Embed Size (px)
Citation preview
This article was downloaded by: [Simon Fraser University]On: 10 November 2014, At: 15:04Publisher: RoutledgeInforma Ltd Registered in England and Wales Registered Number: 1072954 Registeredoffice: Mortimer House, 37-41 Mortimer Street, London W1T 3JH, UK
Activities, Adaptation & AgingPublication details, including instructions for authors andsubscription information:http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/waaa20
Senior CentersManoj P. Pardasani PhD a ba Wurzweiler School of Social Work , Yeshiva University , 2495Amsterdam Avenue, New York, NY, 10033, USAb A Better Place, 331 East 86th Street, New York, NY, 10028, USAPublished online: 11 Oct 2008.
To cite this article: Manoj P. Pardasani PhD (2004) Senior Centers, Activities, Adaptation & Aging,28:4, 27-44, DOI: 10.1300/J016v28n04_03
To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1300/J016v28n04_03
PLEASE SCROLL DOWN FOR ARTICLE
Taylor & Francis makes every effort to ensure the accuracy of all the information (the“Content”) contained in the publications on our platform. However, Taylor & Francis,our agents, and our licensors make no representations or warranties whatsoever as tothe accuracy, completeness, or suitability for any purpose of the Content. Any opinionsand views expressed in this publication are the opinions and views of the authors,and are not the views of or endorsed by Taylor & Francis. The accuracy of the Contentshould not be relied upon and should be independently verified with primary sourcesof information. Taylor and Francis shall not be liable for any losses, actions, claims,proceedings, demands, costs, expenses, damages, and other liabilities whatsoever orhowsoever caused arising directly or indirectly in connection with, in relation to or arisingout of the use of the Content.
This article may be used for research, teaching, and private study purposes. Anysubstantial or systematic reproduction, redistribution, reselling, loan, sub-licensing,systematic supply, or distribution in any form to anyone is expressly forbidden. Terms &Conditions of access and use can be found at http://www.tandfonline.com/page/terms-and-conditions
Senior Centers:Focal Points of Community-Based
Services for the Elderly
Manoj P. Pardasani
ABSTRACT. This study explores the diversity of programs and ser-vices offered by senior centers in New York State, and identifies factorsthat may impact on the levels of participation among the elderly. Twohundred nineteen (n = 219) senior centers, recreation clubs, nutritionsites, and local Area Agencies of Aging in New York State were sur-veyed and comprise the study population. The diversity of programs andservices offered, characteristics of participants, models of service uti-lized, varied types of senior centers, and the hurdles to participation areidentified. The study found that senior centers provide a vast array ofrecreational and socialization opportunities, in addition to essential so-cial services, playing a significant role in the aging continuum of care.Although the study was limited to New York State, the implications arerelevant to senior centers nationwide. [Article copies available for a fee fromThe Haworth Document Delivery Service: 1-800-HAWORTH. E-mail address:<[email protected]> Website: <http://www.HaworthPress.com>© 2004 by The Haworth Press, Inc. All rights reserved.]
KEYWORDS. Senior centers, services, staff, administrators, diverseprograms, preventative care
Manoj P. Pardasani, PhD, is Adjunct Professor, Wurzweiler School of Social Work,Yeshiva University, 2495 Amsterdam Avenue, New York, NY 10033, and Program Direc-tor, A Better Place, 331 East 86th Street, New York, NY 10028 (E-mail: [email protected]).
Activities, Adaptation & Aging, Vol. 28(4) 2004http://www.haworthpress.com/web/AAA
2004 by The Haworth Press, Inc. All rights reserved.Digital Object Identifier: 10.1300/J016v28n04_03 27
Dow
nloa
ded
by [
Sim
on F
rase
r U
nive
rsity
] at
15:
04 1
0 N
ovem
ber
2014
This study explores the diversity of programs and services offered bysenior centers in New York State, and identifies factors that may impacton the levels of participation among the elderly. Two hundred nineteen(n = 219) senior centers, recreation clubs, nutrition sites, and local AreaAgencies of Aging in New York State were surveyed and comprise thestudy population. The diversity of programs and services offered, char-acteristics of participants, models of service utilized, varied types of se-nior centers and the hurdles to participation are identified. The studyfound that senior centers provide a vast array of recreational and social-ization opportunities, in addition to essential social services, playing asignificant role in the aging continuum of care. Although the study waslimited to New York State, the implications are relevant to senior cen-ters nationwide.
BACKGROUND
The population of Americans aged 65 and over is rapidly expanding.Currently, one in every eight Americans is over the age of 65 (35 mil-lion), comprising 12.4% of the total population (AARP, 2002). Thenumber of individuals aged 65 and over is expected to grow to 70 mil-lion by 2030. The senior population in 2030 will represent 20% of thetotal population of the U.S. (AARP, 2002). The major reasons for thispopulation explosion are the aging of the “baby boom” generation andan increase in the life expectancy of all Americans. According to anAARP report, the life expectancy of people aged 65 is an additional 17.7years (2002).
With the explosive growth in the senior population, senior centershave gained a prominent role in the provision of services for the elderly.The National Institute for Senior Centers reports that there are currently16,000 senior centers serving the elderly in the U.S. (NCOA, 2002).The National Center for Health Statistics (1986) reported that 15% of allAmericans aged 65 and over had attended a senior center at least once inthe past year, totaling 4 million individuals (NCOA, 2000). Since thisstudy did not include individuals aged 60 to 64, Krout (1998) estimatesthat nearly 10 million senior citizens attend a senior center annually.Given the large number of Americans who attend senior centers or availthemselves of the services offered, senior centers play a significant ifnot a vital role in the lives of the American elderly.
John Krout, a leading researcher of Senior Centers, defined seniorcenters as “designated places that play an important role in the aging
28 ACTIVITIES, ADAPTATION & AGING
Dow
nloa
ded
by [
Sim
on F
rase
r U
nive
rsity
] at
15:
04 1
0 N
ovem
ber
2014
services network to make a broad spectrum of activities and servicesavailable to older persons on a frequent and regular basis as a part or re-sult of a community planning process” (1998, p. 4). Gerontologists havestressed the significance of senior centers in the continuum of long termcare and their value as a form of preventive care (Leest, 1995). Theyhave, therefore, been designated as focal points to assist in the planning,coordination and delivery of comprehensive services to the communitydwelling elderly (Krout, 1998). The Administration on Aging hashelped establish multipurpose senior centers nationwide to serve as theforemost source of vital community based social and nutrition supportsthat help older Americans to remain independent in their communities(AoA, 2000). Senior centers play a vital role by providing opportunitiesfor socialization, volunteer development, information and referral, ad-vocacy, education, outreach, nutrition, and preventive care. They notonly provide opportunities for socialization in a centralized location,but also provide access and homebound supportive services that helpdeter dependence on institutionalized care, such as hospitals and nurs-ing homes. Thus, they perform a vital function in preventive care by al-lowing the elderly to retain their independence and self-reliance for thelongest duration possible.
EMPIRICAL BASE
Changing Demographics of the Elderly
The American elderly are experiencing increasing diversity and het-erogeneity among their cohorts. Currently, the young old (ages 65 to 74)comprise 56% of the total elderly population, while the oldest-old (ages85 and over) comprise 11% of the population. The middle-old (ages 75to 84) comprise 33% of the total population and constitute the bulk ofcurrent senior center membership. However, this demographic distribu-tion is likely to change in the coming decades. As people live longer andhealthier lives and as the baby-boom generation ages, the young-oldwill comprise 44% of the total elderly population in the year 2050. Thebiggest increase will be in the population of the frail elderly (ages 85and over) who will comprise 23% of the elderly population (AoA,2002). Current research on senior centers shows that members are agingin place and are not being replaced by their younger cohorts (theyoung-old). The growing proportion of the young-old and the old-est-old create programming challenges for senior centers as they at-
Manoj P. Pardasani 29
Dow
nloa
ded
by [
Sim
on F
rase
r U
nive
rsity
] at
15:
04 1
0 N
ovem
ber
2014
tempt to diversify their services to meet divergent needs and interestswhile promoting integration among the various aging cohorts.
In addition to the challenges that result from the diversity of ages, theelderly will also witness a change in the racial distribution of their co-horts. There are an estimated 5 million minority elderly in the U.S. Thissegment of the population is expected to grow to approximately 25 mil-lion by 2030, when one out of every three individuals aged 65 and overwill be non-Caucasian (AARP, 2002). Thus, any programs or servicesoffered to the elderly population will have to take into account the dif-ferences within the aging cohort, as well as the specific needs of eachsub-group. Additionally, limited information is available regarding de-mographic characteristics of current participants. Thus, meeting the di-verse needs of the consumers will pose significant challenges.
Models of Service
Researchers have identified two basic types of senior center models:the social agency model and the voluntary organization model (Litwin,1987; Taietz, 1976). The social service agency model focuses on pro-viding much needed services (such as financial assistance, case man-agement, nutrition, and referrals) to the poor and frail elderly while thevoluntary participation model of senior centers which tends to attractrelatively affluent, better educated and socially active elderly (such assenior clubs), provides older persons access to social and recreationalopportunities. However, with the advent of multipurpose senior centers,a new model of service has evolved. This model of service combines therecreational and socialization opportunities afforded by the voluntaryparticipation model and the nutritional and case management servicesoffered by the social services model. This study explores which modelsof senior centers are currently prevalent and how they impact on theirlevel of programming.
Senior Center Programming
The empirical growth of senior centers in the last few decades ismatched by a growth in the number and diversity of programs and ser-vices offered by senior centers. Senior centers have attempted to expandtheir programs and services to meet the needs of the rapidly changingpopulation. From their advent in 1943, senior center programs haveevolved in their complexity and variety, reflecting their goal to reachout to the broadest cross-section of the aging population. Studies con-
30 ACTIVITIES, ADAPTATION & AGING
Dow
nloa
ded
by [
Sim
on F
rase
r U
nive
rsity
] at
15:
04 1
0 N
ovem
ber
2014
ducted by researchers in the last three decades have shown a significantgrowth in the diversity of programs and services offered (Krout, 1985;Leanse & Wagener, 1975).
In a study conducted in 1975, National Council on the Aging (1975)offered the following data on programs:
• 42% of the senior centers surveyed provided less than 3 services,• 5% provided less than the three basic services (education, recre-
ation and information referral),• 31% reported 3 basic services plus volunteer opportunities, and• 22% reported 3 basic services, plus volunteer opportunities and
health services (Leanse and Wagener, 1975, p. 29).
Ten years later, Krout (1985) surveyed a random sample of 755 se-nior centers and classified the services they offered into 7 categories:access, health and nutrition, in-home support, income supplement, spe-cial services, information and assistance, personal counseling and men-tal health services. Four additional categories of programs (education,leadership opportunities, recreational and volunteer opportunities) werealso identified. He reported that the mean number of services offeredwas 11.1 and the mean number of programs offered by the centers was17.6. Twenty-five percent (25%) of the centers polled offered between15 to 17 programs or activities, while 43% offer 10 to 14 programs.With respect to services, 17% provided 21 to 25 services, 22% provided16 to 20 services, and only 12% provided 6 to 10 services (p. 467).
Gelfand, Bechil, and Chester (1992) conducted a study of seniorcenters in Maryland to identify a minimum core of services and pro-grams that need to be provided by senior centers. They identified crafts,exercise, information and referral, meals, opportunities for socializing,and transportation as essential to the programming core of any seniorcenter (p. 159). A recent study conducted by the New York City De-partment for the Aging (DFTA) obtained similar results when theyreported that lunch, educational programs, recreational activities,health education, fitness classes, information, and case assistancewere the most commonly utilized services (2002).
In recent years, there has been a greater emphasis on programs and ser-vices related to primary health promotion, mental health services, elderabuse prevention, caregiver support and community ombudsman facilita-tion (Arnold, 2002; Lin & Knapp, 1984; Manigbas, 2002; Phelan et al.,2002). This expanding roster of services and programs reflects the goal ofpublic funders (federal, state and local) to provide vital preventive ser-
Manoj P. Pardasani 31
Dow
nloa
ded
by [
Sim
on F
rase
r U
nive
rsity
] at
15:
04 1
0 N
ovem
ber
2014
vices to the elderly within their communities to deter or delay long terminstitutionalization, a significantly more expensive proposition.
There is a dearth of literature regarding current senior center pro-gramming efforts. Few studies have attempted to gather informationabout the array of services and programs currently being offered by thesenior centers and what, if any, are the factors that influence participa-tion. This study aims to explore the diversity of programs and servicesoffered by senior centers in New York State, and identify factors thatmay impact on participation among the elderly.
METHODOLOGY
The sample consisted of 750 senior center directors or administratorsfrom New York State. These centers and/or clubs were identified from alist of senior centers obtained from the New York State County Officesfor the Aging. Questionnaires were mailed to the administrators/direc-tors of all the senior centers, clubs, nutrition sites, and senior programslisted. Participation was entirely voluntary and no identifying data wascollected. A total of 219 responses were received yielding a responserate of 29.2%. Estimates of acceptable response rates for mail surveysof professionals range from 20% to 50% (Dignam, 2001; Dillman,1999). Although the response rate was low (partly due to the length ofthe questionnaire), the sample allows us to observe trends and patternsof service within this field.
A survey questionnaire consisting of 50 items was created specific tothis study to identify the factors that influence program decisions of se-nior center leadership. A panel of three senior center directors assistedin evaluating the content validity of the instrument and suggested minorchanges in reference to terminology and definitions. Due to the natureof this study and time constraints, the reliability of the instrument wasnot evaluated. It is hoped that future application of this instrument insimilar settings nationwide will help determine its level of reliability.
Using the Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS), data wereevaluated to describe the types of programs and services offered, as wellas the models of service, characteristics of participants and the obstacleto participation.
With respect to programs and services, the author provided a compre-hensive list of 44 programs and services in the survey questionnaire whichwere classified into five main categories: recreational programs, volunteerprograms, health programs, nutrition services, and social services.
32 ACTIVITIES, ADAPTATION & AGING
Dow
nloa
ded
by [
Sim
on F
rase
r U
nive
rsity
] at
15:
04 1
0 N
ovem
ber
2014
FINDINGS
As presented in Table 1, multipurpose senior centers comprised thelargest proportion (57.1%) of the study sample, followed by seniorclubs (13.7%), senior centers (12.8%), and nutrition sites (7.3%). Withrespect to programming, multipurpose senior centers offered the great-est diversity of programs and services (M = 24.9, SD = 8.5), followed bysenior centers (M = 15.2, SD = 8.6), nutrition sites (M = 15.2, SD = 7.8)and senior clubs (M = 7.6, SD = 5.1). The large number of programs of-fered by nutrition sites may result from their emphasis on health and nu-tritional education for their consumers and their ability to refer theirparticipants to affiliated agencies for additional services. Multipur-pose senior centers also serve the largest average number of partici-pants (M = 1312.6, SD = 2214.8), followed by senior centers (M =336.2, SD = 568.3), nutrition sites (M = 267.5, SD = 189.3) and seniorclubs (247.2, SD = 484.3). It is important to note there were wide varia-tions in the average number of participants, and membership in seniorcenters varied from only 25 members in some senior clubs to severalthousand participants in large multipurpose senior centers. The locationof a senior center, its model of services, and the diversity of its programsand services had an impact on the level of regions was relatively similarin the study sample. However, centers located in rural regions com-prised just 20% of the sample (Table 1). With respect to programming,urban senior centers offered the largest number of services and pro-grams when compared with their suburban and rural counterparts. Ad-ditionally, urban senior centers were more likely to offer culturally andlinguistically diverse programming than those located in rural and sub-urban regions.
Of the three models of service identified, the voluntary participationmodel (mainly volunteer and recreational programs) and the social ser-vices model (mainly social services, nutritional, and health services)were equally represented in the sample (36.5% and 37.4%, respec-tively). The mixed model (a combination of social services andrecreational programs) comprised the smallest segment of the sample(26%), but offered the greatest number of programs and services (M =26.2, SD = 8.8), followed by the social services model (M = 24.2, SD =8.9), and the voluntary participation model (M = 13.3, SD = 8.6) whichoffered the least diversity of programs.
Table 2 shows that field trips (86.3%), bingo (80.8%), cards (80.8%),arts and crafts (68.9%), educational courses (68%), and discussiongroups (61.6%) continue to be the most popular recreational programs
Manoj P. Pardasani 33
Dow
nloa
ded
by [
Sim
on F
rase
r U
nive
rsity
] at
15:
04 1
0 N
ovem
ber
2014
offered by senior centers. Nearly two-thirds (64.4%) of all senior cen-ters offer opportunities for volunteering to their members within the fa-cility and at least 42% offer opportunities within the community. One infour senior centers (24.2%) offer vocational training and/or placementservices to their members.
With reference to health services, a significant majority of seniorcenters offer health education (72.6%) and health screenings (60.7%).
34 ACTIVITIES, ADAPTATION & AGING
TABLE 1. Classification of Senior Centers
Frequency Percent
Type of Center/Program
Senior Center 28 12.8
Multipurpose Senior Center 125 57.1
Senior Club 30 13.7
Nutrition Site 16 7.3
Other 20 9.1
TOTAL 219 100.0
Neighborhood Setting
Urban 85 38.8
Suburban 88 40.2
Rural 46 21.0
TOTAL 219 100.0
Focus of Programming
Mostly Volunteer Programs 80 36.5
Mixed (Volunteer and Social 57 26.0
Service Programs)
Mostly Social Services 82 37.4
TOTAL 219 100.0
Dow
nloa
ded
by [
Sim
on F
rase
r U
nive
rsity
] at
15:
04 1
0 N
ovem
ber
2014
Manoj P. Pardasani 35
TABLE 2. Types of Programs Offered
Frequency PercentRecreational Programs
Field Trips 189 86.3Bingo 177 80.8Card Playing 177 80.8Arts & Crafts 151 68.9Educational Courses 149 68.0Discussion Groups 135 61.6Library 102 46.6Newsletter 102 46.6Performing Arts 80 36.5Quilting 63 28.8Dominoes 52 23.7Creative Writing 44 20.1Culturally-Specific 44 20.1ESL 28 12.1
Volunteer Programs
Volunteering in Senior Center 141 64.4Volunteer in Community 92 42.0Volunteer Training 78 35.6Social Action Groups 54 24.7Job Training and/or Placement 53 24.2Thrift Shop 38 17.4
Health Programs
Health Education 159 72.6Exercise/Fitness 157 71.7Health Screening 133 60.7Individual Counseling 85 38.8Yoga 64 29.2Group Counseling 60 27.4
Nutrition Programs
Nutrition Education 171 78.1Meals On-Site 159 72.6Home-Delivered Meals 105 47.9
Dow
nloa
ded
by [
Sim
on F
rase
r U
nive
rsity
] at
15:
04 1
0 N
ovem
ber
2014
36 ACTIVITIES, ADAPTATION & AGING
TABLE 2 (continued)
Frequency PercentSocial Services
Information & Referral 181 82.6Consumer Information 138 63.0Ass't with Entitlements 127 58.0Financial/Tax Assistance 117 53.4Telephone Reassurance 100 45.7Needs Assessments 98 44.7Housing Assistance 75 34.2Legal Aid 70 32.0Crisis Intervention 70 32.0Support for Caregivers 56 25.6Home Visiting Service 50 22.8Financial Assistance with Meals 42 19.2Adult Day Program (social) 34 15.5Financial Assistance with Rent 22 10.0Adult Day Program (medical) 10 4.6
Administrators' Perception ofMost Utilized Programs
Meals 91 40.5Exercise 26 11.8Information & Referral 22 10.0
Do you offer programs in morethan one language?
Yes 47 21.5No 168 76.7
Do you offer programs in culturally specific programs?
Yes 48 21.9No 168 76.7
Most Serious Obstacle to Participation
Lack of Transportation 68 31.1Lack of Interest 56 25.6Lack of Access 16 7.3Fear of Stigmatization 16 7.3Language Barriers 8 3.7Lack of Need 8 3.7Lack of Information 8 3.7Lack of Access and Transportation 8 3.7
Dow
nloa
ded
by [
Sim
on F
rase
r U
nive
rsity
] at
15:
04 1
0 N
ovem
ber
2014
The study revealed the growing popularity of exercise (71.7%) pro-grams such as fitness centers, aerobics instruction, and yoga classes.Mental health services such as individual counseling (38.8%) and sup-port groups (27.4%) were provided in at least one-third of all centers(Table 2).
Nutritional programs continue to be a popular service offered by se-nior centers. Nearly 80% of all senior centers sampled offered sometype of meal program for their members. At least half of all centers alsoprovided home-delivered meals (48%) for their constituents (Table 2).
Information and referrals (82.6%), consumer information (63%), assis-tance with entitlements (58%), assistance with taxes (53.4%), telephone re-assurance (45.7%) and needs assessments (44.7%) continue to be the mostfrequently offered types of social services. Of interest to researchers is theattention being paid to services for caregivers (25.6%), home visiting ser-vices (22.8%), social (15.5%) and medical (4.6%) day programs for olderadults at some senior centers (Table 2). These services represent the mis-sion of senior centers to allow the elderly to “age in place” within their owncommunities through the provision of vital preventative services.
In comparison to senior center program studies cited earlier (Krout,1985; Leanse & Wagener, 1975), 17.4% of the sample offered 10 or lessprograms, 33.3% offered 11-20 programs and services, and 29.2% of-fered 21-30 programs and services. One out of every five centers in-cluded in the sample (20.1%) offered more than 30 programs andservices. When analysed for types of programs, nearly half of all re-spondents (49.8%) offered a combination of recreational and volunteerprograms, as well as health, nutritional, and social services. One out offive respondents offered at least 4 types of programs, while 9.1% of-fered only a single type of program (mostly recreational programs).
When administrators of senior centers were asked to identify themost utilized service they offered, nearly half (40.5%) identified mealprograms, followed by exercise programs (11.8%) and information andreferral services (10%). Only one-fifth (21.5%) of all respondents re-ported offering programs in more than one language. The number of se-nior centers offering culturally diverse programming (22%) was alsorelatively low for the study sample (Table 2).
The respondents (administrators) were also asked to identify themost serious obstacles to participation among the elderly (Table 2). Intheir perception, lack of transportation (31.1%) was the most significantobstacle, followed by lack of interest (25.6%). An equal proportion ofadministrators posited lack of access (7.3%) and fear of stigmatization(7.3%) among their elderly constituents as serious hindrances.
Manoj P. Pardasani 37
Dow
nloa
ded
by [
Sim
on F
rase
r U
nive
rsity
] at
15:
04 1
0 N
ovem
ber
2014
This study shows that an overwhelming majority of senior center par-ticipants in NYS are Caucasian (80%), while African American (9.2%),Hispanic Americans (7.3%), and Asian Americans (2.4%) comprise theremainder of the participant pool (Table 3). However, the study showedsignificant variations in the racial composition of senior center mem-bership as centers located in ethnic urban neighborhoods reported alarger proportion of minority members. The middle-old (ages 75 to 84)comprise nearly half of all senior center participants (Table 3). Onethird of all members are the young-old (ages 65 to 74), while the frail el-derly (ages 85 and over) constitute the smallest proportion of the partici-pant pool (15.1%).
DISCUSSION
The findings of this study reveal that senior centers offer a vast arrayof programs and services that provide opportunities for socializationand recreation and promote the health and general well-being of theirparticipants. The association between participation in senior center activ-ities and positive life satisfaction has been documented by several re-
38 ACTIVITIES, ADAPTATION & AGING
TABLE 3. Characteristics of Senior Center Participants
Mean Std.
Percent Deviation
Ethnic Distribution
Caucasian American 79.9 31.2
African American 9.2 20.5
Hispanic American 7.3 17.3
Asian American 2.4 9.9
Other 0.9 7.3
Age Distribution
65-74 years 35.5 23.1
75-84 years 49.4 22.9
Over 85 years 13.7 12.1
Dow
nloa
ded
by [
Sim
on F
rase
r U
nive
rsity
] at
15:
04 1
0 N
ovem
ber
2014
searchers (Kirk & Alessi, 2002; Kirk, Waldrop & Rittner, 2001; Leest,1995). However, if senior centers are to retain their relevance to the agingcontinuum of care, they need to innovate and diversify their programs inorder to meet the varied and complex needs of their consumers. Thisstudy thus highlights some pertinent issues.
Ethnic Diversity of Participants
As reported earlier, the elderly population is growing increasingly ra-cially, ethnically, and culturally diverse. This study revealed that minor-ities continued to be under-represented among participants (only 20%of the participant pool). Studies of active minority participants haveshown that minority participation is likely to increase, if programs of-fered are culturally and linguistically diverse (Lai, 2001; Pardasani,2003). Many ethnic minorities prefer to socialize within their own com-munities and in their own native language (Pardasani, 2003). Increasingthe representation of ethnic minority staff would enable senior centersto offer culturally specific and linguistically diverse programs. Unlesssenior centers seize the initiative to reach out to this under served seg-ment of the population, they will find their relevance to the overall ag-ing community significantly reduced.
Age Diversity of Participants
Ethnographers have noted the rapidly aging participant pool of seniorcenters. In the 1970s, most senior center participants happened to be intheir 60s, while current studies show that the average age of senior cen-ter participants is mid-70s (Harris & Associates, 1975; DFTA, 2002;Krout, 1994). Senior center administrators are concerned that the rap-idly aging participants are not being replaced by their younger cohorts.They realize that the young-old may be reluctant to socialize with otherswho may be several decades older and have different needs and inter-ests. The socioeconomic and educational backgrounds of the young el-derly are also greatly different from that of their older cohorts. Thus,senior centers must offer programs that attract the young-old to their fa-cilities while trying to retain their current participants, as well as servethose who are growing older and increasingly frail. The professionaland lay leadership must walk a fine balance between their goal of diver-sification and their mission of integration in order to serve the broadestcross-section of the elderly.
Manoj P. Pardasani 39
Dow
nloa
ded
by [
Sim
on F
rase
r U
nive
rsity
] at
15:
04 1
0 N
ovem
ber
2014
Geographical Location of Senior Centers
The study found that multi-purpose senior centers located in urbanregions served the greatest number of participants and offered the larg-est number of programs. This finding is significant when evaluated withreference to the increasing ethnic diversity of the elderly. Many urbansenior centers are located in neighborhoods with a large proportion ofone specific ethnic minority group. In such cases, it is easier for the ad-ministrators and staff to offer programs that cater to the specific culturaland linguistic needs of the communities they serve, thus decreasing theneed for diverse programs. However, in more diverse neighborhoods(usually suburban and rural regions) where the population of the elderlyis highly dispersed and the availability of senior centers is limited, thetask of outreach and targeted programming for diverse constituents ismore complex. In such regions, the leadership must make a concertedeffort to recruit participants from various ethnic or racial minoritygroups. In order to attract new members, senior centers must employstaff who represent the various groups being targeted, thus increasingthe chances of culturally specific and linguistically diverse programs ofbeing created and offered to potential participants.
The primary goal of senior centers is to assist the elderly in living in-dependently to the longest extent possible. However, as they grow in-creasingly fragile and their mobility is limited, senior centers can workin conjunction with nursing homes, assisted living, and supported hous-ing programs to facilitate referrals, transfers and ensure continuity ofcare. Additionally, in rural regions, where the elderly are highly dis-persed, senior centers and assisted living programs can coordinate ser-vices and share resources in order to increase access for all elderlywithin their communities.
With reference to becoming focal points of service, the issue of trans-portation is of vital significance to increasing or sustaining participationamong the elderly, particularly in non-urban settings. The majority ofsenior center administrators identified lack of adequate transportationand access as primary obstacles to participation among the elderly.Low-cost, efficient and reliable forms of transportation are necessary toallow seniors to access senior center services and programs. Currentmodes of transportation such as access-a-ride services are over-sub-scribed and are unable to meet the needs of the growing elderly popula-tion. Public funding for alternative means of transportation wouldenable the elderly to receive vital social and nutritional services, as wellas limit their isolation within their communities.
40 ACTIVITIES, ADAPTATION & AGING
Dow
nloa
ded
by [
Sim
on F
rase
r U
nive
rsity
] at
15:
04 1
0 N
ovem
ber
2014
Necessity of Coordination and Community Linkages
Multipurpose senior centers and those based on the mixed model ofservice offer the greatest diversity of programs. Such centers receive agreater level of funding from a variety of public sources (federal, stateand county). Thus, they have the physical capacity, availability of quali-fied staff, and financial resources to offer a wide array of services in acentralized location. However, small-scale senior centers and clubshave significantly lower fiscal budgets and lack the resources and nec-essary personnel to meet the diverse needs of their elderly constituents.In such cases, it would be beneficial for senior centers, clubs, and othercommunity-based organizations serving the elderly to share facilitiesand personnel to coordinate their programs and services. The establish-ment of linkages between various agencies would allow them to serve agreater number of elders, offer a greater array of services and programs(from multiple locations) to meet their varied needs, and result in fiscalsavings by preventing unnecessary duplication of programming. In ad-dition, senior centers can create service linkages with assisted livingprograms and nursing homes, in order to coordinate programs and refer-rals. As focal points on the aging continuum of care, both senior centersand adult residential programs can work in coordination with one an-other to ensure the highest level of care for all elderly constituents intheir communities.
Innovation
The main goal of the senior center movement has been to offer social-ization opportunities for their elderly members and provide servicesthat allow them to live independently within their communities. Themandate for senior centers has been expanded to include a focus on pre-venting or delaying long-term institutionalized care. Policy makers be-lieve that such a mandate will allow seniors to live their lives withdignity and caring, while resulting in substantial savings for the govern-ment. This study showed that some senior centers have expanded theirprogramming to include social and medical daycare for their frail mem-bers and support groups for caregivers in recognition of the expandedmandate. Senior centers have also created new programs (fitness cen-ters, financial management courses, educational courses) to attract theyounger cohorts. It may be unrealistic to expect senior centers of allsizes to offer all types of programs and services. However, through theestablishment of service linkages and unique sharing opportunities,
Manoj P. Pardasani 41
Dow
nloa
ded
by [
Sim
on F
rase
r U
nive
rsity
] at
15:
04 1
0 N
ovem
ber
2014
senior centers can increase their reach within their communities. Con-ducting needs assessments, creating unique marketing initiatives, andconsulting with elders within the community will enable senior centers toserve the broadest section of elderly population within their communities.
Funding
Most senior centers and nutrition sites in receipt of public funds arerequired to offer social and nutritional services at no cost to their mem-bers. They may, however, request voluntary contributions from theirmembers. Smaller recreational programs and senior clubs collect mem-bership dues to support their operations. However, these dues are insuf-ficient to support any diversification of services. If senior centers are toexpand their services and innovate, they need to reduce their reliance onpublic funding and look at alternative means of support. Offering spe-cific recreational programs for a small fee, allowing for-profit organiza-tions to market products to their clientele in return for a share of theproceeds, and offering their expertise as informational resources andcreating philanthropic opportunities for elderly constituents to contrib-ute to senior center programs can enable senior centers to raise theirbudgetary allocations and diversify programming.
Implications for Activity Professionals
This study raises some important concerns for programming person-nel and administrators. Activity professionals need to provide a widerarray of programs that meet the needs of a diverse clientele. Culturallysensitive and linguistically diverse programs would enable a larger seg-ment of the elderly population to benefit from the services being pro-vided. Practitioners, administrators, and staff must give importance tocoordination and cooperation between agencies, to expand the range ofactivities and programs being offered, avoid duplication of services,and conserve scarce resources. Conduct of formal or informal needs as-sessment surveys are also necessary to ascertain the interests of the el-derly consumers and plan activities accordingly.
CONCLUSION
The senior center was created to transition a relatively healthy, inde-pendent, older population out of a state of limited socialization and ac-
42 ACTIVITIES, ADAPTATION & AGING
Dow
nloa
ded
by [
Sim
on F
rase
r U
nive
rsity
] at
15:
04 1
0 N
ovem
ber
2014
cess into a setting that enveloped them in security, companionship,activity, transportation, nutritional support, and advocacy. Senior cen-ters will thrive in the future and be considered as reliable focal points ofcommunity-based services if they continue to provide programs andservices for the elderly with different interests and from different back-grounds. Senior centers of the future will be unique and creative entitiesat the cutting edge of the gerontological revolution.
REFERENCES
Administration on Aging (2000). Senior Centers. Washington, DC: Author.Administration on Aging (2002). The Older Population. Washington, DC: Author.American Association of Retired Persons (2002). A Profile of Older Americans. Wash-
ington, DC: Author.Arnold, J. (2002). Exercise for any body. My Generation, 8, 14-18.Dignam, M. (2001). Survey response rates: Mail and electronic surveys compared.
Marketing Fast Facts, June 2001.Dillman, Don A. (1999). Mail and other self-administered surveys in the 21st century:
The beginning of a new era. Gallup Research Poll.Gelfand, D., Bechil, W., & Chester, R. (1991). Core programs and services at senior
centers. Journal of Gerontological Social Work, 17(1/2), 145-161.Harris, L. & Associates. (1975). The Myth and Reality of Aging in America. Washing-
ton DC: The National Council on the Aging, Inc.Kirk, A. & Alessi, H. (2002). Rural senior service centers: A study of the impact on
quality of life issues. Activities, Adaptation & Aging, 26(3), 51-64.Kirk, A., Waldrop, D., & Rittner, B. (2001). More than a meal: The relationship be-
tween social support and quality of life in daytime meal program participants. Jour-nal of Gerontological Social Work, 35(1), 3-20.
Krout, J. (1985). Senior Center activities and services: Findings from a national survey.Research on Aging, 7(3), 455-471.
Krout, J. (1994). Changes in senior center participant characteristics during the 1980s.Journal of Gerontological Social Work, 22(1/2), 41-60.
Krout, J. (1998). Senior Centers in America. 3rd Ed. New York: Greenwood Press.Lai, D. (2001). Use of Senior Center services of the elderly Chinese immigrants. Jour-
nal of Gerontological Social Work, 35(2), p. 59-79Leanse, J. & Wagener, L. (1975). Senior Centers: A report of senior group programs in
America, p. 29. Washington, DC: The National Council on the Aging, Inc.Leest, L. (1995). Senior Centers and life satisfaction. Dissertation. New York, N.Y.:
Yeshiva University.Linn, J. A. & Knapp, D. L. (1980). Senior Centers in the continuum of services: Linking
the aging and mental health systems, p. 1-6. Detroit, MI: Adult Service Centers, Inc.Litwin, H. (1987). Administrative correlates of senior center programs. Journal of Ap-
plied Gerontology, 6(2), 201-212.
Manoj P. Pardasani 43
Dow
nloa
ded
by [
Sim
on F
rase
r U
nive
rsity
] at
15:
04 1
0 N
ovem
ber
2014
Manigbas, M. (2002). Multiservice organization combats elder abuse in Chinese com-munity. Generations, 26(3), 70-71.
New York City Department for the Aging-DFTA. (2002). Senior Center UtilizationStudy. New York: Author.
Pardasani, M. (2003). Senior Centers: Patterns of programs and services. Dissertation.New York, NY: Yeshiva University.
Phelan, E., Williams, B., Leveille, S., Snyder, S., Wagner & LoGerfo, J. (2002). Out-comes of a community-based dissemination of the health enhancement program.Journal of American Geriatrics Society, 50(9), 1519-1524.
Taietz, P. (1976). Two conceptual models of the senior center. Journal of Gerontology, 31,219-222.
The National Council on the Aging (2001). A national survey of health and supportiveservices in the aging network. Washington, DC: Author
The National Council on the Aging (2003). Facts about Senior Centers. Washington DC:Author.
RECEIVED: 12/03REVISED: 03/04
ACCEPTED: 04/04
44 ACTIVITIES, ADAPTATION & AGING
Dow
nloa
ded
by [
Sim
on F
rase
r U
nive
rsity
] at
15:
04 1
0 N
ovem
ber
2014
