Sentence-based Writing:

Sentence-based Writing:

ARIF SURYO [email protected]

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Writing good sentences

Sentences should be:- Cohesive - Coherent

CohesionCohesion is the resources within language that provide continuity

in a text, over and above that is provided by clause structure and clause complexes that bind one sentence and another using formal ties.

Example: I have a kind neighbor. He is Agus Mulyono. He works in a

hospital. It is located not so far from his house. Mr. Agus has lived there for more than ten years with his family. They are Mrs. Siti and two sons named Boby and Agung.

Five cohesive ties

Reference; Substitution; Ellipsis;Conjunction; Lexical cohesion

Reference Reference refers to how the speaker or writer introduces

participants and then keeps track of them once they are in the text (Eggins, 1994:95).

two basic types of reference. Exophora(situational) Exophora(textual) - Endophora(to preceding text) - Anaphora(to following text) Cataphora

Exophora - example

exophoric reference contributes to the creation of text, in that it links the language with the context of situation, but it does not contribute to the integration of the passage with another so that the two together form part of the same text.

Example: Child : Why does THAT one come out? Father : That what? Child : That one Father : That what? Child : That ONE! Father : That one what? Child : That lever there that you push to let the water out.

Endophoric endophoric reference is only considered cohesive due to its

contribution to the integration of the text Two kinds of endophoric reference- Anaphoric reference: the subsequent items can only be

interpreted with reference to the initial phrase of the first sentence. Typically, anaphoric reference refers to a participant mentioned nearby (one or two sentences previously), but sometimes it may refer back to an item mentioned many pages before.

- Cataphoric reference points the reader foward, it draws us further into the text in order to identify the elements to which the reference items refer (Nunan: 1993: 22).

example

a. A beautiful lady, a beautiful lady See how she walks ! see how she walks b. Mr. Bambang went to Jakarta last week. He went there to meet his client In those examples, we can identify what are presupposed (a) she

refers to a bautiful lady; he refers to Mr. Bambang. These items are directives indicating that information is to be retrieved from elsewhere. So much they have in common with all cohesive elements. Moreover, they do not depend on the context of situation like the exophoric reference. What is essential to every instance of reference whether endophoric (textual) or exophoric (situational) is that there is a presuppotion that must be satisfied; the thing referred to has to be identifiable somehow (Halliday & Hasan, 1976: 33).

Four common references Personal references Demonstrative references Definite articles Comparative references

Personal reference Personal reference is reference by means of function in the

speech situation through the category of person. Nunan (1993: 23) states that personal reference items are expressed through pronouns and determiners. They serve to identify individuals and objects that are named at some other point in the text. It relates to Halliday and Hasan (1976: 48) that the third person is only herently cohesive, in that a third person form typically refers anaphorically to a preceding item in the text

Example:

Mr. John is an English teacher. All of his students like him very much.

Demonstrative reference is reference by means of location, on scale of

proximity. It is essentially a form of verbal pointing. The speaker identifies the referent by locating it on a scale of proximity

Participant singular this that plural these those

Circumstance place here there time now then

demonstrative-examples My family got frightened when we saw an accident in

our trip. That was the most terrifying accident I’ve ever seen.

While my parents were having lunch, my brothers and I walked around to see some lions and elephants. Those are my brothers’ favorites animals.

I spent my holiday in my uncle’s house in Bali. I do like staying there

Comparative reference is indirect reference by means of identity or similiarity.

With comparative reference, the identity of the presumed item is retrieved not because it has already been mentioned (or will be mentioned) in the text, but because an item with which it is being compared has been mentioned (Eggins, 1994: 98).

Example: The most tragic accident that I have ever seen was

the accident happened last year.

SUBSTITUTION A substitution is the replacement of a word (group) or sentences

segment by a “dummy” word. The reader can fill in the correct element based on the preceding sentences (Rankema, 1993: 37). Substitution is replacement of language element into others in a bigger composition in order to get clearer difference, or to explain some certain language elements.

There are three types of substitution: nominal, verbal and clausal substitution.

substitution-examples There are some new tourism resorts in Indonesia.

These ones’ve become the most attracting places to visit.

John : Bill says you went to Bali last week. Brown : So did you! Smith : Are father and mother going to have vacation

to East Java? Brown : I think so

ELLIPSIS Ellipsis is the omission of a word or part of a sentence. It

occurs when some essential structural elements are omitted from a sentence or clause and can only be recovered by refering to an element in the preceding text (Nunan, 1993: 25). Accoding to Halliday and Hasan (1976: 144) ellipses occur when something that is structurally necessary is left unsaid, there is a sense of incompleteness associated with it

There are also three kinds of ellipsis: nominal, verbal and clausal ellipsis

My father likes to go to a crowded tourism place, but I like a peaceful.

John : Have you been to Bali?Brown : Yes, I have

CONJUNCTION

a relationship which indicates how the subsequent sentence or clause should be linked to the preceding or the following (part of the sentence)

Conjunction signals the way the writer wants the reader to relate what is about to be said to what has been said before. Conjunction expresses one of a small number of general relations. The main relations are ... additive (and, or, also, in addition, furthermore, besides, similiarly, likewise, by contrast, for instance), adversative (but, yet, however, instead, on the other hand, nevertheless, at any rate, as a matter of fact), causal (so, cosequently, for, because, under the circumstances, for this reason), temporal (then, next, finally, after that, on another occasion, in conclusion, an hour later, at last), and continuative (now, of course, well, anyway, surely, after all) (Baker, 1992: 191).

Conjunction-examples My family likes to spend holliday by visiting some

places and they also like to go fishing in the sea. It was raining very hard yesterday. However, my

classmates went to the exhibition. I am afraid I’ll be home late tonight. Nevertheless, I

won’t have to go in until late tomorrow. Chinese tea is becoming increasingly popular in

restaurants, and even in coffee shops. This is because there is belief that tea has several health-giving properties.

Lexical Cohesive Device Kinds: reiteration and collocation. Reiteration is devided into five types. They

are repetition, synonym, hyponym, metonym and antonym.

repetition

Repetition is a word or words which has been stated, and then it is repeated again. We can tie sentences or paragraphs together by repeating certain key words from one sentence to the next or one paragraph to the next. It is in the case of the clearness of the main idea of the writing (Kilborn and Kriesi, 1995).

Example:

A conference will be held on national environmental policy. At this conference the issue of sanitation will play an important role.

Synonym

Synonym is the relationship between two words which have the same meaning

Example: A conference will be held on national environmental

policy. This environmental symposium will be primarily a conference dealing with water

Hyponym Hyponym is defined as a sense relation between

words (sometimes longer phrases) such that the meaning of one word (or phrase) is included in the meaning of the other (Hurford & Heasley, 1983). It is a semantic relation between specific and general meaning, between general class and its sub-classes. The item referring to the general class is called super-ordinate and those referring to its sub-classes are called hyponym

Example: My father went to a furniture exhibition last night. He

wanted to buy an antique table.

Antonym

Antonym is an opposite in meaning while metonym is a term used to describe a part-whole relationshiop between lexical items.

Example: The front rows are available for old men and women.

Young boys and girls are seated in the back rows.

COHERENCE

Coherence means to hold together. It means that texts have the right order with the clear process. In addition to unity, coherence plays an important role in making a text read well. A coherent text consists of interrelated sentences which move smoothly one for another.

To organize any text to be coherent, the writers need to keep their readers well informed about what they are and where they are going (Butt et al. 1995: 90)

theme The first step a scientist conducts a research is by

examining the existing theory that he wants to investigate so that he can find direction about someone else’s work. By examining another theory he can also derive his hypothesis

Theme is given information serving as “the point of departure” of a message. The given information is the information which has already been mentioned somewhere in the text, or it is shared or mutual knowledge from the immediate context. In other words, theme typically contains familiar, old or given information. It must include the whole of the first item in the experiential meanings. This experiential meanings can be participant, process and circumstance.

rheme Rheme is the remainder of the message in a clause

in which theme is developed. The rheme contains unfamiliar or new information (Eggins, 1994: 275). New information is knowledge that a writer assumes the reader does not know, but needs to have in order to follow the progression of the argument. The boundary between theme and rheme is simple: Theme is the first element occurring in a clause; the remainder clause is rheme. The identification criteria for the rheme are simply everything that is not the theme is the rheme

Kinds of theme

topical (experiential) elements; interpersonal elements; textual elements (Eggins, 1994: 276).

theme-rheme: examples

The man in the moon came down too soon Mr. Smith and his rival were fighting for the crown On the first day of Lebaran we went around to meet other

people On Sunday morning my love came to my house On a rainy day we invited our close friend THEME RHEME

Topical Theme

Eggins (1994, 276) states that an element of the clause to which a transitivity function (Actor, Behaver, Senser or Circumstance) can be assigned occurs in the first position in a clause, we describe it as a topical theme. An important principle is that every clause must contain one topical theme. After we have identified topical theme, the rest must be the rheme.

topical theme: examples I have been in Bali three times Actor Theme Rheme In Jakarta my colleagues and I spent our holiday Circ. Loc Theme Rheme Infants cry and fuss for a mean of 1 ¾ hr/ day

at age 2 weeks Behaver Theme Rheme

RESEARCH: evaluating the problem

Is this the type of problem resolvable Is the problem significant Is the problem a new one Is research on the problem feasible - Competency of the researcher - Accessible pertinent data - Necessary financial resources - Time to complete the project - Courage and determination

RESEARCH PROPOSAL

The statement of the problem The hypothesis The significance of the problem Definition, assumption, limitation, delimitation Review of related literature A careful and detailed analysis of proposed

research procedure Time schedule

The statement of the problem

Limited enough to make a definite conclusion Suggesting answer or conclusion Providing a focus for research Focusing on a single research question

Exercise: Make a statement of the problem based on

your experience!

The hypothesis

Reasonable Consistent with fact and theories Testable (true or false) Stated in the simplest terms

Exercise: Make a hypothesis based on your statement

of the problem.

The significance of the problem

Theoretical significance the research can prove the related theory Practical significance the contribution of the research for both

teachers and students Pedagogical significance the contribution of the research for education,

english teaching

Review of related literature

Theoretical background Previous studies Framework of the present study

NOTE TAKING

Quotation Paraphrase Summary Evaluation

Quotation

The exact words of an author are reproduced, enclosed in quotation mark (“...”).

Example: It relates to Brown (2004: 20), “A test is a

method of measuring a person ability, knowledge, or performance in a given domain”.

Paraphrase

The reader restates the author’s thoughts in his/ her own words.

Example: Original thought : A test is a method of measuring a

person ability, knowledge, or performance in a given domain.

Paraphrase: It relates to Brown (2004: 20) that the way of a

teacher assessing ability, knowledge or performance is called a test.

Summary

The reader states in condensed form the contents of the article.

Evaluation

The reader records his or her own reaction, indicating agreement or disagreement, or interpreting the point of view of the writer.

Exercise

Make some paraphrases from the given sources in a piece of papar.

EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH

EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH

Experimentation is the most powerful quantitative research method for establishing cause and effect relationship between two or more variables that must be conducted in a rigorous manner.

Experimental method has been effectively applied within non laboratory settings such as the classroom. Where significant factors or variables can be controlled to some degree.

Purpose

To predict events in the experimental settings

To generalize the variable relationships so that they may be applied outside the laboratory to a wider population of interest.

Experimental Design: terminology

Independent variable Dependent variable Experimental group Control group Pretest Postest Treatment

Variables

Variables are the conditions or characteristics that the experimenter manipulates, controls or observes.

Independent variable: the conditions or characteristics that the experimenter manipulates in his or her attempt to ascertain their relationship to observed phenomena.

Dependent variable: the conditions or characteristics that appear, disappear, or change as the experimenter introduces, removes, or changes independent variables.

Group

Experimental Group is exposed to the influence of the factor

under consideration Control Group is not exposed to the influence of the factor

under considerationExample:Group A: receiving a new media in TLPGropu B: using conventional TLP

Pretest-postest

Pretest: a variable which is measured before administering the experimental treatment

Postest: the measure of the variable that is intended out come of the experimental treatment.

Experiment: validity problem

Internal validity the extent to which extranous variables have been

controlled by the researcher so that any observed effect can be attributed solely to the treatment variable.

External validity the extent to which the findings of an experiment can

be applied to individuals and setting beyond those that were studied. The finding of an educational experiemnt may be externally valid for one setting, less externally for other settings.

Internal Validity History Maturation Testing Instrumentation Statistical regression Differential selection Experimental mortality Selection-maturation interaction Experimental treatment diffusion Compensatory rivalry by the control group Compensatory equalization of treatments Resentful demoralization of the control group

External validity

The extent to which the findings of an experiment can be applied to individuals and settings beyond those that were studied

Experimental Design

Pre-experimental design (non design) Quasi-experimental design True experimental design

Pre-experimental design One-shot case study (studi kasus sekali potret) X O One group pretest-posttest (pretest-posttest satu

kelompok) O1 X O Intact group comparison (perbandingan kelompok

intak) X O1 - - - - - - O2

Quasi-Experimental Design

Quasi-experimental designs are used when random assignment of subjects to experimental and control groups is not possible.

Static-group comparison design Research participants are not randomly assigned Administer posttest, but no pretest Threat internal validity for its group characteristics

not experimental condition Formula: X O OX: treatmentO: posttest

Nonequivalent Control-Group Design

Research participants are not randomly assigned

Both groups take pretest and posttest Threat to the internal validity are due to pre-

existing group differences Formula: O X O O O

True Experimental Design

Using randomization Pretest – posttest for all group Formula: R O1 X O2 R O3 O4R : randomizationO1&O2 : pretestX : treatmentO2&O4 : posttest

HISTORICAL RESEARCH

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Historical Research: definition

A process of systematically searching for data to answer questions about a past phenomenon for the purpose of gaining a better understanding or present institutions, practices, trends, and issues in education.

In a historical research, the evidence is avaliable before the historian formulates a thesis, selects a topic and designs a research plan.

Historical Research: subject matter

History is a meaningful record of human achievement.

History is a list of relationship between persons, events, times and places

Historical research is adressed to an individual, an idea, a movement, an institution, etc.

Historical Research: importance

To study of the past for its own sake To provide a moral framework for

understanding the present To assist educators in defining and evaluating

alternative future scenarios involving a particular educational phenomenon.

Historical Research: limitation

The historian cannot always generalize on the basis of past event

The historian must depend on the reported observation of others, witnesses of doubtful competence

Completing a jig-saw puzzle The historian cannot control the conditions or

manipulate the significant variables

Historical Research: strength

The data can be obtained from the testimony of a number of witnesses from different vantage points

The use of probability It is similar with other behavioral research in

case of its limitation in controling variables This employs qualitative investigation

(scinetific investigation) The use of systematic way

SOURCES OF DATA

Primary Sources Report from actual observers or participant in

an event Secondary sources Accounts of an event that were not actually

witnessed by the reporter. The historian uses them when the primary data are not avaliable.

Primary Data

Documents Official records Remains Oral testimony Relics

Secondary Data

History books Encyclopedia

HISTORICAL CRITICISM

External criticism (the authenticity or genuineness of data)

- Is the relic/ document true rather than a fogery, counterfit, hoax

- The problem of age/ authorship- Physical and chemical problem Internal criticism (accuracy or worth)- Do they reveal a tru picture- What are the writers or creators?

Exercise:

Find the internal criticism by choosing one of the following historical discoveries:

The Cardiff Giant The Dead Sea Scrolls

METHODS AND TOOLS OF RESEARCH

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Definition

Data adalah informasi yang terkait dengan suatu permasalahan

Data dalam pembelajaran bahasa Inggris: Metode mengajar guru Metode belajar siswa Jumlah jam pelajaran bahasa per minggu Kemampuan membaca siswa Kemampuan menulis Ketersediaan lab bahasa Bahasa ynag dipakai masyarakat tertentu Pustaka yang tersedia

Method of data gathering

Observation (pengamatan) Questionnaire (angket) Interview (wawancara) Test (tes) Document study (studi dokumen) Group work: find the strength and

weaknesses of each of them! Document study is the exception.

OBSERVATION

Data yang dikumpulkan dicatat dalam lembar observasi yang disiapkan dahulu dengan/ tanpa format tertentu.

KEADAAN SISWAKelas Putra Putri JumlahIAIBIIAIIBIIIAIIIB

QUESTIONNAIRE Data yang dikumpulkan berupa gagasan, pendapat/

pengalaman pribadi kel. masyarakat

1. Mengisi/ melengkapi Umur : Pekerjaan : Gaji Pokok :

2. Memilih Agama: ( ) Islam ( ) Katholik ( ) Protestan ( ) Hindu ( ) Budha

3. Pertanyaan bersekala Sangat Setuju Netral Tidak Sangat Setuju Setuju Tidak

Setuju

Kemampuan bhs ingggrismembantu saya dalam menyelesaikan pekerjaan

INTERVIEW

Wawancara dapat disiapkan dengan atau tanpa format tertentu.

KEADAAN KELUARGANo Nama kp.kel. Jml anak Jml anak yg jd tanggungan Pendapatan1.2.3.Dst.

TEST

Multiple choice Matching True-false Completion Essay

Validity and Reliability

Validity The quality of a data-gathering instrument or

procedure that enables it to determine what is designed to determine.

Reliability The quality of consistency that the instrument

or procedure demonstrate over a period of time.

VALIDITY

Sebuah test dianggap valid: a. Mengukur apa yang seharusnya diukur

(construct validity) b. Mewakili ranah tingkah laku yang

dideskripsikan (content validity) c. Memenuhi kriteria tingkah laku yang

diprediksikan (predictive validity)

CONSTRUCT VALIDITY Construct memiliki arti kualitas yang tidak secara fisik

tampak pada seseorang (kreativitas, minat, kepekaan, harga diri dsb)

Test dianggap memiliki construct validity apabila tingkah laku yang dituntut oleh test tsb mengindikasikan adanya konstruk yg dikukur

Construct validity sebuah test diukur dengan cara mengorelasikan nilai test dengan kemampuan yg ditunjukan siswa dalam menampilkan tingkah laku (sensitivitas guru – pemberian perhatian pada guru)

CONTENT VALIDITY

Seberapa jauh butir-butir test mewakili seluruh kemampuan yang akan diukur sebagaimana ditetapkan dalam kurikulum

Sejumlah kemampuan yang ditetapkan dalam satu pokok bahasan harus terwakili secara cermat dan proporsional

Penyusunannya menggunakan tabel spesifikasi (kisi-kisi) untuk memandu

Content validity tidak dinyatakan dengan angka tetapi dengan menyesuaikan dengan isi kurikulum.

PREDICTIVE VALIDITY

Predictive validity menunjukan seberapa jauh sebuah test memprediksikan kemampuan seseorang

Predictive validity dapat ditentukan dengan melihat ada atau tidaknya hubungan antara nilai test dengan kemampuan yang ditunjukan kemudian sesuai dengan kriteria yang ditetapkan.

RELIABILITY

Test dapat diketahui reliable setelah test dilaksanakan

Test diberikan pada siswa yg akan diukur kemampuannya (minimal dua kali)

Bila hasi dari test sama, maka test itu reliable

RELIBILITY: measurement

Test-retest Alternate-forms Split-half Kuder-Richardson Interjudge reliability

Test-retest reliability Memberikan test kepada sekelompok orang sebanyak

dua kali Nilai yang diperoleh oleh tiap-tiap peserta pada test

pertama dikorelasikan nilainya pada test ke dua dengan koefisien korelasi product-moment Pearson.

r = Σ (X-Xˈ) (Y-Yˈ) NSxSyr : koefisien korelasiX : nilai tiap-tiap orang pasa test pertamaXˈ : nilai rerata test pertamaY : nilai tiap-tiap orang pada test keduaYˈ : nilai rerata pada test kedua

Alternate-form reliability

Memberikan test sepadan kepada sekelompok orang, masing-masing satu kali.

Test sepadan adalah dua test yang sebanding dari segi isi dan operasi mental (construct) yang diperlukan untuk mengerjakan test itu

Tiap-tiap butir pada test pertama harus ada padanannya pada test kedua

Pemberian dua test diusahakan pada hari yang sama

Split-half reliability Sebagai alternatif dari teknik test-restest reliability

dan alternate-form reliability Test hanya diberikan sekali dan soal test dipecah

menjadi dua (ex: ganjil & genap) Hasil pengorelasian nilai dari kedua belah

menunjukan derajat reliabilitas tiap-tiap belah Reliabilitas utuh: r2 = nr1 1+(n-1)r1r2 =reliabilitas utuhr1 = reliabilitas belah duan = jumlah belahan

Kuder-Richardson reliability

Car a ini digunakan apabila butir-butir test terjawab dikotomis (ex. A atau B, benar atau salah)

Rumus: K-R21 = 1-X(n-X) n s2 K-R21 = koefisien reliabilitas K-R n = jumlah butir test X = nilai rerata s2 = variansi test

Interscorer reliability Cara ini didasarkan pada kelemahan (error) pada

cara-cara sebelumnya (kemampuan siswa yg berubah, kesalahan administrasi, kesalahan penarikan sample, dsb)

Cara ini digunakan bila test yang digunakan dalam bentuk subjektivitas peneliti maka perlu diperhitungkan kesalahan yang didasarkan pada peneliti.

Caranya adalah dengan menyerhakan pekerjaan siswa pada dua orang penilai. Hasil dari kedua penilai dikorelasikan dengan formula produk momen Pearson.

DOCUMENTATION OF SOURCES

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CITING A SOURCE

Insert short reference in parentheses as the end of each piece of borrowed information (in-text citation)

Prepare a list describing all your sources completely (works cited)

The second step in citing sources is to list all the sources.

Do not include sources you read bu did not use

List them alphabetically by last name of the author or if there is no author, by the first word of the tittle

Works-Cited Lists

References Footnote

REFERENCES

Book with one author Book with two authors Book with more than three authors Book with more than one edition Encyclopedia article Magazine article Newspaper article Personal interview Online source

Book with one author

Write the author’s last name first and put a comma after it. Do not include a person’s titles.

Put the year of publication Put a collon between the title and subtitle and

underline or italic Write the city of publication, a colon, the

name of publishing company. If there are some cities, choose the first city.

Examples:

Bryson, Bill. 1991. The Mother Tongue: English and How It Got That Way. New York: Avon.

Bruce, Meredith. 2004. Cybercrime. New York: Wexler.

Saleh, Mursid. 2008. Enam Tradisi Besar Penelitian Pendidikan Bahasa. Semarang: UNNES

Book with two authors

Write the author’s last name first of the first author and put a comma and full stop after it. Then full name of the second author


underline or italic Write the city of publication, a colon, the


Examples:

Hall, Edward T., and Mildred Reed Hall. 1990. Understanding Cultural Differences. Yarmouth: Intercultural.

Baugh, Albert C., and Thomas Cable. 2002. A History of the English Language. New Jersey: Prentice Hall.

Book with more than three authors

Book with more than one edition

Write the author’s last name first and put a comma after it.


underline or italic Put the edition (ex: 5th ed., 3rd ed., 2nd ed.) Write the city of publication, a colon, the


Example:

Baugh, Albert C., and Thomas Cable. 2002. A History of the English Language. 5th ed. New Jersey: Prentice Hall.

Gall, Meredith. 2006. Educational Research: An Introduction. 7th ed. Boston: Person Education, Inc.

Encyclopedia article

Use the author’s name if it is given Put the year If there is no author, put the title of the first

article. Enclose the title in quotation marks Underline/ italicize the title of the

encyclopedia Put the edition number if there is one

Example:

“Intelligence Test”. New Encyclopedia Britannica: Micropedia. 15 ed.

Magazine article

Put the name Put the title of the article inside quotation

marks Underline/ italicize the name of the magazine Include the day, month, and year for weekly

magazine followed by a colon and the page number or numbers on which the article appears

Abbreviate the names of months except May, June, and July.

Example:

Bamberger, Michael, and Don Yaeger. “Over the Edge”. Sports Illustrated. 14 Apr. 1997:67-70.

Newspaper article

Put the name/s Put the title of the article inside quotation

marks Underline/ italicize the name of the

newspaper Include the day, month, and year and what

page

Example:

Epstain, Edward A. “A Less Social Society Is Becoming Shy.” San Francisco Chronicle. 14 Sep. 1995: A-1.

Personal Interview

Put the name Name of interview Put day, month and year Example: Jones, John. Personal Interview. 31 Oct.2003

INTERACTION ANALYSIS

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Interaksi

Mengajar merupakan sebuah proses interaksi Bahasa memiliki dua fungsi: bahasa sebagai

media (fungsi sosial: hubungan anta manusia, guru dengan murid, murid dengan murid) and fungsi materi (pengajaran dari guru ke siswa/ murid)

Didalam analisis interaksi, pokok pembahasan adalah penggunaan bahasa sebagai media interaksi.

Interaksi: definisi

Kata ‘interaction’ berasal dari dua kata ‘action’ (tindakan/ perbuatan) dan ‘inter’ (memberi makna/ saling)

Interaksi adalah perbuatan yang dilakukan besilang atau bergantian antara dua atau lebih orang.

Interaksi dapat berupa percakapan (conversation), perbicaraan (speech) atau perbincangan (talk)

Interaksi: komponen

Input (asupan) Negotiation (proses tawar menawar) Comprehension (pemahaman)

(Allwright and Bailey, 1991)

Ucapan org ke-1(asupan)

Penerimaan org ke-1(pemahaman)

Penerimaan org ke-2(pemahaman)

Ucapan org ke-2asupan

Negosiasi(tawar

menawar)

Asupan (input)

Asupan adalah masukan oleh orang pertama Asupan adalah hal-hal yang menagandung

pesan Di dalam komunikasi asupan yang baik adalah

asupan yang dapat dipahami dengan baik oleh pendengarnya sehingga pesan yang dibawanya benar-benar sampai ke alamatnya

Didalam inteaksi asupan yang baik sangatlah kompleks

Negotiation (proses tawar menawar)

Asupan didalam proses negosiasi harus beupa asupan yang merangsang timbulnya tanggapan sebagai bahan baku terjadinya saling bicara.

Negosiasi adalah proses saling tawar menawar dengan memberikan umpan balik untuk mencapai kesepahaman.

Negosiasi ada tiga cara: cek pemahaman (comprehension check), cek pemastian (confirmation check), cek penjelasan (clarification check)

Pemahaman

Pemahaman merupakan hasil akhir dai proses negosiasi. Pemahaman yang baik adalah diterimanya pesan sesuai dengan maksud pengirim

Kesesuaian pesan yang dikirim dan diteima tidak selalu utuh. Maka fungsi dari negosiasi adalah untuk memperkecil pebedaan sampai pada titik yg diterima

Pemahaman: contoh Teacher: Ya, jadi claim artinya tuduhan, oke? Igor,

tadi kamu bilang laki-laki itu membunuh orang. Itu artinya kamu membuat claim. Kalau kamu tidak punya bukti itu namanya claim

Igor: Mmmm, apakah itu ........ bicara keras? Teachers: Bukan, ...... Itu exclaim. Seperti

berteriak ... Mengatakn sesuatu dg keras. Itu exclaim,... Ini claim

Igor: (menggumam) He claims... Teacher: Ya. He claims ...

INTERAKSI DI DALAM KELAS BAHASA

Pembagian/ pengambilan giliran Interaksi yang baik adalah yang dapat

memberikan semua yang terlibat didalamnya kesempatan bepasrtisipasi secaa poporsional

Ada tiga macam: pembagian yang dilakukan oleh guru, pengambilan yang dilakukan oleh murid sendiri dan campuran (melibatkan guru dan siswa itu sendiri)

Giliran dalam kelas

Giliran

Diambil

Diberikan

Tunjukan

Lontaran

Sukarela

Direbut

Merata

Tak Merata

METODE ANALYSIS MOSKOVITS

Menurut Moskovitz (1971) percakapan dalam interaksi kelas teridii dari tiga hal:

Bicara guru (teacher’s talk) Bicara murid (student’s talk) Saat diam/ tak tentu (silence/ confusion)

BICARA GURU (TEACHER’S TALK)

Berceramah (lecturing) Memberi arahan (giving direction) Mengkritik, memerintah, atau melarang

(criticizing or justifying authority) Menerima perasaan Mendorong atau memuji Menerima atau menggunakan pikiran murid Bertanya

BICARA MURID

Bicara murid sebagai respon (student talk-response): jawaban atas pertanyaan, tanggapan atas pernyataan, permintaan, dan perintah guru. Ini bersifat terduga dan terbatas.

Bicara murid sebagai inisiasi (student talk-initiation): mengajukan pertanyaan, menyatakan pendapat, mengusulkan gagasan baru, dsb. Ini besifat tak terduga dan tak terbatas.

KEADAAN DIAM/ TAK MENENTU

Kategori ini bisa berbentuk kegiatan verbal atau non verbal.

Pergantian kegiatan dengan kegiatan yang lain

Setelah guru memberikan arahan Murid bersiap-siap melakukan kegiatan

sesuai dengan arahan Situasi dapat tenang maupun ribut

INTERAKSI PEMBELAJARAN BAHASA NON-KELAS Interaksi anak-orang dewasa (child-adult

interaction) Interaksi dewasa-dewasa (adult-adult

interaction) a.Percakapan interpesonal (interpersonal

conversation) b.Percakapan transaksional (transactional

convesation) c.Interaksi silang budaya (cross-cultural interaction)

PERCAKAPAN INTERPERSONAL

Percakapan interpesonal adalah interaksi yang bertujuan membina hubungan antar pribadi dalam masyarakat.

Pertanyaan penelitian berkisar pada bagaimana para partisipan dapat menyampaikan maksud sehingga terpahami dan bagaimana partisipan dapat memahami maksud partisipan yang lain.

Topik-topik kajian misalnya kerancuan ungkapan dan bagaimana mengatasinya, bagaimana mengoreksi maksud yang sudah terlanjur diungkapkan, apa dampak emosional yang timbul akibat penolakan tawaran, dsb.

Data yang dikumpulakn adalah data yang alami

Ciri khusus penelitian inteaksi adalah pembahasan yang interpretif dan mendalam atas penggal-penggal bahasa yang kecil (kata/ frase/ klausa).

Interpersonal: contoh A: Begini saja, kalau kamu mau, kamu mu bisa

datang ke Puskom, nanti saya tunjuki program-program apa saja yang ada di komputer. Kalau pelu nanti aku ajari bagaimana mengoprasikan Basic dan lain-lain

B: Emm, kali ini sepertinya saya belum memerlukan itu semua untuk pekerjaan saya. Terima kasih, mungkin lain kali saja

A: Ya, baiklah. Tapi sebenarnya ketrampilan itu sangat perlu

PERCAKAPAN TRANSAKSIONAL

Percakapan transaksional adalah percakapan yang bertujuan mempertukarkan barang dan jasa.

Topik-topik yang mendominasi penelitian jenis ini adalah yang mengenai pertukaran jasa pofesional, seperti interaksi hakim-jaksa-terdakwa, dokter-pasien, spir-penumpang, dsb.

Pertanyaan penelitian pada umumnya adalah tentang bagaimana penerima jasa mengungkapkan keinginannya sehingga dapat dipahami oleh pemberi jasa.

INTERAKSI SILANG BUDAYA

Bahasa mempunyai fungsi sebagai refleksi budaya suatu bangsa dan sebagai gambaran tentang bagaimana komunikasi dapat berlangsung antara sejumlah orang yang berbeda penguasaan bahasa sebagai medium.

Ciri yang tampak dalam inteaksi silang budaya adalah banyaknya negosiasi yang dilakukan oleh semua pihak yang terlibat