Writing good sentences
Sentences should be:- Cohesive - Coherent
CohesionCohesion is the resources within language that provide continuity
in a text, over and above that is provided by clause structure and clause complexes that bind one sentence and another using formal ties.
Example: I have a kind neighbor. He is Agus Mulyono. He works in a
hospital. It is located not so far from his house. Mr. Agus has lived there for more than ten years with his family. They are Mrs. Siti and two sons named Boby and Agung.
Five cohesive ties
Reference; Substitution; Ellipsis;Conjunction; Lexical cohesion
Reference Reference refers to how the speaker or writer introduces
participants and then keeps track of them once they are in the text (Eggins, 1994:95).
two basic types of reference. Exophora(situational) Exophora(textual) - Endophora(to preceding text) - Anaphora(to following text) Cataphora
Exophora - example
exophoric reference contributes to the creation of text, in that it links the language with the context of situation, but it does not contribute to the integration of the passage with another so that the two together form part of the same text.
Example: Child : Why does THAT one come out? Father : That what? Child : That one Father : That what? Child : That ONE! Father : That one what? Child : That lever there that you push to let the water out.
Endophoric endophoric reference is only considered cohesive due to its
contribution to the integration of the text Two kinds of endophoric reference- Anaphoric reference: the subsequent items can only be
interpreted with reference to the initial phrase of the first sentence. Typically, anaphoric reference refers to a participant mentioned nearby (one or two sentences previously), but sometimes it may refer back to an item mentioned many pages before.
- Cataphoric reference points the reader foward, it draws us further into the text in order to identify the elements to which the reference items refer (Nunan: 1993: 22).
example
a. A beautiful lady, a beautiful lady See how she walks ! see how she walks b. Mr. Bambang went to Jakarta last week. He went there to meet his client In those examples, we can identify what are presupposed (a) she
refers to a bautiful lady; he refers to Mr. Bambang. These items are directives indicating that information is to be retrieved from elsewhere. So much they have in common with all cohesive elements. Moreover, they do not depend on the context of situation like the exophoric reference. What is essential to every instance of reference whether endophoric (textual) or exophoric (situational) is that there is a presuppotion that must be satisfied; the thing referred to has to be identifiable somehow (Halliday & Hasan, 1976: 33).
Four common references Personal references Demonstrative references Definite articles Comparative references
Personal reference Personal reference is reference by means of function in the
speech situation through the category of person. Nunan (1993: 23) states that personal reference items are expressed through pronouns and determiners. They serve to identify individuals and objects that are named at some other point in the text. It relates to Halliday and Hasan (1976: 48) that the third person is only herently cohesive, in that a third person form typically refers anaphorically to a preceding item in the text
Example:
Mr. John is an English teacher. All of his students like him very much.
Demonstrative reference is reference by means of location, on scale of
proximity. It is essentially a form of verbal pointing. The speaker identifies the referent by locating it on a scale of proximity
Participant singular this that plural these those
Circumstance place here there time now then
demonstrative-examples My family got frightened when we saw an accident in
our trip. That was the most terrifying accident I’ve ever seen.
While my parents were having lunch, my brothers and I walked around to see some lions and elephants. Those are my brothers’ favorites animals.
I spent my holiday in my uncle’s house in Bali. I do like staying there
Comparative reference is indirect reference by means of identity or similiarity.
With comparative reference, the identity of the presumed item is retrieved not because it has already been mentioned (or will be mentioned) in the text, but because an item with which it is being compared has been mentioned (Eggins, 1994: 98).
Example: The most tragic accident that I have ever seen was
the accident happened last year.
SUBSTITUTION A substitution is the replacement of a word (group) or sentences
segment by a “dummy” word. The reader can fill in the correct element based on the preceding sentences (Rankema, 1993: 37). Substitution is replacement of language element into others in a bigger composition in order to get clearer difference, or to explain some certain language elements.
There are three types of substitution: nominal, verbal and clausal substitution.
substitution-examples There are some new tourism resorts in Indonesia.
These ones’ve become the most attracting places to visit.
John : Bill says you went to Bali last week. Brown : So did you! Smith : Are father and mother going to have vacation
to East Java? Brown : I think so
ELLIPSIS Ellipsis is the omission of a word or part of a sentence. It
occurs when some essential structural elements are omitted from a sentence or clause and can only be recovered by refering to an element in the preceding text (Nunan, 1993: 25). Accoding to Halliday and Hasan (1976: 144) ellipses occur when something that is structurally necessary is left unsaid, there is a sense of incompleteness associated with it
There are also three kinds of ellipsis: nominal, verbal and clausal ellipsis
My father likes to go to a crowded tourism place, but I like a peaceful.
John : Have you been to Bali?Brown : Yes, I have
CONJUNCTION
a relationship which indicates how the subsequent sentence or clause should be linked to the preceding or the following (part of the sentence)
Conjunction signals the way the writer wants the reader to relate what is about to be said to what has been said before. Conjunction expresses one of a small number of general relations. The main relations are ... additive (and, or, also, in addition, furthermore, besides, similiarly, likewise, by contrast, for instance), adversative (but, yet, however, instead, on the other hand, nevertheless, at any rate, as a matter of fact), causal (so, cosequently, for, because, under the circumstances, for this reason), temporal (then, next, finally, after that, on another occasion, in conclusion, an hour later, at last), and continuative (now, of course, well, anyway, surely, after all) (Baker, 1992: 191).
Conjunction-examples My family likes to spend holliday by visiting some
places and they also like to go fishing in the sea. It was raining very hard yesterday. However, my
classmates went to the exhibition. I am afraid I’ll be home late tonight. Nevertheless, I
won’t have to go in until late tomorrow. Chinese tea is becoming increasingly popular in
restaurants, and even in coffee shops. This is because there is belief that tea has several health-giving properties.
Lexical Cohesive Device Kinds: reiteration and collocation. Reiteration is devided into five types. They
are repetition, synonym, hyponym, metonym and antonym.
repetition
Repetition is a word or words which has been stated, and then it is repeated again. We can tie sentences or paragraphs together by repeating certain key words from one sentence to the next or one paragraph to the next. It is in the case of the clearness of the main idea of the writing (Kilborn and Kriesi, 1995).
Example:
A conference will be held on national environmental policy. At this conference the issue of sanitation will play an important role.
Synonym
Synonym is the relationship between two words which have the same meaning
Example: A conference will be held on national environmental
policy. This environmental symposium will be primarily a conference dealing with water
Hyponym Hyponym is defined as a sense relation between
words (sometimes longer phrases) such that the meaning of one word (or phrase) is included in the meaning of the other (Hurford & Heasley, 1983). It is a semantic relation between specific and general meaning, between general class and its sub-classes. The item referring to the general class is called super-ordinate and those referring to its sub-classes are called hyponym
Example: My father went to a furniture exhibition last night. He
wanted to buy an antique table.
Antonym
Antonym is an opposite in meaning while metonym is a term used to describe a part-whole relationshiop between lexical items.
Example: The front rows are available for old men and women.
Young boys and girls are seated in the back rows.
COHERENCE
Coherence means to hold together. It means that texts have the right order with the clear process. In addition to unity, coherence plays an important role in making a text read well. A coherent text consists of interrelated sentences which move smoothly one for another.
To organize any text to be coherent, the writers need to keep their readers well informed about what they are and where they are going (Butt et al. 1995: 90)
theme The first step a scientist conducts a research is by
examining the existing theory that he wants to investigate so that he can find direction about someone else’s work. By examining another theory he can also derive his hypothesis
Theme is given information serving as “the point of departure” of a message. The given information is the information which has already been mentioned somewhere in the text, or it is shared or mutual knowledge from the immediate context. In other words, theme typically contains familiar, old or given information. It must include the whole of the first item in the experiential meanings. This experiential meanings can be participant, process and circumstance.
rheme Rheme is the remainder of the message in a clause
in which theme is developed. The rheme contains unfamiliar or new information (Eggins, 1994: 275). New information is knowledge that a writer assumes the reader does not know, but needs to have in order to follow the progression of the argument. The boundary between theme and rheme is simple: Theme is the first element occurring in a clause; the remainder clause is rheme. The identification criteria for the rheme are simply everything that is not the theme is the rheme
Kinds of theme
topical (experiential) elements; interpersonal elements; textual elements (Eggins, 1994: 276).
theme-rheme: examples
The man in the moon came down too soon Mr. Smith and his rival were fighting for the crown On the first day of Lebaran we went around to meet other
people On Sunday morning my love came to my house On a rainy day we invited our close friend THEME RHEME
Topical Theme
Eggins (1994, 276) states that an element of the clause to which a transitivity function (Actor, Behaver, Senser or Circumstance) can be assigned occurs in the first position in a clause, we describe it as a topical theme. An important principle is that every clause must contain one topical theme. After we have identified topical theme, the rest must be the rheme.
topical theme: examples I have been in Bali three times Actor Theme Rheme In Jakarta my colleagues and I spent our holiday Circ. Loc Theme Rheme Infants cry and fuss for a mean of 1 ¾ hr/ day
at age 2 weeks Behaver Theme Rheme
RESEARCH: evaluating the problem
Is this the type of problem resolvable Is the problem significant Is the problem a new one Is research on the problem feasible - Competency of the researcher - Accessible pertinent data - Necessary financial resources - Time to complete the project - Courage and determination
RESEARCH PROPOSAL
The statement of the problem The hypothesis The significance of the problem Definition, assumption, limitation, delimitation Review of related literature A careful and detailed analysis of proposed
research procedure Time schedule
The statement of the problem
Limited enough to make a definite conclusion Suggesting answer or conclusion Providing a focus for research Focusing on a single research question
Exercise: Make a statement of the problem based on
your experience!
The hypothesis
Reasonable Consistent with fact and theories Testable (true or false) Stated in the simplest terms
Exercise: Make a hypothesis based on your statement
of the problem.
The significance of the problem
Theoretical significance the research can prove the related theory Practical significance the contribution of the research for both
teachers and students Pedagogical significance the contribution of the research for education,
english teaching
Review of related literature
Theoretical background Previous studies Framework of the present study
NOTE TAKING
Quotation Paraphrase Summary Evaluation
Quotation
The exact words of an author are reproduced, enclosed in quotation mark (“...”).
Example: It relates to Brown (2004: 20), “A test is a
method of measuring a person ability, knowledge, or performance in a given domain”.
Paraphrase
The reader restates the author’s thoughts in his/ her own words.
Example: Original thought : A test is a method of measuring a
person ability, knowledge, or performance in a given domain.
Paraphrase: It relates to Brown (2004: 20) that the way of a
teacher assessing ability, knowledge or performance is called a test.
Summary
The reader states in condensed form the contents of the article.
Evaluation
The reader records his or her own reaction, indicating agreement or disagreement, or interpreting the point of view of the writer.
Exercise
Make some paraphrases from the given sources in a piece of papar.
EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH
EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH
Experimentation is the most powerful quantitative research method for establishing cause and effect relationship between two or more variables that must be conducted in a rigorous manner.
Experimental method has been effectively applied within non laboratory settings such as the classroom. Where significant factors or variables can be controlled to some degree.
Purpose
To predict events in the experimental settings
To generalize the variable relationships so that they may be applied outside the laboratory to a wider population of interest.
Experimental Design: terminology
Independent variable Dependent variable Experimental group Control group Pretest Postest Treatment
Variables
Variables are the conditions or characteristics that the experimenter manipulates, controls or observes.
Independent variable: the conditions or characteristics that the experimenter manipulates in his or her attempt to ascertain their relationship to observed phenomena.
Dependent variable: the conditions or characteristics that appear, disappear, or change as the experimenter introduces, removes, or changes independent variables.
Group
Experimental Group is exposed to the influence of the factor
under consideration Control Group is not exposed to the influence of the factor
under considerationExample:Group A: receiving a new media in TLPGropu B: using conventional TLP
Pretest-postest
Pretest: a variable which is measured before administering the experimental treatment
Postest: the measure of the variable that is intended out come of the experimental treatment.
Experiment: validity problem
Internal validity the extent to which extranous variables have been
controlled by the researcher so that any observed effect can be attributed solely to the treatment variable.
External validity the extent to which the findings of an experiment can
be applied to individuals and setting beyond those that were studied. The finding of an educational experiemnt may be externally valid for one setting, less externally for other settings.
Internal Validity History Maturation Testing Instrumentation Statistical regression Differential selection Experimental mortality Selection-maturation interaction Experimental treatment diffusion Compensatory rivalry by the control group Compensatory equalization of treatments Resentful demoralization of the control group
External validity
The extent to which the findings of an experiment can be applied to individuals and settings beyond those that were studied
Experimental Design
Pre-experimental design (non design) Quasi-experimental design True experimental design
Pre-experimental design One-shot case study (studi kasus sekali potret) X O One group pretest-posttest (pretest-posttest satu
kelompok) O1 X O Intact group comparison (perbandingan kelompok
intak) X O1 - - - - - - O2
Quasi-Experimental Design
Quasi-experimental designs are used when random assignment of subjects to experimental and control groups is not possible.
Static-group comparison design Research participants are not randomly assigned Administer posttest, but no pretest Threat internal validity for its group characteristics
not experimental condition Formula: X O OX: treatmentO: posttest
Nonequivalent Control-Group Design
Research participants are not randomly assigned
Both groups take pretest and posttest Threat to the internal validity are due to pre-
existing group differences Formula: O X O O O
True Experimental Design
Using randomization Pretest – posttest for all group Formula: R O1 X O2 R O3 O4R : randomizationO1&O2 : pretestX : treatmentO2&O4 : posttest
HISTORICAL RESEARCH
Historical Research: definition
A process of systematically searching for data to answer questions about a past phenomenon for the purpose of gaining a better understanding or present institutions, practices, trends, and issues in education.
In a historical research, the evidence is avaliable before the historian formulates a thesis, selects a topic and designs a research plan.
Historical Research: subject matter
History is a meaningful record of human achievement.
History is a list of relationship between persons, events, times and places
Historical research is adressed to an individual, an idea, a movement, an institution, etc.
Historical Research: importance
To study of the past for its own sake To provide a moral framework for
understanding the present To assist educators in defining and evaluating
alternative future scenarios involving a particular educational phenomenon.
Historical Research: limitation
The historian cannot always generalize on the basis of past event
The historian must depend on the reported observation of others, witnesses of doubtful competence
Completing a jig-saw puzzle The historian cannot control the conditions or
manipulate the significant variables
Historical Research: strength
The data can be obtained from the testimony of a number of witnesses from different vantage points
The use of probability It is similar with other behavioral research in
case of its limitation in controling variables This employs qualitative investigation
(scinetific investigation) The use of systematic way
SOURCES OF DATA
Primary Sources Report from actual observers or participant in
an event Secondary sources Accounts of an event that were not actually
witnessed by the reporter. The historian uses them when the primary data are not avaliable.
Primary Data
Documents Official records Remains Oral testimony Relics
Secondary Data
History books Encyclopedia
HISTORICAL CRITICISM
External criticism (the authenticity or genuineness of data)
- Is the relic/ document true rather than a fogery, counterfit, hoax
- The problem of age/ authorship- Physical and chemical problem Internal criticism (accuracy or worth)- Do they reveal a tru picture- What are the writers or creators?
Exercise:
Find the internal criticism by choosing one of the following historical discoveries:
The Cardiff Giant The Dead Sea Scrolls
METHODS AND TOOLS OF RESEARCH
Definition
Data adalah informasi yang terkait dengan suatu permasalahan
Data dalam pembelajaran bahasa Inggris: Metode mengajar guru Metode belajar siswa Jumlah jam pelajaran bahasa per minggu Kemampuan membaca siswa Kemampuan menulis Ketersediaan lab bahasa Bahasa ynag dipakai masyarakat tertentu Pustaka yang tersedia
Method of data gathering
Observation (pengamatan) Questionnaire (angket) Interview (wawancara) Test (tes) Document study (studi dokumen) Group work: find the strength and
weaknesses of each of them! Document study is the exception.
OBSERVATION
Data yang dikumpulkan dicatat dalam lembar observasi yang disiapkan dahulu dengan/ tanpa format tertentu.
KEADAAN SISWAKelas Putra Putri JumlahIAIBIIAIIBIIIAIIIB
QUESTIONNAIRE Data yang dikumpulkan berupa gagasan, pendapat/
pengalaman pribadi kel. masyarakat
1. Mengisi/ melengkapi Umur : Pekerjaan : Gaji Pokok :
2. Memilih Agama: ( ) Islam ( ) Katholik ( ) Protestan ( ) Hindu ( ) Budha
3. Pertanyaan bersekala Sangat Setuju Netral Tidak Sangat Setuju Setuju Tidak
Setuju
Kemampuan bhs ingggrismembantu saya dalam menyelesaikan pekerjaan
INTERVIEW
Wawancara dapat disiapkan dengan atau tanpa format tertentu.
KEADAAN KELUARGANo Nama kp.kel. Jml anak Jml anak yg jd tanggungan Pendapatan1.2.3.Dst.
TEST
Multiple choice Matching True-false Completion Essay
Validity and Reliability
Validity The quality of a data-gathering instrument or
procedure that enables it to determine what is designed to determine.
Reliability The quality of consistency that the instrument
or procedure demonstrate over a period of time.
VALIDITY
Sebuah test dianggap valid: a. Mengukur apa yang seharusnya diukur
(construct validity) b. Mewakili ranah tingkah laku yang
dideskripsikan (content validity) c. Memenuhi kriteria tingkah laku yang
diprediksikan (predictive validity)
CONSTRUCT VALIDITY Construct memiliki arti kualitas yang tidak secara fisik
tampak pada seseorang (kreativitas, minat, kepekaan, harga diri dsb)
Test dianggap memiliki construct validity apabila tingkah laku yang dituntut oleh test tsb mengindikasikan adanya konstruk yg dikukur
Construct validity sebuah test diukur dengan cara mengorelasikan nilai test dengan kemampuan yg ditunjukan siswa dalam menampilkan tingkah laku (sensitivitas guru – pemberian perhatian pada guru)
CONTENT VALIDITY
Seberapa jauh butir-butir test mewakili seluruh kemampuan yang akan diukur sebagaimana ditetapkan dalam kurikulum
Sejumlah kemampuan yang ditetapkan dalam satu pokok bahasan harus terwakili secara cermat dan proporsional
Penyusunannya menggunakan tabel spesifikasi (kisi-kisi) untuk memandu
Content validity tidak dinyatakan dengan angka tetapi dengan menyesuaikan dengan isi kurikulum.
PREDICTIVE VALIDITY
Predictive validity menunjukan seberapa jauh sebuah test memprediksikan kemampuan seseorang
Predictive validity dapat ditentukan dengan melihat ada atau tidaknya hubungan antara nilai test dengan kemampuan yang ditunjukan kemudian sesuai dengan kriteria yang ditetapkan.
RELIABILITY
Test dapat diketahui reliable setelah test dilaksanakan
Test diberikan pada siswa yg akan diukur kemampuannya (minimal dua kali)
Bila hasi dari test sama, maka test itu reliable
RELIBILITY: measurement
Test-retest Alternate-forms Split-half Kuder-Richardson Interjudge reliability
Test-retest reliability Memberikan test kepada sekelompok orang sebanyak
dua kali Nilai yang diperoleh oleh tiap-tiap peserta pada test
pertama dikorelasikan nilainya pada test ke dua dengan koefisien korelasi product-moment Pearson.
r = Σ (X-Xˈ) (Y-Yˈ) NSxSyr : koefisien korelasiX : nilai tiap-tiap orang pasa test pertamaXˈ : nilai rerata test pertamaY : nilai tiap-tiap orang pada test keduaYˈ : nilai rerata pada test kedua
Alternate-form reliability
Memberikan test sepadan kepada sekelompok orang, masing-masing satu kali.
Test sepadan adalah dua test yang sebanding dari segi isi dan operasi mental (construct) yang diperlukan untuk mengerjakan test itu
Tiap-tiap butir pada test pertama harus ada padanannya pada test kedua
Pemberian dua test diusahakan pada hari yang sama
Split-half reliability Sebagai alternatif dari teknik test-restest reliability
dan alternate-form reliability Test hanya diberikan sekali dan soal test dipecah
menjadi dua (ex: ganjil & genap) Hasil pengorelasian nilai dari kedua belah
menunjukan derajat reliabilitas tiap-tiap belah Reliabilitas utuh: r2 = nr1 1+(n-1)r1r2 =reliabilitas utuhr1 = reliabilitas belah duan = jumlah belahan
Kuder-Richardson reliability
Car a ini digunakan apabila butir-butir test terjawab dikotomis (ex. A atau B, benar atau salah)
Rumus: K-R21 = 1-X(n-X) n s2 K-R21 = koefisien reliabilitas K-R n = jumlah butir test X = nilai rerata s2 = variansi test
Interscorer reliability Cara ini didasarkan pada kelemahan (error) pada
cara-cara sebelumnya (kemampuan siswa yg berubah, kesalahan administrasi, kesalahan penarikan sample, dsb)
Cara ini digunakan bila test yang digunakan dalam bentuk subjektivitas peneliti maka perlu diperhitungkan kesalahan yang didasarkan pada peneliti.
Caranya adalah dengan menyerhakan pekerjaan siswa pada dua orang penilai. Hasil dari kedua penilai dikorelasikan dengan formula produk momen Pearson.
DOCUMENTATION OF SOURCES
CITING A SOURCE
Insert short reference in parentheses as the end of each piece of borrowed information (in-text citation)
Prepare a list describing all your sources completely (works cited)
The second step in citing sources is to list all the sources.
Do not include sources you read bu did not use
List them alphabetically by last name of the author or if there is no author, by the first word of the tittle
Works-Cited Lists
References Footnote
REFERENCES
Book with one author Book with two authors Book with more than three authors Book with more than one edition Encyclopedia article Magazine article Newspaper article Personal interview Online source
Book with one author
Write the author’s last name first and put a comma after it. Do not include a person’s titles.
Put the year of publication Put a collon between the title and subtitle and
underline or italic Write the city of publication, a colon, the
name of publishing company. If there are some cities, choose the first city.
Examples:
Bryson, Bill. 1991. The Mother Tongue: English and How It Got That Way. New York: Avon.
Bruce, Meredith. 2004. Cybercrime. New York: Wexler.
Saleh, Mursid. 2008. Enam Tradisi Besar Penelitian Pendidikan Bahasa. Semarang: UNNES
Book with two authors
Write the author’s last name first of the first author and put a comma and full stop after it. Then full name of the second author
Put the year of publication Put a collon between the title and subtitle and
underline or italic Write the city of publication, a colon, the
name of publishing company. If there are some cities, choose the first city.
Examples:
Hall, Edward T., and Mildred Reed Hall. 1990. Understanding Cultural Differences. Yarmouth: Intercultural.
Baugh, Albert C., and Thomas Cable. 2002. A History of the English Language. New Jersey: Prentice Hall.
Book with more than three authors
Book with more than one edition
Write the author’s last name first and put a comma after it.
Put the year of publication Put a collon between the title and subtitle and
underline or italic Put the edition (ex: 5th ed., 3rd ed., 2nd ed.) Write the city of publication, a colon, the
name of publishing company. If there are some cities, choose the first city.
Example:
Baugh, Albert C., and Thomas Cable. 2002. A History of the English Language. 5th ed. New Jersey: Prentice Hall.
Gall, Meredith. 2006. Educational Research: An Introduction. 7th ed. Boston: Person Education, Inc.
Encyclopedia article
Use the author’s name if it is given Put the year If there is no author, put the title of the first
article. Enclose the title in quotation marks Underline/ italicize the title of the
encyclopedia Put the edition number if there is one
Example:
“Intelligence Test”. New Encyclopedia Britannica: Micropedia. 15 ed.
Magazine article
Put the name Put the title of the article inside quotation
marks Underline/ italicize the name of the magazine Include the day, month, and year for weekly
magazine followed by a colon and the page number or numbers on which the article appears
Abbreviate the names of months except May, June, and July.
Example:
Bamberger, Michael, and Don Yaeger. “Over the Edge”. Sports Illustrated. 14 Apr. 1997:67-70.
Newspaper article
Put the name/s Put the title of the article inside quotation
marks Underline/ italicize the name of the
newspaper Include the day, month, and year and what
page
Example:
Epstain, Edward A. “A Less Social Society Is Becoming Shy.” San Francisco Chronicle. 14 Sep. 1995: A-1.
Personal Interview
Put the name Name of interview Put day, month and year Example: Jones, John. Personal Interview. 31 Oct.2003
INTERACTION ANALYSIS
Interaksi
Mengajar merupakan sebuah proses interaksi Bahasa memiliki dua fungsi: bahasa sebagai
media (fungsi sosial: hubungan anta manusia, guru dengan murid, murid dengan murid) and fungsi materi (pengajaran dari guru ke siswa/ murid)
Didalam analisis interaksi, pokok pembahasan adalah penggunaan bahasa sebagai media interaksi.
Interaksi: definisi
Kata ‘interaction’ berasal dari dua kata ‘action’ (tindakan/ perbuatan) dan ‘inter’ (memberi makna/ saling)
Interaksi adalah perbuatan yang dilakukan besilang atau bergantian antara dua atau lebih orang.
Interaksi dapat berupa percakapan (conversation), perbicaraan (speech) atau perbincangan (talk)
Interaksi: komponen
Input (asupan) Negotiation (proses tawar menawar) Comprehension (pemahaman)
(Allwright and Bailey, 1991)
Ucapan org ke-1(asupan)
Penerimaan org ke-1(pemahaman)
Penerimaan org ke-2(pemahaman)
Ucapan org ke-2asupan
Negosiasi(tawar
menawar)
Asupan (input)
Asupan adalah masukan oleh orang pertama Asupan adalah hal-hal yang menagandung
pesan Di dalam komunikasi asupan yang baik adalah
asupan yang dapat dipahami dengan baik oleh pendengarnya sehingga pesan yang dibawanya benar-benar sampai ke alamatnya
Didalam inteaksi asupan yang baik sangatlah kompleks
Negotiation (proses tawar menawar)
Asupan didalam proses negosiasi harus beupa asupan yang merangsang timbulnya tanggapan sebagai bahan baku terjadinya saling bicara.
Negosiasi adalah proses saling tawar menawar dengan memberikan umpan balik untuk mencapai kesepahaman.
Negosiasi ada tiga cara: cek pemahaman (comprehension check), cek pemastian (confirmation check), cek penjelasan (clarification check)
Pemahaman
Pemahaman merupakan hasil akhir dai proses negosiasi. Pemahaman yang baik adalah diterimanya pesan sesuai dengan maksud pengirim
Kesesuaian pesan yang dikirim dan diteima tidak selalu utuh. Maka fungsi dari negosiasi adalah untuk memperkecil pebedaan sampai pada titik yg diterima
Pemahaman: contoh Teacher: Ya, jadi claim artinya tuduhan, oke? Igor,
tadi kamu bilang laki-laki itu membunuh orang. Itu artinya kamu membuat claim. Kalau kamu tidak punya bukti itu namanya claim
Igor: Mmmm, apakah itu ........ bicara keras? Teachers: Bukan, ...... Itu exclaim. Seperti
berteriak ... Mengatakn sesuatu dg keras. Itu exclaim,... Ini claim
Igor: (menggumam) He claims... Teacher: Ya. He claims ...
INTERAKSI DI DALAM KELAS BAHASA
Pembagian/ pengambilan giliran Interaksi yang baik adalah yang dapat
memberikan semua yang terlibat didalamnya kesempatan bepasrtisipasi secaa poporsional
Ada tiga macam: pembagian yang dilakukan oleh guru, pengambilan yang dilakukan oleh murid sendiri dan campuran (melibatkan guru dan siswa itu sendiri)
Giliran dalam kelas
Giliran
Diambil
Diberikan
Tunjukan
Lontaran
Sukarela
Direbut
Merata
Tak Merata
METODE ANALYSIS MOSKOVITS
Menurut Moskovitz (1971) percakapan dalam interaksi kelas teridii dari tiga hal:
Bicara guru (teacher’s talk) Bicara murid (student’s talk) Saat diam/ tak tentu (silence/ confusion)
BICARA GURU (TEACHER’S TALK)
Berceramah (lecturing) Memberi arahan (giving direction) Mengkritik, memerintah, atau melarang
(criticizing or justifying authority) Menerima perasaan Mendorong atau memuji Menerima atau menggunakan pikiran murid Bertanya
BICARA MURID
Bicara murid sebagai respon (student talk-response): jawaban atas pertanyaan, tanggapan atas pernyataan, permintaan, dan perintah guru. Ini bersifat terduga dan terbatas.
Bicara murid sebagai inisiasi (student talk-initiation): mengajukan pertanyaan, menyatakan pendapat, mengusulkan gagasan baru, dsb. Ini besifat tak terduga dan tak terbatas.
KEADAAN DIAM/ TAK MENENTU
Kategori ini bisa berbentuk kegiatan verbal atau non verbal.
Pergantian kegiatan dengan kegiatan yang lain
Setelah guru memberikan arahan Murid bersiap-siap melakukan kegiatan
sesuai dengan arahan Situasi dapat tenang maupun ribut
INTERAKSI PEMBELAJARAN BAHASA NON-KELAS Interaksi anak-orang dewasa (child-adult
interaction) Interaksi dewasa-dewasa (adult-adult
interaction) a.Percakapan interpesonal (interpersonal
conversation) b.Percakapan transaksional (transactional
convesation) c.Interaksi silang budaya (cross-cultural interaction)
PERCAKAPAN INTERPERSONAL
Percakapan interpesonal adalah interaksi yang bertujuan membina hubungan antar pribadi dalam masyarakat.
Pertanyaan penelitian berkisar pada bagaimana para partisipan dapat menyampaikan maksud sehingga terpahami dan bagaimana partisipan dapat memahami maksud partisipan yang lain.
Topik-topik kajian misalnya kerancuan ungkapan dan bagaimana mengatasinya, bagaimana mengoreksi maksud yang sudah terlanjur diungkapkan, apa dampak emosional yang timbul akibat penolakan tawaran, dsb.
Data yang dikumpulakn adalah data yang alami
Ciri khusus penelitian inteaksi adalah pembahasan yang interpretif dan mendalam atas penggal-penggal bahasa yang kecil (kata/ frase/ klausa).
Interpersonal: contoh A: Begini saja, kalau kamu mau, kamu mu bisa
datang ke Puskom, nanti saya tunjuki program-program apa saja yang ada di komputer. Kalau pelu nanti aku ajari bagaimana mengoprasikan Basic dan lain-lain
B: Emm, kali ini sepertinya saya belum memerlukan itu semua untuk pekerjaan saya. Terima kasih, mungkin lain kali saja
A: Ya, baiklah. Tapi sebenarnya ketrampilan itu sangat perlu
PERCAKAPAN TRANSAKSIONAL
Percakapan transaksional adalah percakapan yang bertujuan mempertukarkan barang dan jasa.
Topik-topik yang mendominasi penelitian jenis ini adalah yang mengenai pertukaran jasa pofesional, seperti interaksi hakim-jaksa-terdakwa, dokter-pasien, spir-penumpang, dsb.
Pertanyaan penelitian pada umumnya adalah tentang bagaimana penerima jasa mengungkapkan keinginannya sehingga dapat dipahami oleh pemberi jasa.
INTERAKSI SILANG BUDAYA
Bahasa mempunyai fungsi sebagai refleksi budaya suatu bangsa dan sebagai gambaran tentang bagaimana komunikasi dapat berlangsung antara sejumlah orang yang berbeda penguasaan bahasa sebagai medium.
Ciri yang tampak dalam inteaksi silang budaya adalah banyaknya negosiasi yang dilakukan oleh semua pihak yang terlibat