Senior Research Paper (1)

Running head: Openness, Stress, Well-Being 1

Openness to Experience in Relation to Stressful Life Events and Subjective Well-Being

Skyler Williams

Dixie State University

November 12, 2014

Openness, Stress, Well-Being 2

Abstract

Evidence suggests that individuals with high levels of the personality trait of openness to

experience have a greater sense of well-being. There are many individual differences in levels of

stress and amounts of stressful life events that may have an impact on an individual’s subjective

well-being. This was a correlational study on whether or not individuals with high levels of the

personality trait of openness to experience are able to cope with stress more efficiently than those

who have lower levels of openness to experience. Participants consisted of 69 individuals with

ages ranging from 18-60, and an average of 30 years of age. Each participant completed an

online survey measuring openness to experience, subjective well-being, and stressful life events

experienced in the past year. This experiment found a correlation between openness to

experience and subjective well-being suggesting that there is a relationship between individuals

with higher levels of openness to experience and higher levels of subjective well-being.

However, there is no evidence that suggests that individuals with high levels of openness to

experience and high levels of stress were any happier than individuals with low levels of

openness to experience and high levels of stress.

Key words: Openness to experience, Subjective well-being, Stressful life events, Personality

The present experimental study


Openness to Experience and its Relationship to Well-Being

A sense of happiness and well-being is something that is valued and desired by most, if

not everybody. Many struggle their whole lives to achieve happiness and well-being, but they

are hindered in their quest by stressful life events. Personality can play a large role in whether or

not an individual reaches a satisfying level of happiness and well-being (Ryan, Laguardia, &

Rawsthorne, 2005). Research on the relationship between openness to experience (OTE),

stressful life events (SLE), and subjective well-being (SWB) may guide further understanding on

how personality type may suggest different methods of coping style. It is possible that this

research could improve future treatment.

The personality trait of OTE is something that affects the way that individuals deal with

stress, and their overall SWB. This paper will cover various topics relating to these subjects.

Stress is perceived and handled differently for everybody. To understand the differences in how

stress affects humans, it is necessary to research personality and individual coping styles for

stress. The purpose of this paper is to better understand why and how some individuals have the

ability to have a healthier sense of well-being than others after experiencing SLE. It is important

to understand the personality traits that may impact one’s ability to cope with SLE.


Many factors influence one’s volume of happiness and well-being. Stress cannot be

avoided by anybody throughout life, and it can also be quite difficult for individuals to handle

(Ryan, Laguardia, & Rawsthorne, 2005). Although everybody experiences stress, there are

diverse levels of stress (i.e., being late for work as opposed to a death of a spouse), but evidence

suggests that dissimilarities arise in personality and the way that individuals cope with the stress

(Ryan, Laguardia, & Rawsthorne, 2005).

A chronic stressor in life can very difficult because it is something that is on-going.

Individuals deal with these on a daily basis initiating constant stress (Suh, Diener, & Fujita,

1996). One part of life that is largely associated with stress and well-being has to do with

employment, and occupational stress. Occupational stress is something that is on-going, and can

be difficult for an individual to escape (Grant & Langan-Fox, 2007). Personality is something

that is not changed by the occupation, but can be a predictor of the outcome of specific stressful

situations as a result of perception (Tornroos, et al., 2013).

One way that people are able to deal with chronic stressors is by having a large self-

complexity. The personality trait of OTE gives heed to self-complexity because of one’s

willingness, and need to be open to change. When individuals have a larger self-complexity, one

factor does not define the central product of happiness. These individuals recognize that


happiness can be found elsewhere, giving them a sense of freedom (Ryan, Laguardia, &

Rawsthorne, 2005). OTE has been shown to further one’s ability to reason with disaster in a

positive manner. Prior research suggests that having a positive outlook on stressful situations

promotes a greater sense of well-being (Schiffrin & Nelson, 2010).

SLE can have a significant impact on one’s SWB. An individual may be a very happy

person before experiencing a drastic change because of an un-controllable event. These events

and experiences can affect individuals in all aspects of life, making it important for everybody to

consciously employ healthy coping habits in order to work through the experience and carry on

with life (Caunt, Franklin, & Brodaty, 2013). Personality involves diverse approaches to how

individuals cope with disaster. Evidence suggests that individuals high in OTE are more likely

to think about how they are going to cope with a situation, use humor as a coping strategy, and to

think about the positive outcome of the situation (Lee-Baggley, Preece, & DeLongis, 2005).

Dissimilarities in coping style are one reason why people who have experienced

enormous amounts of stressful life events may be happier than others who have experienced the

same type of stress (Lee-Baggley, Preece, & DeLongis, 2005). Some individuals who

experience traumatic events utilize the event to make positive changes to improve their lives.

This is a phenomenon known as adversarial growth (Linley & Joseph, 2004). Because


individuals high in OTE focus on the positive outcome of a stressful life event, it is possible that

they are likely to induce adversarial growth.

Happiness is measured as subjective well-being (SWB) which is broken into the

categories of cognitive SWB, and affective SWB (Tay & Kuykendall, 2013). The cognitive

component of (SWB) is inclusive of an evaluation of happiness throughout the life-time, and the

affective component of (SWB) is an evaluation of positive emotions and outlooks versus

negative (Tay & Kuykendall, 2013). There are factors such as culture that may have an impact

on (SWB). For example, some cultures are corrupt, giving individuals less freedom and

necessities (i.e, food, shelter, clothing). (Diener, 2012).

Cultural values have many variations. For example, in an individualistic culture, self-

esteem is a good predictor of life satisfaction, but in a collectivist culture it’s not just about the

individual. In a collectivist culture, life satisfaction depends on the happiness of the community

(Diener, 2012). Goal orient and achievement is something that drives happiness. When we are

achieving our goals, and doing what we want to do we have a greater sense of well-being. When

we are not achieving our goals, or we don’t have goals to achieve we are not as happy (Vitters,

2004).


While it is important to have goals and achievements, it is also important to note that not

everything has to be perfect. Perfectionism has been found to have a relationship to maladaptive

psychological symptoms (Chang, 2006). Part of having a good sense of well-being is having a

positive outlook on everything, and knowing that not everything is going to fall into place as

planned (Chang, 2006).

Research suggests that happiness is genetic, and is stable throughout a lifetime (Caunt,

Franklin, & Brodaty, 2013). This means that people who experience SLE will utilize individual

coping styles, varying on recovery time (Caunt, Franklin, & Brodaty, 2013). Personality is also

something that is stable throughout a lifetime (Lee-Baggley, Preece, & DeLongis, 2005). There

are ways that an individual can increase happiness while decreasing stress, and personality and

interests can play a role in this (Schiffrin & Nelson, 2010).

Research has shown that OTE can have an impact on individual differences in how

people perceive stressful experiences (Williams, Rau, Cribbet, & Gunn, 2009). A part of being

open to experience is one’s keen interest in exploring new opportunities, having an imagination,

being attentive to feelings, and having an abstract perception on life (Williams, Rau, Cribbet, &

Gunn, 2009). Personality affects people cognitively, physically, and physiologically consistently

throughout life (Caunt, Franklin, & Brodaty, 2013).


Openness may be associated with the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex functioning which is

instrumental to self-regulation (Williams, Rau, Cribbet, & Gunn, 2009). Individuals who are

high in OTE have a lower blood pressure than individuals who are low in openness when

reacting to a stressor giving them a lower chance of cardiovascular disease (Williams, Rau,

Cribbet, & Gunn, 2009)

It is important to have emotional intelligence. Openness is related to emotional

intelligence in adaptability, and intrapersonal relationships (Day, Therrien, & Carrol, 2005).

Individuals who are high in OTE are more likely to be empathetic towards others, and to pay

attention to the feelings of others (Lee-Baggley, Preece, & DeLongis, 2005). Personality also

effects where we live, how much we travel, perceptions of situations, family life, etc. (Caunt,

Franklin, & Brodaty, 2013). An individual’s belief and confidence that he has the ability to

achieve the goals set in place is called self-efficacy. Past studies have suggested that OTE is

positively related to self-efficacy, and personal growth (Strobel, Tumasjan, & Sporrle, 2011).

This can be a factor when an individual has recently experienced a SLE. Carl Rogers stated that

one thing that indicates self-actualization is being open to experience (Vitters, 2004).

Big 5 traits that have a relationship with growth are: OTE, agreeableness, extraversion,

and conscientiousness (Linley & Joseph, 2004). Individuals whose personality is high in OTE


are generally more open to their feelings as well as other people’s feelings. Because of this,

people high in OTE have more of a relationship-based coping style (Lee-Baggley, Preece, &

DeLongis, 2005). Interpersonal relationships can be a key factor in adversarial growth (Linley &

Joseph, 2004).

As you can see, there is evidence that would suggest that in many cases, individuals who

are open to experience have a way of dealing with stress in a positive manner. Because of their

positive outlook on stressful situations, individuals high in OTE may be more adept to

adversarial growth, building a positive future from a negative experience. People high in OTE

are also more likely to participate in activities that help to reduce stress. Another feature that

suggests that individuals high in OTE may have a higher level of SWB is that their blood

pressure is lower than other individuals when reacting to stressful situations, and OTE is related

to the dorso-lateral pre-frontal cortex helping them in self-regulation.

Hypothesis:

Based on the above information from prior research there is a perception that there are

aspects of the personality trait of OTE that may be accommodating in the action of the reduction

of stress. Evidence suggests that SLE can have an effect on SWB, and this experiment will

analyze the possibility that OTE may have an effect on SLE and SWB as well. The prediction


and hypothesis for this experiment is that people who score higher on the scale of OTE will have

a more positive relationship between SLE and SWB than those who score low on the scale of

OTE.

Method

Sample

The sample for this study consisted of 20 male participants, and 48 female participants

for a total of 68 participants. The age range of the participants was 18-60 years of age, and the

average age for the participants was 29.54, with a standard deviation of 9.74. Only two ethnic

groups participated in the experiment and 97.1% of the participants were Caucasian. The other

.029% of the participants was Hispanic. There were 25 participants who were single, 30

participants who were married, and 14 of the participants had a boyfriend/girlfriend. Participants

included students from Dixie State College, users of social media, and anyone else over the age

of 18 who was willing to participate.

Measures

This study was presented to the Institutional Review Board at Dixie State University to

be approved for research. After gaining approval the survey was opened for participants to

complete. In order to gain participants, the survey was announced through educational e-mail


and social media (Facebook). Prior to taking the survey, each participant was asked to consent to

taking the survey through informed consent. Following all participation of the survey data was

downloaded and analyzed.

Measurements for the personality trait of OTE were found in the NEO Five-Factor

Inventory (NEO-FFI), written by Costa and McCrae (Costa, McCrae, 1992). These

measurements have been used in several previous studies, and they have been tested to be

reliable. The measurements for OTE consisted of ten questions measured with a six point likert

scale of answers ranging from strongly disagree (1) to strongly agree (6). The higher the average

score, the higher levels of OTE (see appendix A).

Measurements of SWB were taken from the Warwick-Edinburgh Mental Well-Being

scale, which was used in the research in quality of life and found reliable (Bartram, Sinclair, &

Baldwin, 2013). This measurement consisted of 14 questions measured with a six point likert

scale of answers ranging from strongly disagree (1) to strongly agree (6). The higher average

scores are the higher SWB outcomes (see appendix B).

The measurement for SLE originated in a previous study done by Holmes & Rahe and is

called the Social Readjustment Rating Scale (Holmes & Rahe, 1967). This scale consisted of 42

SLE, and each event had a value depending on how stressful the life event could be. The scores


ranged from 11-100, and the highest possible total value of stress was 1,418. Participants were

asked to check each stressful life event that he or she had experienced in the past year. The

demographics measured in the experiment were age, race, relationship status, gender, and how

many children conceived (see appendix C).

Results

Preliminary:

The testing for the inter item reliability of the questions for two of the variables measured

was done using a Chronbach alpha analysis. Both subscales were found to be reliable while the

subscale for OTE had a standardized alpha of α = .772, and the subscale for SWB had a

standardized alpha of α = .914. The subscale of SLE was taken from a previous study, and it had

already been found to be valid.

Demographics and main study variables were analyzed using Pearson’s correlational

coefficient in order to determine whether or not there was a statistical demographical difference.

Each statistical analysis was tested against an alpha level of α ≤ .05. There was a significant

negative correlation between age and amount of children, r(63) = -.66 p<.01. When age

increased, the amount of children decreased. A significant result was found between the


variables of age and relationship status, r(63) = .29, p < .05. As the age of the participants

increased, the likeliness of being married increased. There was not a significant result found

between the variables of OTE and age, r(63) = -.06, p = .61, age and SWB, r(63) = -.07, p = .61,

age and stress, r(63) = -.10, p = .45, age and race, r(63) = .17, p = .18, OTE and amount of

children, r(63) = .08, p = .53, amount of children and SWB, r(63) = .12, p = .33, amount of

children and stress, r(63) = -.10, p = .84, amount of children and race, r(63) = -.17, p = .18,

relationship status and OTE, r(63) = .74, p = .56, relationship status and SWB, r(63) = -.13, p =

.33, relationship status and stress, r(63) = -.12, p = .35, relationship status and race, r(63) = .21, p

= .11, race and OTE, r(63) = -.03, p = .82, race and SWB, r(63) = -.11, p = .38, or race and

stress, r(63) = .08, p = .54.

Primary:

Measurements were analyzed between the variables of OTE, SWB, and SLE using

Pearson’s correlational coefficient. A statistically significant correlational result was found

showing that as OTE increases, SWB increases, r(63) = .38, p = .02. There was not a

statistically significant correlation between SLE and SWB, r(63) = -.15, p = .25, or OTE and

SLE, r(63) = .21, p =.10. A 2x2 analysis of variance was conducted for the variables of the

hypothesis. Low OTE and low SLE (OTE = < 4.65, SLE < 182) (group 0) while high OTE and


high SLE (OTE ≥ 4.65, SLE ≥ 182) (group 1). There was not a statistical significance between

either of the groups, low OTE and high stress, F(3,64) = 1.17, p = .33, (M = 4.63, SD = .52), and

high OTE and high stress, F(3,64) = 1.17, p = .33 (M = 4.81, SD = .60), (see figure 1).

Discussion

One statistically significant positive correlation found between OTE and SWB supports

empirical research on this topic. The experiment was conducted to understand whether or not

OTE had an effect on how individuals cope with stressful life events in order to have a higher

sense of SWB. While it may not have an effect on the outcome variable of SWB when speaking

in terms of SLE, there is a positive relationship meaning that as OTE increases, SWB increases

as well. This suggests that it does not take an individual with a high level of OTE to cope with

stress correctly, and that coping styles are unequivocal in all areas of human life. Another

interesting result was the fact that as age increases, the likelihood of being married increases.

This result gives reason to believe that older individuals are more relationship oriented, and that

they are not interested in being alone.

There was also no difference in demographics pertaining to all three of the variables

suggesting that males and females are very closely related in their amount of SLE, OTE, and

SWB. This also implies that age, gender, amount of children, and relationship status, do not


impact these variables. Through these findings, we can conclude that stereotypes of these

demographic variables are not valid. The question about whether these variables are related to

stress or well-being often arises. These results show that anybody and everybody endure stress

and heartache. Many individuals across the world feel like they have a harder life than others,

but there are different types of stressful life events that are inevitable in a life time. It does not

matter your age, gender, or relationship status because things just happen.

Limitations

The experiment for this research had some limitations that would be important to adjust

in future studies of this topic. One limitation was that most of the participants were Caucasian

while only two were from a different ethnic group (Hispanic). Because of this limitation, it is

hard to say whether or not race has an impact on any of the variables. In future studies it will be

important to include a greater level of diversity so that it can be a reliable source of racial

information.

It was difficult to find participants for this study because there was not any incentive

given to the participants to complete the survey. Incentive would have employed a larger

sample, and may have also urged the participants to answer the questions more carefully. It is

possible that some questions were answered without thought.


It may have been wise to include more demographic variables. In this study there were

only five demographics, and some important information may have been left out of this study.

The research may have been under-developed and could have included much more information

to further the research.

Implications:

It is important to understand how individuals gain a sense of SWB so that we can insert

suggestions for improvement into the daily lives of our human race. A sense of well-being is

something that everybody battles on a daily basis, and knowing how to improve can make a

difference. It is also appealing to know that there is a positive relationship between OTE and

SWB, validating the opinion that it is healthy for individuals to be open minded and participate

in activities that may seem unfamiliar. It is also important for empirical research to be validated,

so that society really has a good idea about the validity of the results of this research. There have

been many studies on variables that help in the aspect of SWB, and many variables pertain to the

trait of OTE. It is important to further study this because future results may contain significance.

It is always interesting for individuals to see how SLE can impact others because it is something

that they can relate to. Everybody experiences SLE, and everybody wants their feelings to be

validated so that they know that they are not psychologically damaged. People want to know


that the feelings that they are feeling are normal. Reading research on these topics can make an

impact on SWB and self-esteem.

Future Studies:

When this research is conducted in the future, it will be important to employ a larger

sample size with an equal sample of male and female participants. It will also be important for

the sample to have a greater diversity of ethnicity. It may be of interest to create a longer survey,

and a way of knowing the validity of the participant’s answers to analyze whether the participant

is taking the time to answer the questions, or just casually clicking answers to finish the survey

quickly.

Future studies will also include a broader range of demographic variables to further

research and information in this field of study. It is important to gain all possible knowledge

from each subject of study for a variety of reasons including finding extraneous variables. It is

also interesting to see which variables may have a relationship to each other because some may

have never been researched, and these findings can develop new research questions.

Future studies should also include more variables on personality. They should include

other factors from the Big 5 Personality traits including agreeableness, conscientiousness, and


extraversion. It might also be interesting to include other personality types like introversion to

understand more about all of the different personalities and their affect on SLE and SWB.


References

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Table 1

Inter-correlational table including mean and SD of main measures.

Measures Age Children OTE SWB SLE

Age -

Children -0.66** -

OTE -0.06 0.08 -

SWB 0.07 0.12 0.38* -

SLE -0.11 0.03 0.21 0.15 -

M 29.53 1.52 4.63 4.73 231.58

SD 9.74 0.50 0.52 0.68 201.95

Note: * = p ≤ .05 and **= p ≤ .01.


Table 2

Gender and main research variables.

Gender

Variables Female Male t p

OTE 4.62

(0.59)

4.64

(0.33)

0.11 0.92

SWB 4.71

(.68)

4.71

(.67)

0.04 0.97

SLE 221.80

(219.60)

217.10

(135.40)

-0.09 0.93

Note: Mean values are representative of the sample. Standard deviations are

placed under the mean in parenthesis.


Table 3

Demographic Variability

Variables Male Female Total

Age 27.90 30.19 29.04

Relationship Status

Single 8.00 17.00 25.00

Married 8.00 22.00 30.00

Boyfriend/Girlfriend 4.00 10.00 14.00

Race/Ethnicity

Caucasian 19.00 48.00 67.00

Hispanic 1.00 1.00 2.00

Note: Age for male and female is representative of the mean.


Figure 1

Main study 2x2 variables and subjective well-being.

Note: Values are representative of the mean.

4.3

4.4

4.5

4.6

4.7

4.8

4.9

5

Lo OTE Hi OTE

SWB Hi Stress

Lo Stress


Appendix A

Survey for Openness to Experience

1. I believe in the importance of art.

1 2 3 4 5 6

Strongly

Disagree Disagree

Tend to

Disagree

Tend to

Agree Agree

Strongly

Agree

2. I have a vivid imagination.

1 2 3 4 5 6

Strongly

Disagree Disagree

Tend to

Disagree

Tend to

Agree Agree

Strongly

Agree

3. I tend to vote for liberal political candidates.

1 2 3 4 5 6

Strongly

Disagree Disagree

Tend to

Disagree

Tend to

Agree Agree

Strongly

Agree

4. I carry the conversation to a higher level.

1 2 3 4 5 6

Strongly

Disagree Disagree

Tend to

Disagree

Tend to

Agree Agree

Strongly

Agree


5. I enjoy hearing new ideas.

1 2 3 4 5 6

Strongly

Disagree Disagree

Tend to

Disagree

Tend to

Agree Agree

Strongly

Agree

6. I enjoy thinking about things.

1 2 3 4 5 6

Strongly

Disagree Disagree

Tend to

Disagree

Tend to

Agree Agree

Strongly

Agree

7. I can say things beautifully.

1 2 3 4 5 6

Strongly

Disagree Disagree

Tend to

Disagree

Tend to

Agree Agree

Strongly

Agree

8. I enjoy wild flights of fantasy.

1 2 3 4 5 6

Strongly

Disagree Disagree

Tend to

Disagree

Tend to

Agree Agree

Strongly

Agree


9. I get excited about new ideas.

1 2 3 4 5 6

Strongly

Disagree Disagree

Tend to

Disagree

Tend to

Agree Agree

Strongly

Agree

10. I have a rich vocabulary.

1 2 3 4 5 6

Strongly

Disagree Disagree

Tend to

Disagree

Tend to

Agree Agree

Strongly

Agree

Total =


Appendix B

Subjective Well-Being

1. I feel optimistic about life.

1 2 3 4 5 6

Strongly

Disagree Disagree

Tend to

Disagree

Tend to

Agree Agree

Strongly

Agree

2. I feel like I am useful.

1 2 3 4 5 6

Strongly

Disagree Disagree

Tend to

Disagree

Tend to

Agree Agree

Strongly

Agree

3. I feel relaxed

1 2 3 4 5 6

Strongly

Disagree Disagree

Tend to

Disagree

Tend to

Agree Agree

Strongly

Agree

4. I feel interested in other people

1 2 3 4 5 6

Strongly

Disagree Disagree

Tend to

Disagree

Tend to

Agree Agree

Strongly

Agree


5. I have energy to spare

1 2 3 4 5 6

Strongly

Disagree Disagree

Tend to

Disagree

Tend to

Agree Agree

Strongly

Agree

6. I deal with problems well.

1 2 3 4 5 6

Strongly

Disagree Disagree

Tend to

Disagree

Tend to

Agree Agree

Strongly

Agree

7. I am able to think clearly

1 2 3 4 5 6

Strongly

Disagree Disagree

Tend to

Disagree

Tend to

Agree Agree

Strongly

Agree

8. I feel good about myself

1 2 3 4 5 6

Strongly

Disagree Disagree

Tend to

Disagree

Tend to

Agree Agree

Strongly

Agree

9. I feel close to other people

1 2 3 4 5 6

Strongly

Disagree Disagree

Tend to

Disagree

Tend to

Agree Agree

Strongly

Agree


10. I feel confident

1 2 3 4 5 6

Strongly

Disagree Disagree

Tend to

Disagree

Tend to

Agree Agree

Strongly

Agree

11. I am able to make up my own mind

1 2 3 4 5 6

Strongly

Disagree Disagree

Tend to

Disagree

Tend to

Agree Agree

Strongly

Agree

12. I feel loved

1 2 3 4 5 6

Strongly

Disagree Disagree

Tend to

Disagree

Tend to

Agree Agree

Strongly

Agree

13. I am interested in new things

1 2 3 4 5 6

Strongly

Disagree Disagree

Tend to

Disagree

Tend to

Agree Agree

Strongly

Agree


14. I feel cheerful

1 2 3 4 5 6

Strongly

Disagree Disagree

Tend to

Disagree

Tend to

Agree Agree

Strongly

Agree

Total =


Appendix C

Life Event X Value

Had a death of a spouse 100

Gone through a divorce 73

Had a marital separation from mate 65

Been detained in jail or other institution 63

Been through a death of a close family member 63

Had a major personal injury or illness 53

Got marriage 50

Been fired at work 47

Had a marital reconciliation with mate 45

Retired from work 45

Had a major change in the health or behavior of a family member 44

Been pregnant, or somebody carried your baby 40

Had sexual difficulties 39

Gained a new family member 39

Had a major business readjustment 39

Had a major change in finances 38

Had a death of a close friend 37

Changed to a different line of work 36

Had a major change in the number of arguments with spouse 35

Taken on a mortgage 31

Had a foreclosure on a mortgage or loan 30

Had a major change in responsibilities at work 29

Son or daughter has left home 29

Had troubles with the in-laws 29

Had an outstanding personal achievement 28

Had your spouse beginning or ceasing work outside the home 26

Began or ceased formal schooling 26

Had a major change in living condition 25


Life Events Y/N Value

Revised of personal habits 24

Had troubles with the boss 23

Had major changes in working hours or conditions 20

Had a change in residence 20

Changed to a new school 20

Had a major change in usual type of recreation 19

Had a major change in church activity 19

Had a major change in social activities 18

Taken on a loan 17

Had a major change in sleeping habits 16

Had a major change in number of family get-togethers 15

Had a major change in eating habits 15

Gone on vacation 13

Had a minor violation of the law 11




Documents

Senior Research Paper (1)