţitînetapeodatăcuprimulrăzboimondialşiapoicăzândsubcrizastandarduluiînaurspresfârşitulanilor’20şiînceputulanilor’30.Ţărileceîncepuserăsăîmbraţişezeeraglobalizării,aufostcîtevastatedelamargineaEuropeişicâtevadinAmericasiOceania,carelaaceaetapăprosperau.Inegalitateadintreacelestatedispăreaîntimpcebunurile,capitalulşiforţademuncăformauînmodexcepţionalfluxurilibereîntrestate.

Globalizareaînperioadadedupăcelde-aldoilearăzboimondiala fost condusăprin rundedenegocieri înprima fază subauspiciileGATT, ce a dus lamaimulte înţelegeri în îndepărtarea restricţiilorasupraliberuluischimb.RundaUruguayaduslasemnareaunuitratatprin care se creeazăOrganizaţiaMondială aComerţului (OMC) curoluldeamediadisputecomerciale.Alteacorduricomercialebilaterale

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inclusivsecţiunialeTratatuluidelaMastrichtşiNAFTAaufostdeasemeneasemnatecuscopuldeareducetarifelevamaleşibarierelecomerciale.

Dintr-operspectivăpragmatică,globalizareaactualmentedispune,decâtevapremise,caresuntprezenteînmajoritateaţărilor.Una din premize,constă în faptul,căeconomiamondialăse transformă într-un sistembine chibzuit, integrat şi compact, care din ce în cemaipronunţatignoreazăexistenţafrontierelornaţionalecaanumite„frâne”localededezvoltare,faptpreconizatdemaimulţicercetătoriîncălaînceputul sec.XX.Actualmenteoriceeconomienaţionalăadevenitmultmaidinamică,maiconformatăcerinţelorfoartediversificate lascaramondială, economiile naţionale ca nici odată se adaptează lanecesităţilesocietăţii.

O altă premisăconstăînfaptulcă,dezvoltareaumanăsedesfăşoarăsub aspectul principal a sistemuluimondial actual, de caredepindedezvoltarea demai departe a economiilor naţionale. Interpretareatermenului„globalizareaeconomieimondiale”capremisăadezvoltăriiactivităţii socio-umane este o prerogativă a timpului, a eforturilorcercetării-dezvoltăriicatendinţăuniversală.Anumerezultateledinacestdomeniuaccelereazăproceseledeintegrareşiglobalizare,indiferentdegraduldedezvoltare economicăafiecărei ţări înparte.Tendinţespreglobalizaresuntînregistrateatâtprintreţărileindustrializate,câtşiprintreceleîncursdeindustrializare:şicucâtgradulestemaiscăzut,cuatâttendinţaestemaipronunţată.

Încă o premisăaglobalizăriiconstăînfaptulrecunoaşteriidecătrespecialiştianecesităţiiinternaţionalizăriinunumaiaculturilor,practiciiîndiversedomenii,ci,înprimulrând,înceleconomic,constituindu-sedinceîncemaimultcaunspaţiuunic.

Una din cele mai importante premizededezvoltareaproceselorglobalizării,devinevolumulcunoştinţeloracumulate,carereprezintăfactorul decisiv pentru dezvoltarea economiilor naţionale în lumeacontemporană,şinuzăcămintelenaturaleşiteritoriileuriaşe.Cerereaglobalăşiceaindividualăseschimbăacumamultmairapidşiimprevizibildecâtînainte.Costulinvestiţiilor,carecufiecezidevintotmaimultşimaimultinovaţionale,acrescutenorm.Problemarăscumpărăriilorestedenesoluţionatîncondiţiileuneiariiînchise,oricâtdemarearfiea.Toateacesteaimpunaplicareaunuimarketingpetoatăsuprafaţamapamondului.Respectiv,cerinţademinimizareacosturilorimpuneamplasarea întreprinderilor aproape de locurile distribuirii finale aproducţiei.Aceastaesteopremisăimportantăaglobalizăriieconomiei.

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Lumea contemporană este lumea telecomunicaţiilor şi informaţiei.Succesulantreprenorialînprezentnusemăsoarăîntoneşikilometri,ci în kilobyte.Această tendinţă continuă şi va duce la schimbareaînfăţişării societăţiimondiale. Premisa globalizării a fost revoluţiainformaţională, care a asigurat o bună bază tehnică pentru creareareţelelor informaţionale globale, internaţionalizarea capitalului şicreştereaconcurenţeipepieţelemondiale,deficitulresurselornaturale,exploziademografică,creştereainfluenţeiasupranaturii.

Globalizarea influenţează înmod specific societăţile naţionale.Laprimavedereparecăefectuleiartrebuisăinfluenţezedistructivstructurile sociale naţionale. Însă în realitate ea stabileşte în faţasocietăţiiproblemeatâtdecomplicate,încâtsoluţionarealorcereunefortbinecoordonat,care,larândulsău,consolideazăsocietatea.

EconomiştiiA.TofflerşiH.Tofflerînlucrarealor[1]prezintăoideecaredezvăluiefoartebineacestlucru:“Societăţileagrarevorsă-şicompletezeindustrializareaşinimerescîncapcanadelimităriinaţionale.Fostele republici sovietice, cumarfiUcraina,Estonia sauGeorgia,insistălaautonomieşicerrestaurareaatributeloristorice,drepturilor,armatelor,unităţilormonetare–caresuntcaracteristicepentruetapaindustrialăanterioară.Înlumeacontemporanăestegreudeînţelesşide acceptatmotivarea ultranaţionaliştilor... Pentru naţionalişti estede neînchipuit că există ţări care permit subiectelor din exterior săseamesteceîndomeniileindependenţeilorsfinte.Daraceastaocereglobalizareaafacerilorşifinanţelor...Întimpcepoeţiişiintelectualiiregiunilor înapoiate scriu imnuri naţionale, poeţii şi intelectualiicontemporaneităţiiridicăînslăviavantajelelumiifărăfrontiere”.

Problema economică principală a contemporaneităţii constă înformareaunuisistemmondialcomplex. Acestprocessedezvoltă înpatrudirecţii:concentrareaînţăriledezvoltateapărţiipreponderentea potenţialului intelectual şi inovaţional; concentrarea circuituluicomercialmondial în limitele ţărilor dezvoltate; limitarea ariei depătrundereafluxurilorinvestiţionaleşiblocareafluxurilormigraţionaledinţărilelumiiatreiaînceledezvoltate.

Deşi dezvoltarea economieimondiale, creşterea gradului deinterdependenţăîntreeconomiilenaţionalenecesitădinceîncemaimultintegrareadeplinăatuturorţărilor,şiînspecialacelorîntranziţie,totuşiproceseleintegraţionisteauloclanivelregional.Înacestsens,integrarea economică regională nu trebuie să fragmenteze sistemuleconomicmondialînblocuri,cisăcreezezonedecomplementaritateintegrate într-un sistem economic deschis, contribuind astfel laglobalizarea economiei.

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Deci,putemspunecă în lumeacontemporană,undepermanentau loc procese integraţioniste, o importanţă crescândăo are anumeconcurenţaîntrecorporaţiitransnaţionale,şinuconcurenţaîntreţări.

Creşterea volumului comerţului, apariţia tehnologiilor noi,investiţiilestrăine,diversificareamijloacelordeinformaţieşiextindereaInternetului stimulează creşterea economică.Globalizarea duce lastimulareadezvoltăriituturornaţiunilorprinmărireapieţeidedesfacere,schimbulliberdetehnologiidelaonaţiunelaalta,creştereacalificăriiforţeidemuncă.Princreareauneiconcurenţeputernice,globalizareaîistimuleazăpeproducătoriiautohtonisăutilizezeultimeleknow-howîntr-un anumit domeniu,materiale ultramoderne şi să aibă grija deconsumatori.Unaltaspectesteconcentrarealiberăacapitaluluiînzonecuavantajeeconomicesporite,ceeaceducelastimulareaproducţieişicreştereaeficienţeiutilizăriicapitalurilor.

UnexempluelocventîlconstituieţăriledinEuropaOccidentală.Fiecareţară,luatăseparat,s-asimţitpreaslabăînfaţaconcurenţeiSUApepieţelemondialeşiînfaţapenetraţieiextremdeputerniceamarilormonopoluri.Ulterior,aapărutşiconcurenţajaponeză.Numaiunindu-seîncadrulComunităţiiEconomiceEuropene,ţărileoccidentaleputeauface faţă concurenţei internaţionale. În condiţiile în care revoluţiatehnico-ştiinţificăexercităoinfluenţăatâtdemareasupraproducţiei,diferiteţăripotpromovanumaiîncomuncelemaimaricuceririaleştiinţeişitehniciimoderneşi,peaceastăbază,săînvingăînluptadeconcurenţă.

Totuşi, trebuie să remarcăm că în prezent ceamai scurtă calespreglobalizareesteextindereapieţelordedesfacere– liberalizareacomerţului,afluxurilordecapitalşiainformaţiei.

Prin globalizarea pieţelor se subînţelege creşterea volumuluicomerţuluiinternaţionalşiaaltorproceseîncadruleconomieimondiale,caredevinedinceîncemaiintegrată,maiconsolidată.Astfel,estevorbanunumaidecomerţulinternaţionaldemărfurişiservicii,darşide:

-fluxurivalutare;-mişcăridecapital;-schimbdetehnologii;-procesedemigraţie;-internaţionalizareavieţiisociale;-procesedeinformatizareetc.Globalizarea, în sensul larg al acestui termen, dispune un şir

de factori, care s-aumanifestat insistentpeparcursulcâtorvaetape.Dupăpărereamaimultorcercetătoricurenumemondialşiautohtoni,globalizareaparcurgeetapeleurmătoare:

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a)liberalizarea comerţului internaţional şialteformedeconlucrareeconomică, care au limitat politica protecţionistă, iar comerţulinternaţionall-aridicatlascaraceamaimare.Măsuriledeliberalizareauduslamicşorareatarifelor,taxelor,intensificareamişcăriicapitaluluişiaaltorfactori de producţie;

b)lărgirea sferei de activitate aîntreprinderilorşifirmelor,careafostposibilăatâtînrezultatulprogresuluitehnologic,câtşiînurmagestionării în baza noilor surse de telecomunicaţii.Astfel,multorcompanii,caresedezvoltaupepieţelelocale,lis-aoferitposibilitateadeaieşipepieţelenaţionale,multinaţionaleşiinternaţionale.Acestecompaniisepotrepedeadaptalacondiţiileexistente,devenindcompaniitransnaţionale(CTN).Aproapetoatedineledispundeoreţeadefiliale,faptcareleacordăoanumitărigiditatepepiaţă.Prinacestecompaniiseefectueazăînprezentaproximativotreimedincomerţulmondial.Companiilemultinaţionaleşialteorganizaţiiatâtprivate,câtşistatale,audevenitparticipanţiidebazăacheltuieliloreconomieiglobale;

c)progresul tehnico-ştiinţific,careaaduslamicşorareacheltuielilorde transport şi comunicaţii, lamicşorareadeprelucrare şi stocareainformaţiei, laapariţiapoştei electronice (e-mail), reţelei Internet şialtemodalităţideutilizareglobală;

d)instituţionalizare caunrolimportantînprocesuldeglobalizareaînceputaljucaorganizaţiileinternaţionale:ONU,FMI,BM,OMCetc;

e)socializarea concomitentcuaspectuleconomic,începândcuunanumittimpcapătăconotaţiipolitice,culturaleetc.Impunândunnoutipdesocializarecaracterizatprinintegrareapeorizontalăşiverticalăamaimultorculturi,etniişipopoare.Demenţionat,căsocializareacaelementposterioraglobalizăriisecaracterizeazăprintr-unprocescorespunzătorlanivelspiritual,cultural,internaţional;

f)atingerea unei gândiri globale unice învalorificareaeconomieidepiaţăşicomerţuluiliber,începutulcărorapentruopartedinţăriafostpusîna.1978prinreformadinChina,dupăceauurmatschimbărileradicaleşistructuraleînţărileEuropeiCentraleşideEst,finalizându-secudestrămareaUniuniiSovietice;

g)particularităţile dezvoltării culturale încadrulglobalizăriicareauavutunimpulssemnificativînmajoritateaţărilorlumii.

Pentruaînţelegenecesitateaşiimportanţaintegrăriiînrezolvareaunorsaualtorproblemeeconomicenaţionalesauglobale,vomprezentaefectelegeneralealefenomenelorintegraţioniste:

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stimularea accesului produselor autohtonepepieţele ţărilor �parteneredinrespectivagruparedeintegrare,ceeacevaducelacreştereapieţeidedesfacere,mărireavolumuluideproducţieşi,înconsecinţă,lareducereacheltuielilordeproducţie.stimulareafluxuluiliberdecapitalfaceposibilădezvoltarea �proiectelorcaresuntfoartescumpepentruosingurăţară.Astfel,ţărilemicinupotdesfăşura, înmodindividual,activităţi îndomeniile tehnologic şi industrial lanivelnaţional.Elepotactivaefectiv,într-omăsurămaimaresaumaimică,numaidacăformeazăogrupareregională.globalizarea duce la specializarea ţărilor de a fabrica acele �tipurideprodusecarecorespundavantajelorcompetitivealeproducătorilorautohtoni.Aceastaducelacreştereaeficienţeifabricaţieişilautilizarearesurselormondialelimitate.creştereaputeriidenegociereînraportcuţărileterţesaufaţă �dealtegrupăriregionale.Putereadenegociereauneiţăriesteinfluenţată de nivelul social-economic respectiv.Astfel, ease determinăpornindde laPNB,PIB, volumul comerţuluiexterior, capacitatea de finanţare externă etc. Puterea denegociereauneiţăriestecuatâtmaimare,cucâtmaimarisuntacestemărimi.Ogrupareeconomicăînsumeazăpotenţialeleţărilormembre şi, astfel, duce la creşterea puterii sale denegociereîncomparaţiecuţărileterţe.

Pentruţărileîntranziţie,laacesteefectepotenţial-favorabileammaiputeaadăuga:

crearea condiţiilor care impun schimbări instituţionale în �diferitedomeniialevieţiieconomiceaţării.Acesteschimbărivorîmbunătăţiatâtpartealegislativă,câtşiceaexecutivă.globalizarea creează condiţii necesare pentru elaborarea şi �aplicareapoliticiloreconomicenaţionaleadecvateconcurenţeisporite, ceea ce influenţează direct eficienţa producătorilornaţionali.

Însfârşit,procesuldeintegrareeconomicăoferăoposibilitatedeaccelerareadezvoltăriieconomiceşiunnivelmairidicatdeutilizarea factorilor de producţie.Demenţionat, că globalizarea economieimondialeafostfavorabilăpentrumajoritateaţărilorlumii.Printrecelemai importante elemente favorabile, în viziuneamaimultor autori,nominalizăm: creşterea economică sporită; productivitateamărită;răspândireatehnologiilordevîrf;majorareaniveluluidebunăstare,etc.

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Relevăm, că avantajele globalizării nu apar doar numai dinimplementarea tehnologiilor avansate. Ca şi alţi autori, susţinemopinia, că globalizarea economică cuprinde totodată şi activitateafinanciară,mişcarealiberăacapitalului,poateînmăsurăşimaimaredecâttehnologiilenoi,activitateaculturală,ecologicăetc.reprezentânddestinulincapabilsprecareseîndreaptălumeacaprocesinevitabilcarenuafecteazăpetoţiînegalămăsurăşiînacelaşimod.Deci,globalizareapermitetransferareacapitaluluideoriceorigineînoriceţară,careacordăcondiţiimaifavorabilepentruinvestiţii.Mişcarealiberăacapitaluluiesteunadincelemaiavantajoaseformeşitendinţealeglobalizării.

Îngeneral,avantajeleglobalizăriipermitameliorareastăriituturorpartenerilorlaoricescară,careprimescposibilitatea,mărindproducţia,dearidicanivelulsalariilorşistandardeledeviaţă.Dreptrezultatfinalalglobalizăriiartrebuisădevinăridicareabunăstăriiînlume.

Pânăaicine-amreferitlaintegrareaeconomică,încontinuareînsă,vomanalizaaltaspectalintegrării–celinformaţional.

ApariţiatehnologieinumiteInternet,aucreatposibilităţienormepentruobţinereainformaţiilor,începândcupreţuripânălanoitehnologii.Pentrudifuzareatehnologiei“radio”aufostnecesari38deani,pentrurăspândireacalculatoarelorpersonale-16ani,pentruteleviziune–13ani,iarpentruInternet-numai4ani.

Preţurile foarte joase ale comunicării prin Internet fac factoriidistanţă şi timp neînsemnate, ceea ce, de fapt, este era reţelelorinformaţionaleglobale.Dezvoltarearapidăacompaniilortransnaţionalesedatorează,înultimultimp,anumecomunicaţiilorrapideşiieftine.

Înacestecondiţiicunoştinţelesuntunnoutipdecapital,lipsacăruiaface imposibile toateeforturilepentruacâştiga luptaconcurenţială.În contextul integrării şi globalizării, dezvoltarea tehnologiilorinformaţionaleareunşirdeaspectepozitive:

apariţiametatehnologiilor,carecreeazăcondiţiidemonopol �natural.Aceastaînseamnăcăţara-utilizatordeacestetehnologiifaceunsaltcalitativînfabricare.informatizarea globală duce la simplificarea accesului la �noile tehnologii, know-how în diferite domenii.A apărutposibilitateadeadesfăşuraconferinţeInternet,ceeaceducelaomicşoraresimţitoareacostuluischimbuluideinformaţiiîntrespecialişti.dezvoltareaacceleratăatehnologiilorinformaţionaleestefoarte �atractivăpentruspeculaţiidescurtădurată,ceformeazăoaltăsursăsemnificativădeinvestiţii.

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vit � eza cu care se dezvoltă tehnologiile pune pe prim-plandezvoltarearesurselorumane,cafactorprincipalînaplicareaacestoraînpractică.tehnologiiletradiţionale,treptat,îşipierdimportanţa. �

Bineînţelescădezvoltareatehnologiilorareşilaturinegative:creştereadiferenţelordintreţărilecarefolosescnoiletehnologiişi

acelecarenu-şipotpermiteaşaunlux.sumelealocatepentrucercetărileştiinţificesuntfoartemari, �de aceea nu toate ţările le pot suporta. Se creează situaţiacând cercetători care se ocupă de ştiinţa ultramodernă “seconcentrează”înţărilecelemaidezvoltate.întârzierea progresului tehnico-ştiinţific într-o ţară duce la �degradareaeisocialăşifinanciară.

Acesteaspectenegativepotfiînlăturatenumaipringlobalizareacontinuăaeconomieimondiale.

La etapa actuală, pentru aprecierea nivelului de globalizare adiferitoreconomiisuntutilizaţiaşanumiţiiindiciaglobalizării,caresuntcalculaţidecătrediferiteorganizaţiiinternaţionale.Înbazaacestorindici sunt întocmite diferite clasamente şi ierarhii internaţionale şinaţionale,carecuprindfenomenulglobalizarii,consideratprobabilcelmaireprezentativ,pentrulumeadeazi.

Astfel,A.T.Kearney Inc.dinSUAsiCarnegieEndowment forInternationalPeace,careediteazăprestigioasaForeignPolicycalculeazădesapteaniunindice al globalizarii [2].Celpe2007iainconsiderare72detari,careinsumeaza97deprocentedinProdusulInternBrutlanivelmondialsi88deprocentedinpopulatialumii.Estedemenţionat,căconformindeceluiglobalizăriipentruanul2007,ceamaiglobalizatăţară pe parcusul ultimilor 3 ani se considerăSengapore, urmată deHoncong,Niderlanda,SuediaşiIrlanda.Înprimelezeceţăriglobalizates-aunumăratşiDanemarca,America,CanadaşiIordan.LoculzaceafostocupatdecătreEstonia,caresedatoreazăeconomieiacesteastrinslegatedecomerţulexteriorşiniveluluiînaltdeinvestiţii.Întopmaisunt incluseMareaBritanie - locul11,Germania - locul22,Franta-locul25,Japonia-locul28,Italia-locul34,România–locul36,Rusia-locul62,Turcia-locul65,China-locul66,Brazilia-locul67,India-locul71.

DinpăcateînacesttopRepublicaMoldovanufigurează.Măsuratăprin volumul comerţului exterior sau valoarea investiţiilor străine,globalizareaMoldoveiestefoartemodestălaetapaactuală.

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Conform,Indicelui Global al Competitivităţii economice„GlobalCompetitiveness Index” evaluat pentru anii 2007-2008 de cătreForumulEconomicMondialdelaGeneva(WorldEconomicForum)[4],Moldovasesitueazăpelocul97din131detari,cuuncoeficientde3,64depunctedin7posibile.Comparativcuratinguldin2006-2007,cîndMoldovaurcasetreipoziţiişisesituapelocul86dinlume,inactualulacoborîtcu11pozitii.

Potrivitratinguluidin2007-2008,MoldovaurmeazădupăGeorgia,Serbia,Pakistan,Armenia,Macedonia,NigeriasiRepublicaDominicanasidevanseazăVenezuela,Kenia,Senegal,Mongolia.

Indicele Competitivităţii Globale (GCI) calculat in studiuevaluează131de tariale lumiipebazauneiamplegamedefactoricareafecteazămediuldeafaceri,grupatein12categorii.Lacategoria„institutii”Moldovas-aplasatpelocul105cu3,3punctedin7posibile;„infrastructura”–locul107(2,45puncte);stabilitateamacroeconomica–locul92(4,56puncte);sănătatesieducaţieprimară–locul85(5,17puncte);învăţămîntulsuperiorsiinstruirea–locul81(3,66puncte);eficienţa pieţei bunurilor - locul 107 (3,69 puncte); eficienta pieţeimuncii–locul68(4,28puncte);graduldedezvoltareapieţeifinanciare– locul 101 (3,68 puncte); pregătire tehnologică – locul 108 (2,51puncte);dimensiuneapieţei–locul114(2,31puncte);inovaţiile–locul122(2,87puncte).

Lanivelglobal,toateeconomiiledinEuropadeSud-Est(ESE),cuexcepţiaCroaţieisimaialesaTurciei,audevenitmaipuţincompetitivecomparativcuanultrecut.Astfel,România,acedatopoziţiefaţădeanultrecutsiseplaseazăpelocul74,Ucraina-pelocul73-cupatrupoziţiimaijosfataanultrecut.FederaţiaRusăocupapoziţiaa58-a,cuotreaptămaisusfatadeanultrecut.PeprimelelocuriinratingulWorldEconomicForumseaflăStateleUnitealeAmericii,urmatedeElveţia,Danemarca,Suedia,Germania,Finlanda,Singapore,Japonia,MareaBritaniesiOlanda.IarcelemainecompetitiveeconomiiautarileafricaneChad,Burundi,ZimbabwesiMozambique.

Clasamentulesterealizatpebazadateloreconomicedisponibile,darsiaunuisondajdeopinieanualrealizatdeWorldEconomicForumsioseriedeinstitutedecercetăriparteneresiorganizaţiideafaceri,instateleevaluateinraport.

Inacestan,aufostintervievaţipeste11000deliderideafaceri,in 131 de economii din întreaga lume. Studiulmai include un topal competitivităţii afacerilor „BusinessCompetitiveness Index”, incareMoldovaseaflape locul99printre127de tari.Denotatcă in

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clasamentul„DoingBusiness2008”(Mediuldeafaceri2008)alBanciiMondiale,Moldovaacoborîtdepelocul90pe92din178detari.

Sumarizîndceleexpuse,estedemenţionatcăMoldova,lamomentulactual,aremulterezervelacapitolulglobalizareşicompetitivitateaeconomiei,reieşinddinlocurilefoartemodesteocupateînratingurileinternaţionale.

PentruR.Moldova,perioadaactuală,estemaidegrabăoperioadădepreglobalizarecaresecaracterizeazăprinfaptul,căaufostelaborateşiseimplementeazămecanismeşiinstrumentedeasigurareacreşteriieconomice,inclusiv:

instrumentemacroeconomicecamajorareaponderiiinvestiţiilor �înPIBşiaacumulărilorîneconomie;optimizareastructuriiconsumuluifinal; �instrumente structurale ca privatizarea, reorganizarea şi �restructurareaîntreprinderilor;determinareastructurilorprioritare; �instrumente locale şi regulatorii ca perfecţionarea cadrului �legalnormativşiadministrativ;instrumentefiscalecaţinereasubcontroladeficituluibugetar �şi realizareamăsurilor necesare de control a cheltuielilorbugetare etc.

Perioadadepreglobalizaresecaracterizeazăşiprinadoptareaunormăsurilegatederespectareaconcordanţeidocumentelorstrategiceşiactelor legislative elaborate deOMC,BCE,OCDE,APCetc., caredeschid,pedeoparte,noiposibilităţipentrueconomiaR.Moldova,iarpedealta,impunreglementăridureprivindcalitateaproducţiei,forţeidemuncă,ponderiiagriculturii,reducereasărăcieietc.–exigenţenuatâtpentrustructurileeuropene,câtpentrucreştereaeconomicăînţaranoastră.

Aderarea laOMC începând cu a. 2001 reiese din problemelepoliticiicomercialealeRepubliciiMoldova,careprefigureazăointegrareefectivă a ţării în economiamondială şi comerţului internaţional şiincludeînsineurmătoarelemăsuri:

adoptarea unor condiţii nediscriminatorii de penetrare a �produselorşiserviciilorautohtonepepieţelestrăine;dezvoltarea posibilităţilor de export a ţării şi îmbunătăţirea �calităţiiproduselorşistructuriiexportului;asigurarea protejării producătorilor autohtoni în condiţiile �economieideschisepebazanormelorşicerinţelorOMC.

Esteevident,căR.Moldovapentruaaderalaprocesulgeneralalglobalizării,nupoateocoliproceseledelocalizareşiregionalizarelaniveleuropean.Inevitabil,eatrebuiesă-şiconstruiascăcaleapropriespreeconomiamondialăcapartecomponentăauneizonegeografice

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locale,concomitentsă-şiconstituieraporturidurabileşiechilibrateîncadrulUE.

Totodată,trebuiesărecunoaştemcăglobalizareanuarealternative.Eaadevenitorealitateobiectivăaintegrăriieconomiceastatelorlumii,procesînceputcumultedeceniiînurmă,avîndastăziritmuridecreşteremultmairapide.

Esteevidentşi faptulcăglobalizareacuprindecelemaidiversedomeniialesocietăţiiumane,devenindolegeuniversalăpentruetapaactuală a procesului de internaţionalizare.Totodată, componentaeconomică a acesteia constituie partea ceamai importantă.Anumetransformările de ordin economic produse în ultimele decenii înlume,cumarfiextindereafirmelornaţionale,încăutareadenoisursedeprofituri dincolodegraniţele statului deorigine, devenind astfeltransnaţionale, creşterea considerabilă amobilităţii capitalului şiintegrareapieţelorfinanciare,declinulcontinuualroluluişiimportanţeieconomiceagraniţelorpoliticenaţionale,revoluţiainformaţionalăetc.suntconsiderateprintrecelemaiimportantemotivaţiialeglobalizării.Indiferent dacă suntmari saumici, puternice sau slabe, ţările suntegaleînfaţanoilorregulialeschimburiloreconomiceinternaţionale.Implicarea ţărilor în tranziţie în procesele generate de fenomenulglobalizăriisecomplicăşiprinfaptulcăintegrareaacestoraîneconomiamondialădecurgeconcomitentcureformareaeconomiilorsautranziţiaacestoralaeconomiadepiaţă.

O variantă ce ar impulsiona procesul globalizării ţării, suntcorporaţiile transnaţionale,care,prinpătrunderea lorpenoipieţeşifondareafilialelor, participă activ la integrarea economică la nivelmicro.Trebuiederemarcatcăocompanietransnaţionalăîncearcăsăcreezeunelementdeuniformitate lanivelul tehnic şi tehnologic alfilialelorei,indiferentîncepartealumiiseaflă.Aceastaînseamnăcăcorporaţiiletransnaţionalesuntunputernicimportatordetehnologiinoi,ceeaceestefoarteatrăgătorpentruţărileîntranziţie.Anumeaceastătrăsăturăacorporaţiilortransnaţionalelefacesădevinăobiectulnostrudestudiu.

bibliography:TofflerA.AndH.TofflerWarandAnti-War.Survial at the1.Dawnofthe21-stCentury.-Boston.-1993http://2. www.atkearney.comhttp://www.globalizare.r3. ohttp://4. www.weforum.org.

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Hageanu DANIeLlecturer, PhD candidate, “Alma Mater” University, Sibiu

ThE DESTRUCTION OF CONVENTIONAL WEApONS IN ROMANIA – A REqUIREMENT OF ThE EURO-ATLANTIC INTEGRATION

At the end of the Cold War, most of the countries from Central and Eastern Europe have undergone profound changes, among which, the most important feature of these change processes being demilitarization. Thus, conversion in the defense sector is complex and multidimensional, including: military expenses, weapon surplus, conversion of the defense industry, conversion of the bases/barracks or demobilization. In the countries not affected by conflicts, the weapon surplus is a permanent issue, due to the reduction of the number of forces or of the equipment modernization, the destruction of this surplus representing a major preoccupation of the entire international community after 1989, at the same time with the improvement of the relationships between the great powers and the transformation of the international security environment1 .Key words: conversion, restructuring, weapon destruction, weapon surplus, equipment.

ReorganizingtheRomanianArmedForcesandthedefensesystemsinaccordancewiththerequirementsofjoiningNATOandEUhasalsogeneratedbigamountsofunusableweapons2.Inthisrespect,theexternalpolicyobjectivesforjoiningNATOandEUhavedeterminedamongothersalsothenecessityofRomania’scompliancetothestandardsofthenon-proliferationpoliciesoftheNATOandEUmembercountries3.Theamplereformprocesswasinitiallystimulatedbythenecessitiesoftherevolutionfrom1989andbythesigningoftheTreatyconcerningtheConventionalArmedForces(CFE)inEuropein1990,treatythatdeterminedRomaniatododownsizingatthelevelofforcestructureandofthelevelofweaponsfromtheendowmentofthearmedforces.

Between1992,thedateofcomingintoforceofthetreaty,and1995,thedateoftheendofthefinalstageofreducingthenumberofweapons,Romania had the obligation to cut 5,065weapons and equipment,respectively: 2,423 artillery pieces, 1,591fight tanks, 973 armoredfightingvehiclesand78fighterplanes4.Accordingtothesecurityneedandobjectivesofourcountry,withthestandardsandcriteriaimposedbyNATO,butalsowiththeallottedresourcesforthispurpose,theroleofRomanianArmedForceshasundergoneaprofoundtransformation.

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SealingtheTreatyconcerningtheConventionalArmedForcesinEurope(CFE),in19November19905,hasrepresentedarealsuccessofthejointeffortsofstabilizingtheinternationalrelationshipsandthe security environment by reducing the level ofmilitary forcesandweapons.ThisTreatywassignedby22NATOmemberstates6ormembersofthepreviousWarsawTreaty7,attheParissummitofthe34countriesparticipatingattheCSCEprocess,subsequently–asaresultoftheevolutionsoftheEuropeansecuritycontext,amongwhichtheunificationofGermany,theretreatoftheSoviettroopsfromEasternEurope,thedissolvingoftheWarsawTreatyOrganization,theunilateral reductionof forcesof theSovietUnionandof thecountriesfromthatregionandeventhedissolutionoftheSovietUnion–thenumberofthesignatorystatesbeingof308.

TheCFETreatywasimposinglegallimitsonthekeycategoriesof equipment owned individually or collectively, includingalso provisions for information exchange and arrangements forinspections andverifications.Themain categoriesof equipmentcoveredbytheseprovisionsarethoseconstitutingoffensivemilitarycapabilities,respectively:tanks,artillery,armoredvehicles,fighterplanesandattackhelicopters.ThelimitsimposedledtosubstantialreductionsoftheconventionalarmedforcesownedbythesignatorystatesoftheTreaty.

Concurrently with the reduction of weapons, the signatorystates of theCFETreaty granted a great importance also to thereductionofarmedforces,thenegotiationsinthisrespect,initiatedinNovember1990havingasaresulttheadoptingoftheFinalActoftheNegotiationsconcerningtheConventionalArmedForcesStrengthinEurope(CFEIA)on10July1992,whichestablishesthelimitsregardingthehumanmilitaryforce9.

BytheTreatyconcerningtheConventionalForcesinEurope(CFE)from1990andbecauseofthefinalactofthenegotiationsconcerningthestrengthofconventionalarmedforcesfromEurope(CFE-IA)from1992,themaximumlimitsfortheRomanianarmywereestablishedasfollows10:

Strength:230000militarypersonnel;Conventionalweaponsandequipments:

Tanks-maximum1370pieces; hArmoredfightingvehicles-maximum2150pieces; h

-outofwhichinfantryfightingvehiclesandfightingvehicleswithheavyweapons-maximum450pieces;

-includingfightingvehicleswithheavyweapons-maximum105pieces;

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Artillery of 100mmcaliber andheavier –maximum1450 hpieces;Fighterplanes-maximum420aircrafts; hAt t a ck h e l i c op t e r s - max imum 110 a i r c ra f t s . hTotalheavyweaponsandequipments-5420pieces.

TheNATOmemberstatushasbroughtalongmajorchangesalsoin thestrengthof theRomanianarmedforces, thus,ascomparedtoProjectForce2003,wheretherewasstipulatedanumberof112,000personnel (28,000 civilian and 84,000military), presently, by theObjectiveForce2007,theMinistryofDefensehasastructureof90,000personnel(75,000militaryand15,000civilian).This longprocessofreorganizing theRomanianarmedforceshasgeneratednewtypesofequipmentthatwillcomeoutofuse.

Moreover,accordingtothelimitsimposedbytheCFETreaty,adaptedin2001,Romaniawasconfrontingadeficitregardingtheendowmentofthearmyandthenumberofitsarmedforces,asfollows11:

1 January2001 Tanks

ACV (AIfV and

APC)Artillery Attack

helicoptersArmed forces

Cfe limits 1370 2150 1450 110 230000

endowment 1367 2081 1381 16 158700

fig.1-Anthony h. Cordesman, Arleigh A. burke, Western Military Balance and Defense Efforts. A Comparative Summary

of Military Expenditures, Manpower, Land, Air, Naval and Nuclear Forces, Center for Strategic and International Studies (CSIS),

washington, January 2002, http://www.csis.org.

Thus,within the process of reducing the number ofweapons,betweenthedateof17July1992,whentheCFETreatycameintoforceand19November1995,thedateoffinishingthelaststageofreducingthe number ofweapons,Romania had the obligation to cut down5,065piecesofweaponsandequipment,observinginthiswaythelimitestablishedbythetreaty12.

Romaniahascompletelyaccomplisheditsobligationofreducingthenumberofweapons,thisbeingputintopracticebytakingoutofuse

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2417artillerypieces,1,589fighttanks,971armoredfightingvehiclesand73fighterplanes.

Onstages,thereductionprocesswasrunasfollows:Stage 1: 17 July 1992 -16November 1993 – therewere cut

downanumberof1,296weaponsandequipment,summingup25%oftheobligationassumedbyRomaniabytheCFETreaty,bywhichitwascuttingdown:

397fighttanks;263armoredfightingvehicles;612artillerypieces;21fighterplanes.Stage 2:17November1993-16November 1994 -therewere

cutdownanumberof3,106weaponsandequipment,representing60%oftheobligation,respectively:

950fighttanks;630armoredfightingvehicles;1,472artillerypieces;47fighterplanes.

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Stage 3: 17November 1994 -16November 1995 representsaccomplishing100%oftheobligationsassumed.

This process of weapon reducing and possession wasrigorouslycheckedbyinspectionsrunbytheteamsofseveralcountries or bymultinational teams and Romanian controlcommittees.

As a result of theFinalActof theNegotiations concerning thestrengthsoftheconventionalarmedforcesinEurope(CFE-1A),signedinJuly1992,Romaniareducesitsstrengthfromanumberof244,807militarypersonnelatthedateofsigningthetreaty,tolessthan230,000militarypersonnel,thelimitestablishedbytheTreaty.

Further,wewillanalyzetheevolutionofreducingthenumberofweaponsfrom1990untiltheyear201013:

fig.2-Source: The Military Balance, 1990- 1995, 2001-2002, The International Institute for Strategic Studies, london: oxford

university Press, 2001.As far as the field and air defense artillery is concerned, the

evolutionofreducingthenumberofweaponsfromthisbranch,intheperspectiveoftheyear2010isrepresentedbythefollowingchart:

fig.3-Source: The Military Balance, 1990, 1995, 2001-2002, The International Institute for Strategic Studies, london: oxford

university Press. 2001.

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Reducingthenumberoftanksintheperiod1990-2000andintheperspectiveoftheyear2010issynthesizedbythefollowingchart:

fig.4-Source: The Military Balance, 1990, 1995, 2001-2002, The International Institute for Strategic Studies. london: oxford

university Press, 2001.Ascomparedtoothercountriesintheregion,thetotalofmilitary

strengthatthelevelofyear2001ispresentedinthefollowingchart:


university Press, 2001.

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As compared to other NATO member countries, thereductions ofweapon number in the same period are as follows:


university Press, 2001.

Theofficialdocumentsoftheyear2001wereshowingthat,whatconcerns the land forces, “the endowment of great units, units andformationsisdonealmosttothelevelestablishedbytheCFETreaty,atthecategories:tanks,armoredamphibiouscarriers,andartillerypiecesof100mmcaliber.Theinfantryweapons,theantitankguns,machineguns,airdefensegunsaswellasinfantrymunitions,artillerymunitions,groundmissiles andground toairmissiles from theendowment areprovidedaccordingtotheestablishedrequirements”14.Inthesameway,fortheairforces,“thelevelsofthemaincategoriesofweaponsareinaccordancewiththelimitsestablishedbytheCFETreaty,thatRomaniaisapartof”.

Therefore,atthelevelofyear2001RomaniawasmeetingcompletelythecriteriaimposedbytheTreatyconcerningtheConventionalForcesinEurope,beingaferventsupporterofthisdocumentandofaccomplishingtheobligationsassumedbyeachsignatorycountry.

If, until thatmoment, theEuropean countrieswere encouragedtodestroythesurplusoflightcaliberweapons,thewarsinIraqandAfghanistanrepresentedtheheavenofweapontraders,whofindnewmarkets,showsastudyoftheObserver15forlightweapons,citedbyAFP.Presently,thesestatesexportmoreandmoreweaponstoIraqandAfghanistan.Alsoatthelevelof2001,respectively2003,thestartyearsoftheAfghanistanandIraqwars,Romaniasoldtothesecurityforcesfromthesecountriesapproximately750,000weapons.

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Thus,theissueofdestroyingthesurplusofweaponsofanytypeis a difficult one, extremely costly if it is done under inadequatecircumstancesandespeciallyforacountrysuchasRomania,confrontedwithmajoreconomicalandfinancialdifficultiesinachievingthereformobjectivesof thewhole security sector. In this context, the externalhelpwas necessary, aswell financial asprofessional and technical.InvitedbytheRomaniangovernment,ateamofexpertsfromUSAandNorwaypaidavisit,inFebruary2002inordertooffercounselingontheadministrationoftheweaponstocksandtodeterminethefeasibilityofaprogramfordestroyingthesurplusoflightweaponsandmunitions.Asaresultofthisvisit,theMinistryofForeignAffairsfromRomania,presentedaNationalProgramfordestroyingthesurplusoflightweaponsandmunitions,tryingtofindfinancialsupportforitsimplementation16. TheNationalCompanyROMARMwasappointedcontractorforrunningthesurplusdestructionprogrambytheMinisterofDefense,.Anumberof195,540smallarmsandlightweapons,includingpistols,automaticrifles,machineguns,grenade launchers andmortars and 36,692,747ammunitionspiecesweredestroyedin2003withthefinancialsupportoftheUnitedStatesandofNorway17.

TheMinistryofDefenseandtheMinistryofAdministrationandInternalAffairsareresponsiblefordefiningandstoringthesurplusofsmallarmsandlightweapons.ConcerningtheMinistryofDefense,theGeneralStaffmustidentifythesurplusofsmallarmsandlightweaponsbyaperiodicalevaluationoftheweaponsfromtheendowmentandtoverifythestateofdepositedammunition.Accordingtotheevaluationof theRomaniangovernment fromJune200618, in2006 therewere1,243,879 small arms and lightweapons in the depots under theadministrationofgovernmentinstitutions19.Foryear2007,theMinistryofDefenseandtheMinistryofAdministrationandInternalAffairsdidnotofferinformationaboutthequantityofammunitionandofsmallarmsandlightweaponsfromthedepotsoraboutthenumberofdepots.

Asa resultof theNATO joiningprocess, theRomanianarmedforceswerereducedprogressively,sothatin2007theseweremadeupofanumberof90,000personnel(75,000militaryand15,000civilian)20. Thereorganizationofthearmedforceshasgeneratedandwillcontinuetogenerateanimportantsurplusofequipment,includingsmallarmsand lightweapons. In addition, the reorganization of theMinistryofAdministrationandInternalAffairs, includingherethepolice,themilitarypoliceandtheborderpolice,hadasaresulttheidentificationofasurplusofsmallarmsandlightweapons,intheyear2003beingreportedanumberof12,839exceedingweapons21.Thissurplusofsmallarmsandlightweaponswillhavetobedestroyedmostprobablyandwillrequire

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theallotmentofimportantownfinancial resourcesorfindingalternativefinancialresources,undertheformofanexternalassistance.

Therefore,theexternalassistanceregardingtheissueofweaponreductionandcontrolwasmaterializedmainlybytechnicalassistanceofferedby thewesternexperts,whoareexperienced in the issueofreducingweaponnumberandlessundertheformofafinancialsupportofferedbycertainWest-Europeancountries.

Inthelastyears,Romaniaadoptedaseriesofnormsandregulationstoinlinewiththeregionalandinternationalinitiativeofcontroloftheweapontradebutalsoofthedestructionofthesurplusofsmallarmsandlightweapons.AspartoftheRomanianexternalandsecuritypolicy,thesedecisionswerealsopowerfullyinfluencedbythefirmoptionofEuro-Atlanticintegration.

ConclusionsYearly, in theworld therearedestroyedapproximately430,000

surplussmallarmsandlightweapons.Outofthe200millionmilitaryfireweaponsintheworld,atleast76millionconstituteasurplus.

Romania’spolicyregardingthearmsexportcontrolisbasedonaseriesofregionalandinternationalengagements.Someof thesearereferringexclusivelytosmallarmsandlightweapons,whereasothersconcerntheentirerangeofconventionalweapons,includingtheformerones.

TheMinistryofDefenseandtheMinistryofAdministrationandInternalAffairs are the only structures responsible for defining andmanagingthesurplusofsmallarmsandlightweaponsandammunition.The process of reorganizing theRomanianArmy and reducing thecompulsorymilitaryserviceledtoasurplusofweapons.IncollaborationwithUSA,NorwayengagedtooffertechnicalassistancetoRomania,bysendingseveralteamsofevaluators.Thisproject,financedbytheUSA andNorwaywas implemented and successfully finalized in2002by the „Programconcerning the destructionof the surplus ofsmallarmsandlightweaponsoftheRomanianArmy”,bymeansofwhichthereweresetaside195,510weaponsand64,024,790differentammunitions,operationthatinvolvedcostsof4,870,326dollars,outofwhich1,061,999dollarsweregrantedbytheUSA.

AlthoughtheMoDdidnotmakeanypublicstatementregardingthe number ofweapons stored as a „strategic reserve”, due to thereductionofthegreatnumberofmilitarypersonnel,itisobviousthatthesereservesarecontinuouslyincreasing.Uptonow,duetofinancialconstrictionsandhighcoststhatareinvolvedindestroyingweapons,Romaniahasnotabletodestroyallthesurplusofsmallarmsandlightweapons,preferringtostoretheseintodepots.Thus,thereareattemptstofindnewfinancingsources,Romaniaparticipatingconcurrentlyat

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numerousregionalandinternationalinitiativesconcerningthecontrolofsmallarmsandlightweapon,suchasOSCE,EU,etc22.

Indestroying thissurplusofsmallarmsand lightweaponsandammunitions,theroleofexternalassistanceisextremelyimportantforRomania,duetothefactthatthewonfinancialresourcesallottedforthisareratherlimited.

ThesafestoringanddestructionofthesurplusofsmallarmsandlightweaponsandammunitionfromtheendowmentoftheMinistryofDefenseandoftheMinistryofAdministrationandInternalAffairsrepresentsadifficult issueforRomania,dueto thelackoffinancialresourcesnecessaryfordestroyingthesurplusequipmentorforensuringanadequatestorage.

bibliography:ActulfinalalNegocierilorprivindEfectiveleForţelorArmate1.convenţionale înEuropa, 10 iulie 1992,Organizaţia pentruSecuritateşiCooperareînEuropa,www.osce.org.AnthonyH.Cordesman,ArleighA.Burke,WesternMilitary2. Balance andDefenseEfforts.AComparativeSummary ofMilitary Expenditures.Manpower, Land.Air,Naval andNuclearForces,CenterforStrategicandInternationalStudies(CSIS),Washington,January2002.http://www.csis.org.CartaAlbăaGuvernuluiFARO2005-2010.3. Economic Forecasts Spring 2006, EuropeanComission,4. Bruxelles, 2006 (dr. DouglasMenarchik de la CentrulEuropeanpentruStudiideSecuritate)InstitutulNaţionaldeStatisticăşiStudiiEconomice,Bucureşti,5. 2006,www.insse.ro.MonitorulSALWpentruEuropadeSud-Est2003,«România»,6.Saferworld,2003PlanulnaţionalanualalRomânieidepregătirepentruintegrarea7.înNATO2003-2004,DelegaţiaRomâniei laNATO,2003,http://www.nato.int/romania/romanianap5.htm.România-NATO.CarteaAlbăaGuvernului,Bucureşti,1996.8. SamiFaltas,VeraChrobok,DisposalofSurplusSmallArms:9.ASurveyofPoliciesandPracticesinOSCECoimtries,BICC,ianuarie2004.“SurplusWeapom-Dismanlling theRemnanlsofConflicts”,10.BonnInternationalCenterforConversion,2001,www.bicc.de South Eastern Europe SmallArms and LightWeapons11.Monitor2005,„România”.TratatulprivindForţeleConvenţionaledinEuropa,„Monitorul12.OficialalRomâniei’’,AnulIV-Nr.61,miercuri,8aprilie1992.

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References:1 *** Economic Forecasts Spring 2006, European Commission, Brussels, 2006 (dr. Douglas Menarchik from the European Center for Security Studies)2Sami Faltas, Vera Chrobok, Disposal of Surplus Small Arms: A Survey of Policies and Practices in OSCE Countries, BICC, January 2004, p. 12.3The SALW monitor for South-Eastern Europe 2003, “Romania”, Safer world, 2003, p. 118.4Romania - NATO. The Government White Charter, Bucharest, 1996.5The negotiations concerning the conventional armed forces in Europe, between the NATO member countries and the countries member of the former Warsaw Treaty began in Vienna, in March 1989, having as a result the sealing of the CFE Treaty, on 19 November 1990.6The Belgian Kingdom, Canada, the Kingdom of Denmark, the French Republic, the Federal Republic of Germany, the Greek Republic, the Island Republic, the Italian Republic, the Great Kingdom of Luxemburg, the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, the Kingdom of Norway, the Kingdom of Netherlands, the Portuguese Republic, The Kingdom of Spain, The Turkish Republic, The United States of America. 7The Bulgarian Republic, the Czech and Slovak Federative Republic, the Hungarian Republic, the Polish Republic, Romania, The Socialist Soviet Republics Union.8Armenia, Azerbaijan, Belarus, Belgium, Bulgaria, Canada, the Czech Republic, Denmark, France, Georgia, Germany, Greece, Island, Italy, Kazakhstan, Luxemburg, Great Britain, Moldavia, Norway, Netherlands, Poland, Portugal, Romania, Russia, Slovakia, Spain, USA, Turkey, Ukraine and Hungaria. 9The Final Act of the Negotiations concerning the Strength of the Conventional Armed Forces in Europe, 10 July 1992, The Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe, www.osce.org.10 The Treaty concerning the Conventional Forces from Europe, “Romania’s Official Monitor’’, Year IV-No. 61, Wednesday, 8 April 1992.11Anthony H. Cordesman, Arleigh A. Burke, Western Military Balance and Defense Efforts. A Comparative Summary of Military Expenditures. Manpower, Land. Air, Naval and Nuclear Forces,Center for Strategic and International Studies (CSIS), Washington, January 2002, http://www.csis.org.12Romania - NATO. The Government White Charter, Bucharest, 1996.13“Surplus Weapons - Dismantling the Remnants of Conflicts”, Bonn International Center for Conversion, 2001, www.bicc.de14The Government’s White Charter FARO 2005-2010.15Created in 1999, The Observer for light weapons is financed by the Swiss Ministry of Exterior and receives government contributions from Canada, Finland, France, Great Britain, Norway, Netherlands and Sweden. 16South Eastern Europe Small Arms and Light Weapons Monitor 2005, “România”, p. 132.17Ibidem18Ibidem, p. 133. Concerning the actions of storing, depositing and destroying the surplus of small arms and light weapons, each OSCE member country must submit an annual report to this organization. 19www.insse.ro, The National Institute for Statistics and Economical Studies, Bucharest, 2006.20The national annual plan of Romania for preparing for joining NATO 2003-2004, The Romanian Delegation at NATO, 2003, http://www.nato.int/romania/romanianap5.htm.21South Eastern Europe Small Arms and Light Weapons Monitor 2005, “România”, p. 133.22The White Charter of the Government. Romanian Army-2005-2010

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