senior sem paper

Running Head: PAIRED ASSOCIATE LEARNING WITH PRIMING, PET THERAPY, AND SLEEPINESS 1

Paired-Associate Learning of Low and High Imagery Words with the Presence of Pet Therapy,

Priming, and Sleepiness

Kelsey Margaret Harrington

Methodist University: Senior Seminar Experiment

Author’s Note: This study was conducted under the supervision and discretion of Dr. Katherine Snyder, who can be contacted at 910-630-7535, and worked alongside with Melody Allison,

Sarah Rurycz, and Tabias Hilliard

PAIRED ASSOCIATE LEARNING WITH PRIMING, PET THERAPY, AND SLEEPINESS2

Abstract

According to S.P. Cohen in 2002, over eighty-five percent of families in the United

States regard their companion animals as family. This experiment is a factorial design relating

the presence/absence of a service dog (Pet Variable 1), prior vocabulary learning or not (Priming

Variable 2), and type of word-pair learning (Imagery Variable 3) to word recall. Following the

prime / no prime manipulation, all subjects learned a series of word pairs which were either high

in imagery (e.g. Garden and Orchestra) or low in imagery (e.g. Necessity and Belief). Subjects

were then asked to recall the correct pair of a stimulus word (e.g. Orchestra would be the correct

response for the Garden stimulus word). Since the presence of dogs reportedly reduces stress, it

is hypothesized that recall scores will vary with pet presence. Since priming is the activation of

some representation of memory, with a consequent facilitation of performance in a task that

involves that representation (I., Gardiner, Gardiner, 1991), a main effect of priming on recall is

anticipated. In replication of prior research, higher imagery pairs are anticipated to lead to better

recall than lower imagery pairs. Lastly, an interaction between pet presence, priming, and type of

prime is expected. In conclusion, the Epworth Sleep Scale is given to see if fatigue is a mediating

variable in the above study.


Paired-Associate Learning of Low and High Imagery Words with the Presence of Pet Therapy,

Priming, and Sleepiness

It is estimated that about seventy to eighty million dogs are owned in the United States of

America and approximately thirty-seven to forty-seven percent of American households have at

least one dog (Aspca.org). Pets can be seen everywhere, every single day in our lives. One of the

most commonly thought of wants when we are young is to own a puppy. Dogs are known for

providing protection and comfort to people of all different ages and personality types. Due to this

affect companion animals have on humans, trained pets are beginning to become more and more

popular in health care and educational settings because of a variety of factors (Jalongo, Astorino,

& Bomboy, 2004). Some common sights of trained therapy animals are in pediatric hospitals as

well as rehabilitation centers because these animals are seen as impacting emotional support

systems in these dire situations (Kaminski, Pellino, & Wish, 2002). There is just something

between humans and their love for companion animals that is only going to continue to expand

around the world in the future.

Therapy around the states is advancing its recognition in the importance and impact that

the “human-animal” bond has on individuals; this bond can be seen beginning in the 1700’s

(Kaminski, Pellino, & Wish, 2002). Having a living organism unconditionally love us fulfills

certain desires that come naturally for human beings and therefore we form bonds with these

intelligent animals. Dogs, especially, can be adequately trained to fulfill various needs

individuals acquire such as emotional or physical difficulties differing in individuals. Previous

research has been conducted and shows that these trained animals are seen in residential and

visitation formatted health care programs, including intensive care units, clinics, children’s units,

long-term care facilities, and adult and pediatric psychotherapy (Kaminski, Pellino, & Wish,


2002). It should be expected that trained animals will further in their impacts conducted through

different ways of life as the years advance because there are a number of different aspects these

intelligent and adapting animals can be trained for.

As for the impacts and benefits these companions provide for individuals, research has

shown that there are a number of different affects. To begin, pet therapy generally has been

found to promote social interactions and behaviors, decrease loneliness and anxiety, provide a

source of self-esteem, heighten independence, and increase emotional comfort (Kaminski,

Pellino, & Wish, 2002). On a more physiological level, indicators of stress, such as blood

pressure and heart rate, decrease when a companion animal present (Kaminski, Pellino, & Wish,

2002). Whether it is solely to comfort an unbiased animal being present provides or solely the

sense of protection an animal like a dog serves, research on this topic is commonly seen. One

major affect interactions with dogs can have are a lowered or more moderate levels of observable

signs of anxiety disorders for individuals, which included fidgeting, nervousness, etc. (Jalongo,

Astorino, & Bomboy, 2004). One interesting study conducted in South Africa had two conditions

for individuals and took blood analysis before and after each condition; the subject interacted

with their own pet dog and then with an unfamiliar dog. A “reciprocal, positive, physiological

basis for animal assisted therapy” was found in this study which included a decrease in blood

pressure (Jalongo, Astorino, & Bomboy, 2004). Various explanations for the affects dogs and

pet therapy have on individuals can be seen in psychological research of this topic conducted

mostly on children.

The level of evaluation of personality, feelings, and emotions are relatively easier to

research in younger individuals due to childhood development; their cognitions are generally less

abstract and can be analyzed easier. For example, a study was conducted in which children


interacted in a situation with a pet therapy dog present. The parents and caregivers of the

children perceived the child’s mood to be more positive and rated their moods to be overall

increased after engaging with the animal (Kaminski, Pellino, & Wish, 2002). This same article

by Kaminski, Pellino, and Wish (2002) suggests that “playing” and interacting with animals is a

child’s way to deal and cope with non-normative (trauma, hospitalization, etc.) and normative

(development) conflicts in their lives that they could not emotionally handle on their own. The

authors also go on to show research that provides this play to enable children to externalize

problems and conflicts, turn from passive to active roles in conflict resolution , master anxiety,

and rehearse new solutions. These impacts are extremely beneficial in a developing child

because their brain capacity could not be progressed to this level of coping with conflict without

an external presence. The dog or companion animal present allows children to project issues or

subconscious conflicts onto the animal in order to proceed through these difficulties. As for

explaining why these animals have such upshots for developing children, Kaminski, Pellino, and

Wish (2002) suggest:

“Pet play may act as a diversion: refocusing attention away from stressors. It may

enable the child to exert some control over a situation by allowing some choices

(which game to play, which dog to pet, etc) to help compensate for the lack of

control in other areas of hospitalization. Play may also enable the child to express,

master, and ultimately better cope with anxieties, fears, and conflicts relating to

the hospital experience opportunities for the child to assimilate and accommodate

to something unknown or distressing in his life.”

This research shows that during stressful times full of anxiety and fear, specifically in non-

normative conflict settings, children need an animal to turn to and work through these conflicts


with. It is seen as an overly positive experience and the animals impact the children in obvious

ways.

To relate this research to that of college students is difficult because not enough research

has been conducted in these settings and age. The importance of this needed research is obvious;

the first year of a college freshman’s life is complete with transitions in every aspect of daily life

and stress is commonly seen. Adjusting from total contact of parents or guardians to living on

one’s own with new people is only the beginning of stresses to cope with. Therefore, just as a

child developing, college students might benefit from the frequent interaction with a companion

animal. A new college student has yet to develop primary relationships in the college and

university setting which then causes attachment related stresses; leading to poor college

experience and dissatisfaction with this life transition (Adamle, Riley, & Carlson, 2009). A

student goes from knowing and being close with high-school students and living with their

families to potentially not knowing anyone in the same time zone. The only study found to back

these propositions and frequently occurring transitional events up was a preliminary study

conducted in Ohio and its purpose was to acquire freshman’s background about their relationship

with pets as well as investigate interest levels of having a pet therapy program on campus for

social support during stressful periods (Adamle, Riley, & Carlson, 2009). Adamle, Riley, and

Carlson (2009) found that ninety-two percent of participants with pets at home considered them

as integral parts of their lives. The authors also found that ninety percent of the subjects indicated

that they experienced and received support and comfort during stressful times from their

companion animals. This data is extremely significant and should be delved into further for

future research.


For the present study, one of the student administrators owns a trained emotional support

dog; Oliver is a two-year old German Shepard mix dog. For two of the four condition groups to

conduct (explained further later), the student will have Oliver present. It is important to research

how an animal affects college students for many reasons. The state that animals put individuals

in, reduce anxiety and emotionally stable for example, is a factor that should be looked into

because the mind is at more of an ease and could therefore accept more difficult tasks. Learning,

perhaps, could increase when a companion animal is present because they conflicts present

diminish, or at least seem to decrease, with the animal’s effects on the individual. Lessen anxiety

for example, can improve an individual’s mind ability to learn during that time.

Studying how college students learn can be seen all throughout psychological research

because this is such a crucial time period in our lives. There are all types of studied learning and

different ways we as humans learn. Reas and Brewer (2013) express that the main structures of

the brain that are involved in learning and memory include the hippocampus, parietal cortex,

limbic cortex, and temporal lobe. These researchers also go on to suggest that areas of the brain

region that are sensitive to the strength levels of the retrieved memory include areas such as the

medial temporal lobe. The present study delves into how individuals, specifically college

students, learn. The task at hand is an explicit memory task that involves participants studying

and recalling various word pairs under certain conditions. The purpose is to study how humans

learn and different variables that affect our learning and short-term memory processes that occur.

The word pairs chosen are paired-associative word pairs that are based on the imagery

ratings and categories that are said to have effects on our learning processes. The words are

nouns specifically because research has shown that nouns are more effective cues when

psychologically experimenting memory asks than adjectives are (Peterson, 1971). Perhaps due to


actual ability to imagine a picture of a noun because the physical characteristics can normally be

imagined in the mind compared to an adjective that lacks physical descriptions. This imagery is

referred to as mental imagery can be defined as “instructions to form a mental image of some

material or by ratings of the image arousing capacity of verbal material” (Paivio, 1983). This

therefore has been shown to positively impact performance on a variety of memory tasks. The

imaginal processes our brain encounters assist the learning and recall of high imagery words in a

couple different ways. According to Paivio’s dual-coding theory, it proposes that there are

functionally separate but interactive imaginal and verbal processing systems operating during the

recall of stimuli. Highly visual imagery generates vivid images that enhance the participant’s

ability to learn and to remember. An individual can vividly conceive high imagery words, both

verbally and imaginably (Crawford and Allen, 1996). It can also be seen in research that

recognition relies not only on imagery, but also familiarity an individual has on that associate

word or concept being held at task (MacLeod & Kampe, 1996)

In other words, high imagery potentially allows an individual to become more involved and to

experience the meaning of a word to a greater level, thus improving memory. One is more likely

to recall a word pair if an image can be formed during processing because it stems the brain more

actively than a word pair with low imagery. For example, an individual is more apt to recall the

word pair “house and block” compared to “necessity and fact” because one can mentally imagine

a house made out of blocks (so to speak) rather than a picture of concepts such as necessities or

facts. Research has shown this to be true because the high imagery word pairs arouse more

images and associations than do the low imagery words. Paivio (1996) and his colleagues

gathered groups of participants to scale nouns on their level of imagery from one to seven and

placed each word into two categories; High Imagery words compared to Low Imagery words. In


the present study, word pairs are taken randomly from this study of Paivio’s (1981), more

specifically referred to as Imagery and Familiarity ratings for 2448 words. Furthermore, the

process of learning that the subjects in the present study must conduct when learning these word

pairs and later recalling them is the fact that the individual has to recognize and encode the

information acquired, which in this case of the present study would be the word pair. Secondly,

the individual has to be able to reclaim and restate the information, which in this study includes

restating and identifying the missing word once presented with one of the words in the pair.

Relating these processes of learning back to the pet therapy will be seen in the present

study, because when looking at the research, an individual’s amount of recall on both high and

low imagery word pairs such increase because of the state of mind the companion animal should

put subjects in. With a dog present, the subjects’ anxiety levels resulting from having to perform

an explicit memory task in the presence of student researchers will lower, which will then in turn

heighten the opportunity for their brains to engage in the task at hand and therefore subjects will

recall more paired-associative word pairs.

Another variable looked at in the present study that influences how humans learn is the

concept of priming, which can be defined as the activation of some representation in memory

with a consequent facilitation of performance of a task that involves that representation (I.,

Gardiner, and Gardiner, 1991). In other words, when individuals are exposed to a previous

stimulus it engages the brain for an upcoming, relating experience; therefore, the brain is

heightened and more ready to engage subconsciously in the next relating task at hand. This

process does not require conscious recollection of the prior exposure or event of priming (Java &

Gardiner, 1991). Previous research indicates that anxiety is commonly seen in the educational

settings in regards to taking tests. Therefore, it was shown that conducting study exercises prior


to application of information on a test format was extremely beneficial because this experience

primes the brain for related subject activity because the brain had already begun to process the

information needed (Emerson, B., 2011). In addition, it is shown in research that priming also

speeds up the recognition process of the second stimulus that the brain subconsciously

undergoes. Priming is said to either introduce new things or bring previous thoughts into the

surface of the subconscious to make these concepts more accessible and more likely to be used

(Priming, n.d.). In other words, depending on the task at hand, priming can be useful in a number

of different ways; whether that be setting up the brain for a task and priming with relating

information or introducing new concepts to start the engagement of the brain.

In the present study, vocabulary words being studied for a certain amount of time are

priming the subjects in the certain condition groups to study the paired-associative word pairs to

follow in order to heighten results of recall. The vocabulary words are described further in the

methods, materials section but are chosen to introduce new words and definitions as the task

relates to the explicit memory performance task of recognizing and recalling the paired-associate

word pairs. The priming will relate to the paired-associative pairs, because based on the research

conducted over the years, the condition groups who experience the priming of vocabulary words

will have heightened scores of the recall of the word pairs. The task of studying vocabulary was

decided upon due to the similar brain processes that the students will undergo; it subconsciously

primes the brain for learning the paired-associative word pairs using the same processes.

One obvious and impactful factor that influences different aspects of learning is

sleepiness. Students everywhere are seen as a group of the population who get the less amount of

sleep due to late nights studying or working and then in return getting up early for class. Daytime

sleepiness, sleep deprivation, and irregular sleep schedules are highly prevalent among college


students; fifty percent of students report daytime sleepiness and seventy percent attain

insufficient sleep. In relation to college students, sleep deprivation can result in lower GPA’s,

compromised learning, increased risk of motor vehicle accidents, increased risk of academic

failure, and impaired mood (Hershner & Chervin, 2014) Research shows that irregular sleep

patterns and sleepiness in general are commonly associated with a negative impact in learning,

performance, and memory. In addition, daytime sleepiness is seen in fifty percent of college

students compared to that of thirty-five percent of adolescents; sixty percent of students report to

drag at least three days a week (Hershner & Chervin, 2014). This daytime sleepiness of a person

is highly affected by many other factors apart from solely just the time of day, including his or

her activity levels, environment, posture, etc (Johns, 1991).

According to research, two processes mainly dictate how much sleep is gained each night

and they are the homeostatic sleep drive and the circadian rhythm. The homeostatic sleep drive

increases the need for sleep as the period of wakefulness lengthen and the circadian system

governs like an internal clock, regulating sleep/wake cycles (Hershner & Chervin, 2014). When

it comes to college students, schedules are always offset and therefore sleep/wake cycles are

never consistent; therefore impacting learning and memory throughout the students’ daily lives.

A very real experiment found astonishing results in testing just how poor intellectual students

perform when sleep deprived. Hershner and Chervin (2014) found that a group of students who

were given a recognition test before and after sleep deprivation decreased in their responses of

the tests by over two-letter grades worth when compared to the non-sleep deprived conditioned

students. Therefore, it is crucial that students obtain and maintain good sleep hygiene patterns

because their performance depends on it.


The importance of good sleep hygiene includes a regular sleep-wake schedule, quiet

sleep environment, and avoidance of caffeine or other substances (Hershner & Chervin, 2014).

One habit that is commonly seen in college students in today’s generation is checking social

media sites before attempting to fall asleep; technology and this activity hinders hormones in our

body that enable us to fall asleep. It is imperative to inform college students around the world

about habits that the majority take part in that diminish sleep cycles. College is a time of

development into adulthood and a time of intellectual growth, but in order to do so good sleep

hygiene should take precedent. The topic is difficult to study because students’ GPA’s are not

just indications of learning, but also complex interactions between the student and their

environment (work ethic, health problems, socioeconomic status, personality, etc.), but research

has been conducted to find a relationship with sleep and GPA. It was found that students who

acquired more sleep (above nine hours) had higher GPA’s than those who obtained shorter

amounts of sleep durations (less than six hours). The average differences of the two groups’

GPA’s were 3.24 compared to that of 2.74 (Hershner & Chervin, 2014)

Sleepiness is therefore an added variable to be evaluated in this study mainly because it is

an everyday factor that extremely influences performance and learning. This is an added measure

in the present study also because most college students look over the adequate amount of sleep it

is suggested to gain. Daytime sleepiness plays a role in this study because subjects varied in their

times of the running days; some participated as early as 9am while some were not done until

8pm on week nights. The scale chosen to measure a subject’s sleepiness is the Epworth

Sleepiness Scale (ESS) because it is the most commonly used subjective measure (Johns, 1991).

The ESS consists of eight different condition subjects rate their chances of dozing on if they

were engaging in those experiences. Each of the eight scores is put together and totaled in order


to estimate the general daily sleepiness level of that participant (Johns, 1991). The ESS scores

and therefore levels of sleepiness will play a role relating to the amount of paired-associative

word pairs that are recalled because the more sleep deprived a subject is, his or her performance

will be hindered on the memory task at hand.

The purpose of the present study is to use previous research and delve deeper into

different variables that play a part into how college students, specifically, learn. It is imperative

that these topics be studied further because college is a time of intellectual development; having

evidence of purposeful situations that could heighten learning would ultimately aid students

world-wide. The use of pet therapy, priming, high/low imagery word pairs, and the extra variable

of daytime sleepiness provide many different experiences that could benefit college students

everywhere in their learning and performance opportunities.

There are five hypotheses for the present study; three of which are main effects and there

are two interactions. There is an anticipated main effect when measuring the paired-associate

word pairs and the level of recall for subjects will be higher when the word pairs are considered

high imagery compared to low imagery. The second anticipated main effect relates to when

Oliver, the emotional support and approved dog, is present the amount of recall overall will

improve of both the high and low imagery word pairs. The third anticipated main effect is when

subjects are primed before completed the explicit task of recall, their amount of recall will

improve with both high and low imagery word pairs. The first interaction anticipated is when

Oliver is present and the subject is also primed, the amount of recall will be higher on the high

imagery word pairs. The second interaction anticipated is when Oliver is not present, and the

subjects do not experience priming, the recall levels will be lower for the low imagery word

pairs.


Method

Participants

The participants in this study are estimated to be young adults, mostly eighteen years old

or older, all enrolled at Methodist University, a small private liberal arts university, of various

races, backgrounds, majors, etc. They were recruited by experimenters entering psychology

classrooms or sport team practices and asking for volunteers to sign up whenever was convenient

for them depending on the experimenters’ schedules. Participants recruited from psychology

classrooms volunteered due to the motivation for extra credit for participating. An anticipated

sixty subjects was desired but due to no-shows the study contained forty-one subjects. Times

were run throughout the week days ranging from 9am-7pm. The treatment of the participants

complies with the ethical standards set by the APA and an informed consent was given to the

participants prior to starting the study, which can be referred to in appendix A.

Materials

The materials used are the scripted opening instructions (see procedure section). The

study room is a small psychology lab/experiment room where the space was comfortable for all

involved and the subjects do not face any windows. There is also a small table (standard school

desk sized) between the participant and the experimenter. For control, a desk is also placed in the

corner of the room for the second student administrator to sit during the experiment. A stop

watch is needed in order to time each section of the experiment for control. For all conditions,

the consent form for each condition (see Appendix A-D), survey filled out when the subjects

signed up (Appendix E), score sheets (Appendix F), and Epworth scale (Appendix G) are all

within sixty (anticipated number of subjects) manila folders. The student administrator also has a


pen to record responses. Fifteen folders were for condition A (no pet therapy and priming),

fifteen for B (no pet therapy, no priming), fifteen for C (pet present, priming), and fifteen for D

(pet present, no priming). For participants in group A, the Emotional Support Therapy Dog,

named Oliver was not present. Group A had twenty-five randomized vocabulary words selected

from randomlists.com and handwritten in block letters on 3in by 5in index cards with the

respected definitions on the back for the participants to study for twenty minutes. Group B

condition did not have Oliver present; along with a laptop playing a twenty minute TED Talk

with Richard Preston (2008) lecturing on Red Wood trees (non-priming material). This lecture

was chosen by group members based on the time controlled for (twenty minutes) and the content

being neutral. Group C condition had Oliver present, and the twenty-five note card priming

condition. Group D did have Oliver and the twenty minute TED talk on the laptop. Each

condition had two different notecard binders; one containing stimulus cards including forty word

pairs with five filler word pairs at the beginning, followed by randomly assorted high-imagery

and low-imagery word pairs (fifteen each), then finally finishing with five more filler pairs. The

other notecard binder contains the response cards in which there are thirty individual cards each

containing one word written on them that is intended to have the participant recall the associated

word this is not written. The words written on the notecards are all in block lettering; one inch

high with three lines between each word and each pair is measured by imagery rates. The word

pairs came from a study conducted by Allen Paivio (1965) in which participants were given a

number of nouns and asked to rate the words on a scale of one to seven as to how imagery they

thought was associated with each word; the word pairs can be referred to in Appendix H. For

example, the word “elephant” is much more imaginative than a noun such as “necessity.”


The survey completed by subjects at the time of signing up to participate is needed to

verify if subjects are allergic/fearful of therapeutic animals, specifically dogs. The survey asks

name, class ranking, if any pets are owned at home and the kind of pet, along with if they have

any fears/allergies toward any animals. The survey given to participants after recall of high/low

imagery word pairs is the highly reliable and valid commonly used sleepiness scale in medical

fields and that is the Epworth sleepiness scale (Johns, 1991) (see attached Appendix). This scale

has four levels of measurement mentioned in the procedure and design sections of methodology.

Procedure

Experimenters will previously gain approval of the Instructors to coordinate and schedule

days to conduct the recruitment of subjects in their different class times. The Experimenters will

plan out weekly schedules for time periods, in hourly blocks for sign ups, before weekly

recruitment. Recruitment will take place in every class offering extra credit in order to obtain an

optimal sample and affect size. Students enrolled in these courses, along with members of certain

sport teams (e.g. the softball team), are part of the convenience sampling with the incentive of

participating when given extra credit. Prior to the subjects’ days of participating, emails are sent

out to remind subjects of location and times they are to show up for participation and they are

reminded they must show up for extra credit to be received. Experimenters will arrive to the

psychology lab (described in materials section) early to set up different randomized conditions

and to place the “Experiment in Progress” sign on the door to control for possible interruptions

by bystanders. The administrator will also retrieve both the stimulus and response notecard

binders. Depending on condition, the administrator will also set up the laptop playing the TED

Talk or place the twenty five notecard vocabulary words on the desk. As soon as the subject

arrives at the beginning of each hour, introduction should be made by the experimenters. The


informed consent (Appendix A-D) should be read word-for-word depending on which condition

was randomly chosen and ask participants to keep their part of the form for their own records,

while placing the signed sheet in their assigned and labeled manila folders.

This is followed by the scripted instructions that are read aloud depending on condition

randomized as well; for condition A (pet and priming) state, “You will begin by studying and

memorizing the given twenty five vocabulary words with the respected definitions on the back

side of the cards. You are given twenty minutes and you are encouraged to interact with Oliver

as you please. I will keep a stopwatch and say stop at the end of the twenty minutes.” For

condition B state, “You will begin by watching a TED Talk on the given laptop that is about

twenty minutes long; feel free to interact with Oliver as you choose.” For condition C state “You

will begin by studying and memorizing the given twenty five vocabulary words with the

respected definitions on the back side of the cards. You are given twenty minutes; I will keep a

stopwatch and say stop at the end of the twenty minutes.” For condition D, state, “You will begin

by watching a TED Talk on the given laptop this is about twenty minutes long.”

Once the twenty minutes is completed instruct the subject to stop studying or take the

laptop of the desk as to not distract the subject from the desired task. Retrieve notecard binder

containing the stimulus words first and quote directly from Pavio (1983):

“In front of me I have a set of cards. On each card there are two nouns, such as “table”

and “coffee.” Your task is to learn that these two nouns are paired together so that when,

at a later time, I give you another card that only has “table” on it you can recall the word

“coffee” and say it to me. I will then write down your response. The procedure I will

follow is this: First I will give you a series of different cards, each for ten seconds. On


each card will be two words. You are to learn that these two words are paired together.

After we complete this set of cards, I will turn to a second pile of cards in front of me. I

will show you one card at a time for ten seconds. During that time you are to tell me what

word you think was associated with it. Always guess even if you cannot remember the

associated word. Do not leave any blank if you can. Are there any questions?” (p. 88)

(Go over instructions if there are any questions).

To begin, present the stimulus cards, one at a time for ten seconds, in front of the

participant in a manner that is easily readable for the participant. Flip through the notecard binder

and present each pair of nouns until each card in the stimulus binder are presented (N=40).

Immediately retrieve the second notecard binder and say to the participant, “Now I will present

one of the two words in the respected word pairs. Tell me within ten seconds what the

associated word is. If you are not sure, you must guess.” The administrator then will present the

Response cards one at a time for ten seconds and write down the participant’s responses. (The

filler word pairs are not in the response binder). After the completion of the experiment,

administer the Epworth Sleepiness Scale and read the directions of the survey to the participant:

“The Epworth Sleepiness Scale is widely used in the field of sleep medicine as a

subjective measure of a patient’s sleepiness. The test is a list of eight situations in which

you rate your tendency to become sleepy on a scale of 0, no chance of dozing, to 3, high

chance of dozing. When you finish the test, add up the values of your responses. Your

total score is based on a scale of 0-24. The scale estimates whether you are experiencing

excessive sleepiness that possibly requires medical attention” (Johns, 1991).


Ask them to complete the survey and total up their total score. Experimenters will take their total

level of sleepiness and place it into one of two categories of sleepiness; level 1 consists of totals

0-9, and level two consists of totals of 10-24. For example, if a subject’s total score on the ESS

comes to a total of 13, then they are placed into category two of the Epworth. Once completed,

place the signed informed consent, survey conducted when the subject signed up to participate,

score sheet, and Epworth scale into the respected manila folder. Thank the participants for

participating in our senior thesis project.

The experimenters will then meet to complete data entry and analyze the data. Determine

how many words are correctly recalled (they must match exactly to the code to count) of each

high and low word pairs. Determine interactions of priming conditions, pet therapy conditions,

and sleepiness levels relating to the learning of paired-associate word imagery pairs.

Design

This study is a two (high imagery vs. low imagery word pairs), by two (priming or no

priming), by two (pet therapy occurrence or no pet present) mixed factorial ANOVA (2x2x2),

with repeated measures on word pair presentation. The dependent variable is the number of

words correctly recalled depending on imagery word pairs.

This is an experimental method with a repeated measure design on word pair imagery.

Repeated measures was chosen in order to control for any confounding variables such as

nationality, English proficiency, and short-term memory ability that ranges from individual to

individual. The controlled variables include the instructions from administrator, time allotted for

the priming/lack of priming condition, time allotted for time to sit during studying paired-

associate word pairs, the time to recall each word with the given stimulus word from the pair.


Also, participants received the same word list (B) and the administrator recorded responses the

same way on identical data sheets. This experiment is a mixed factorial due to true variable

manipulation and in addition the Epworth Sleepiness Scale is administered as an extra measure.

It is mixed because there is within and between subject variables. The within subjects holds true

due to the High/Low word pairs condition; all subjects are exposed to this condition. All subjects

are not exposed to the variables of priming/no priming and Oliver present/not present and this

makes for between subjects variables. The Epworth scale has four levels of sleep deprivation (0

meaning no chance of dozing, 1 slight chance of dozing, 2 moderate chance of dozing, and 3

high chance of dozing). The independent variables are the presence of a pet in the experiment or

not, a priming condition or lack-there-of, along with high or low imagery word pairs. The

different condition groups are A subjects (priming with no dog present), B (no priming and no

dog present), C (priming with dog present), and D (no priming with dog present). Subjects were

randomly placed into each condition group.

Results

Refer to Figure 1 as the three-way (2x2x2) mixed factorial ANOVA with repeated

measures on paired-associate word pair presentation. The results looked at two main effects,

priming and the presence of pet therapy, and interactions between priming, pet therapy, and high

vs. low imagery word pair presentation on the amount of word pair recall.

The figure for the main effect of imagery [ F (1, 74) = 39.36, p < 0.001 ] shows that there

was significantly better recall for high imagery word pairs than low imagery word pairs in the

recall task for all condition groups. After the post hoc analysis, this evidence supported our

hypothesis of finding a main effect on higher recall scores for high imagery word pairs compared

to low imagery word pairs.


The figure for the main effect of pet therapy not in occurrence [ F (1, 74) = 4.37, p =

0.04] showed that recall was slightly significantly better when Oliver, our pet therapy condition,

was not in occurrence compared to when Oliver was present. The post hoc analysis showed

significant, although partial support for our hypothesis of finding a main effect with Oliver/pet

therapy. Although we thought Oliver would inhibit the recall scores, the data showed the

opposite effect; when Oliver was not present the data showed significance for higher recall

scores of subjects.

Graphs of the descriptive data can be viewed in Appendix K.

Discussion

In conclusion of the research experiment conducted, the main effect hypothesis

was supported in that there would be higher recall scores with the high imagery word pairs when

compared to the low imagery words. This is consistent with prior research in that a main effect of

imagery was found to be significant. In addition, although we had predicted that Oliver, the pet

therapy variable condition, would inhibit the learning of the paired-associate word pairs, the

results show that the opposite is supported significantly. This gives our hypothesis of a main

effect being partially supported in the opposite direction. The subjects did significantly better

when Oliver was not present than when he was not present, which was not consistent with prior

research. There was no effect found for the priming/no priming variable on the amount of words

recalled (p=.695) and this could be because of various limitations. The interactions were not

supported with significance. One interesting finding, although not significant, was that sleepiness

was found to be higher overall when pet therapy was not a present variable. Oliver being present

could have stimulated the subjects into being more awake or alert in his presence.


There were many limitations that occurred throughout the entire experimental process.

Although the experiment anticipated finding sixty participants to complete the project, only

forty-one ended up showing up due to a high amount of no-shows. The no-shows predicted to

have happened due to difficulty in scheduling; having to control for two administrators always

being present during all run-times as well as matching schedules with the projected subjects. In

addition, although subjects were motivated with extra credit, some subjects did not find that to be

enough motivation to complete the experiment. This sample size was sufficient enough to find

significance in two of our main effects, but more than likely is not big enough to be able to

generalize the findings toward a general population.

Some additional limitations include the fact of the difficulty of the priming task at hand.

The vocabulary words were chosen for their difficulty and most were unrecognizable to the

average person. To study these hard words for a long twenty minutes created fatigue in these

condition groups; therefore the subjects were limited in their mental ability when the paired-

associate learning and recall tasks were at hand. In addition, the location of the psychology lab in

Methodist University’s Trustee’s Building was not ideal for this experiment. The experiment

called for a quiet learning environment where subjects were able to concentrate; however, the

room located next to the lab was a classroom that was always taken and extremely loud in their

behavior. This could have negatively impacted the subjects’ concentration and therefore their

recall scores because their mental capabilities were hindered during learning and recall tasks.

The length of the run time in general also could have been a limitation because it was just as long

as a class time for this subjects. The experiment took on average a time of forty to forty-five

minutes which could have resulted in fatiguing the subjects throughout it also.


For future research, it would be interesting to delve further into the pet therapy variable.

Previous research gave subjects a fixed amount of time to interact with the animals where the

reported study just had the animal present. Although the subjects were encouraged to interact

with Oliver, they did not get a fixed amount of time to do so and were expected to give him

attention while completing difficult and long tasks. In conjunction with prior research, Oliver

might have had a main effect on recall scores when present if subjects were given a set amount

of time, say ten minutes or so, so interact with him before actually beginning the tasks. It would

also be advised in future research to either lessen the amount of time for the priming task or to

lessen the difficulty of the task in general. To give the subjects more recognizable words or to

study the priming task for five to ten minutes might show a main effect on higher recall scores.


References

Adamle, K. N., Riley, T. A., & Carlson, T. (2009). Evaluation College Student Interest in Pet Therapy. Journal of American College Health, 57(5). Kent, Ohio: Heldref Publications. Retrieved Febraury 2016

Crawford, H. J., & Allen, S. N. (1996). Paired associate learning and recall of high and low imagery words: Moderating effects of hypnosis, hypnotic susceptibility level, and visualization abilities. American Journal of Psychology, 109, 353-372.

Emerson, B. (2011). Priming the Brain for Learning. Retrieved February 2016, from Today’s Zaman: http://www.todayzaman.com/expat-zone_priming-the-brain-for-learning_265616.html

Hershner, S. D., & Chervin, R. D. (2014). Causes and Consequences of sleepiness among college students. Natural Science of Sleep, 6, 73-84. Retrieved March 2016, from http://www.ncbi.nih/gov/pmc/articles/PMC4075951

Jalongo, M. R., Astorino, T., & Bomboy, N. (2004, August). Canine Visitors: The Influence of Therapy Dogs on Young Children’s Learning and Well-Being in Classrooms and Hospitals. Early Childhood Education Journal, 32. Pennsylvania. Retrieved February 2016

Java, R. I., & Gardiner, J. M. (1991). Priming and Aging: Further Evidence of Preserved Memory Function. The American Journal or Psychology, 104(1), 89-100. Retrieved January 2016, from http://www.jstor.org/stable/1422852?seq=1&cid=pdf-reference#references_tab_contents

Johns, M. (1991). The Epworth Sleepiness Scale. Retrieved February 2016, from The Official website of the Epworth Sleepiness Scale: http://epworthsleepinessscale.com/about-epworth-sleepiness/

Kaminski, M., Pellino, T., & Wish, J. (2002). Play and Pets: The Physical and Emotional Impact of Child-Life and Pet Therapy on Hospitalized Children. Children’s Health Care, 31. Madison, WI. Retrieved March 2016

MacLeod, & Kampe. (1996, Jan). Word frequency effects on recall, recognition, and word fragment completion tests. 22(1). Retrieved February 2016, from PubMed: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8648282

Mayer, R.E., & Massa, L. J. (2003). Three Facets of Visual and Verbal Learners: Cognitive Ability, Cognitive Style, and Learning Preference.Journal of Educational Psychology, 95(4), 833-846. doi: 10.1037/0022-0663.95.4.833

http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8648282

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http://epworthsleepinessscale.com/about-epworth-sleepiness/

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Nimer, J., & Lundahl, B. (2001). Animal-Assisted Therapy: A Meta-Analysis. Anthrozoos, 20(3), 225-238.

Paivio, A. (1965). Abstractness, imagery, and meaningfulness in paired-associate learning. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 4, 32-38.

Paivio, A. (1971/1983). Imagery and verbal processes. New York: Hold, Rinehart and Winston.

Peterson, M. J. (1971). Imagery and the Grammatical Classification of Cues. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 88(3), 307-313. Retrieved February 2016

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Silva, K., Correia, R., Lima, M., Magalhães, A., & de Sousa, L. (2011). Can dogs prime autistic children for therapy? Evidence from a single case study. The Journal Of Alternative And Complementary Medicine, 17(7), 655-659. doi:10.1089/acm.2010.0436

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Appendix A

Informed Consent Form

Paired-Associate Learning of Low and High Imagery Words with Priming and Sleepiness,

but without the Presence of Pet Therapy

1. Purpose of the Study: The purpose of the study is to assess how we learn and how

different factors affect how we learn.

2. Procedure to Follow in Study: The participant will read and consent to the study by

signing the consent form. Then the participant will have 20 minutes to go over 25

vocabulary words. After that they will be shown a series of cards with two words on

them. Then the participant will be asked to recall the word back when the examiner gives

the word pairs. Then the participant will take the Epworth Sleepiness Scale.

3. Anonymity of Participants and Confidentiality of Results: All of the data collected in

the study will be kept completely confidential. No identifying information about the

participant will be on or around any of the research tasks.

4. Discomforts and Risks: There are no discomforts or risks in this present study.

5. Benefits of the Study: This is a senior experimental project for a class and a grade. This

experiment is also very relevant to studies in psychology being done over the last few

years.

6. Freedom to Withdraw: The participant is free to withdraw from this study at any time

for reasons of uncomfortable feelings. This person will also still earn extra credit for

participating.

7. Faculty: Supervisor Dr. Katherine Snyder may be contacted with any questions or

concerns by phone at 910-630-7535 or email at [email protected]

mailto:[email protected]


8. Approval of the Class Project: Dr. Katherine Snyder has approved this class project. A

list of the students involved include:

a. Kelsey Harrington [email protected]

b. Melody Allison [email protected]

c. Sarah Rurycz [email protected]

d. Tabias Hilliard [email protected]

9. Participant’s Permission: If all the participant’s questions and concerns have been

answered then you are invited to put your printed name on this consent form and then

sign. This will be the only form that has any identifying information onit.

I, agree to the above as a participant.

Date:

I, agree to the above as a experimenter.

Date:

The course and instructor if qualified for extra credit:






Appendix B


Paired-Associate Learning of Low and High Imagery Words with Sleepiness, but without

Priming or Pet Therapy

1. Purpose of the Study: The purpose of the study is to assess how we learn and how

different factors affect how we learn.


signing the consent form. Then the participant will begin by watching a twenty minute

TED Talk lecture. After that they will be shown a series of cards with two words on






4. Discomforts and Risks: There are no discomforts or risks in this present study.



years.



participating.















Date:


Date:







Appendix C


Paired-Associate Learning of Low and High Imagery Words with the Presence of Pet

Therapy, Priming, and Sleepiness

1. Purpose of the Study: The purpose of the study is to assess whether or not a person has

an increased ability to learn with a dog present in a learning environment.


signing the consent form. Then the participant will have 20 minutes to go over 25

vocabulary words. After that they will be shown a series of cards with two words on






4. Discomforts and Risks: A dog will be present for this experiment. If you have a fear of

dogs or are allergic to them please let the experimenter know. Dogs are still animals; they

can act out and be irrational.



years.



participating.














Date:


Date:








Appendix D


Paired-Associate Learning of Low and High Imagery Words with the Presence of Pet

Therapy, Sleepiness, and without Priming

1. Purpose of the Study: The purpose of the study is to assess whether or not a person has

an increased ability to learn with a dog present in a learning environment.


signing the consent form. Then the participant will begin with a twenty minute TED Talk

lecture. After that they will be shown a series of cards with two words on them. Then the

participant will be asked to recall the word back when the examiner gives the word pairs.

Then the participant will take the Epworth Sleepiness Scale.




4. Discomforts and Risks: A dog will be present for this experiment. If you have a fear of

dogs or are allergic to them please let the experimenter know. Dogs are still animals; they

can act out and be irrational.



years.



participating.














Date:


Date:








Appendix E

Survey Conducted at the Time of Sign-Up

Name:

Please circle class:

Freshman Sophomore Junior Senior

Do you have any pets at home? YES NO

If yes, what kind?

Do you have any fears or allergies toward any animals?


Appendix FScoring Data Sheets

Letter set: Date:Examiner:Subject:

Card Number Word Shown Word guessed Points Hi/Low


Appendix GEpworth Sleepiness Scale

The Epworth Sleepiness Scale is widely used in the field of sleep medicine as a subjective measure of a patient’s sleepiness. The test is a list of eight situations in which you rate your tendency to become sleeping on a scale of 0, no chance of dozing, to 3, high chance of dozing. When you finish the test, add up the values of your responses. Your total score is based on a scale of 0-24. The scale estimates whether you are experiencing excessive sleepiness that possibly requires medical attention.

How Sleepy Are You?How likely are you to doze off or fall asleep in the following situations? You should rate your chances of dozing off, not just feeling tired. Even if you have not done some of these things recently try to determine how they would have affected you. For each situation, decide whether or not you would have:

No chance of dozing = 0 Slight chance of dozing = 1 Moderate chance of dozing = 2 High chance of dozing = 3

Write down the number corresponding to your choice in the right hand column. Total your score below. Situation Chance of Dozing

Sitting and Reading

Watching TV

Sitting inactive in a public place (theater or meeting

As a passenger in a car for an hour without a break

Lying down to rest in the afternoon when circumstances permitSitting and talking to someone

Sitting quietly after a lunch without alcohol

In a car, while stopped for a few minutes in traffic

Total score =

Interpretation: Analyze Your Score

0-7: It is unlikely that you are abnormally sleepy.8-9: You have an average amount of daytime sleepiness.10-15: You may be excessively sleepy depending on the situation. You may want to consider seeking medical attention.16-24: You are excessively sleepy and should consider seeking medical attention.


Reference: Johns MW. A new method for measuring daytime sleepiness: The Epworth Sleepiness Scale. Sleep 1991; 14(6)540-5.


Appendix HPaired-Associate Word Pairs

High Imagery Pairs

VillageCorner

MagazineBoulder

UniversityMaiden

OfficerGirl

HammerElephant

BuildingCircle

DollarTemple

FurnitureBody

ClockEngine

GrandmotherElbow

FishermanPrisoner

HotelLetter

GardenOrchestra

RockHouse

DiamondGentleman

Low Imagery Pairs

FateMemory

AnswerMoment

ConfidenceMind

EvidenceSentiment

KnowledgeSpirit

ThoughtUnit

AgreementAbility

AttitudeChance

PatentIntellect

SituationTheory

PermissionHonor

HistoryExpression

SoulFact

NecessityBelief

QualityCustom

Filler Pairs

EnquiryPanel

SyrupTrick

ContinuationShame

BlousePansy

SnowOrange

SparrowAnniversary

DebateShingle

KiteSneeze

SparkContrast


ShedCensure

High Imagery Response Stimuli

University Fisherman Circle

Body Dollar Village

Elbow Diamond Clock

Magazine Hammer Letter

Garden Officer House

Low Imagery Response Stimuli

Knowledge Agreement Soul

Confidence Fate Permission

Patent Unit Expression

Belief Chance Sentiment

Moment Theory Quality


Appendix IPriming condition: Vocabulary words from randomlists.com

Garrulity The quality of state of being garrulous

Sundry Various or diverse

Felicitous Well-suited for the occasion, as an action, manner, or expression

Chicanery The use of tricks to deceive someone

Ebullience Exuberance; outburst of feeling; high spirits

Evoke To call up or produce

Turmoil A state of great commotion, confusion, or disturbance

Loquacious Liking to talk and talking smoothly and easily

Diverge Move or draw apart

Gaffe Blunder; social mistake

Natty Neat; dapper; smart

Pristine Having its original purity; uncorrupted or unsullied

Trepidation A feeling of fear that causes you to hesitate because you think something bad will happen

Ameliorate To make something better, less painful

Odious Causing hatred or strong dislike

Halcyon Calm; peaceful; tranquil

Obfuscate To darken; make obscureAbate Become less in amount or intensity

Curmudgeon Bad-tempered person

Ineluctable Incapable of being evaded

Impugned Challenged; called into question

Inscrutable Incapable of being discovered or understood

Compunction Feeling of regret for one’s action

Iconoclast A person who attacks popular beliefs

Stygian Very dark


Appendix J3-Way ANOVA on Recall Scores- An Analysis of Variance

Source DF Adj SS Adj MS F-Value P-Value

Model 7 403.25 57.607 6.38 0.000

Linear 3 395.71 131.902 14.62 0.000

Imagery 1 355.17 355.168 39.36 0.000

Oliver 1 39.46 39.463 4.37 0.040

Prime 1 1.40 1.398 0.15 0.695

2-Way Interactions 3 3.72 1.239 0.14 0.937

Imagery*Oliver 1 1.12 1.121 0.12 0.725

Imagery*Prime 1 0.27 0.275 0.03 0.862

Oliver*Prime 1 2.35 2.347 0.26 0.612

3-Way Interactions 1 2.04 2.042 0.23 0.636

Imagery*Oliver

*Prime 1 2.04 2.042 0.23 0.636

Error 74 667.74 9.023

Total 81 1070.99


Appendix KGraphs of Descriptive Data

Pet Therapy variable on Recall mean was a significant main effect

High and Low Imagery Word Pairs Variable on Recall Mean was a significant main effect

Priming variable on Recall Mean was not a significant main effect shown


Graph showing sleepiness levels in relation to recall levels for all four condition groups.

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