Second Semester 2013 2014 Assistant Professor Abed Schokry

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Islamic University of Gaza - Palestine

Department of Industrial Engineering

EIND 2303: Work Design and Industrial Ergonomics

Chapter 13

Second Semester 2013 – 2014Assistant Professor Abed Schokry


Learning Outcomes

After completing this chapter You should be able to:

• Define the term macroergonomics,

• Distinguish between macroergonomics and microergonomics

• Discuss the concept of macroergonomics,

• Know when and how to apply macroergonomics guidelines,

• Describe Maslow’s motivation theory

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Outline

• Introduction• Macro-ergonomics Concept• Relation of macro- to micro-ergonomics design of work

system• Six (Macro)-Ergonomics Guidelines


Scope of Human Factors Engineering/ Introduction

• Different levels of study and intervention:

– Micro-level• Human-machine interface technology –hardware

ergonomics• Human-environment interface technology –environmental

ergonomics• User-interface technology

– Macro-level• Organization-machine interface technology

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Introduction

Macro Ergonomics:

Job Design,Job Content,Organization,

Culture

Micro ergonomics:Environment,

Physical,Cognition

Macro Ergonomics:

Fitting the OrganizationTo

The MAN

MicroErgonomics:

Fitting the taskTo

The MAN


Introduction (cont.)

Relation of macro- to micro-ergonomics design of work system

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What is Macro-Ergonomics?

• Macro-Ergonomics also called socio-technical, the study of the society/technology interface. The study of the consequences of technology for social relationships, processes, and institutions. (Ex. Computers and Society)

• The optimization of organizational and work systems design through consideration of relevant personnel, technological and environmental variables and their interactions. (H.W. Hendrick)


Macro-ergonomics Concepts

• The goal of macro-ergonomics is a completely harmonized work system at both the macro- and micro-ergonomic level which results in improved productivity, job satisfaction, health and safety, increased productivity & quality, and employee commitment.

• Socio-technical system model

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Possible Misfits

• Worker lacks skills/knowledge base

• Employees do not agree with management policies

• Technology is not well matched for the worker/ task/ organization

• Organization is harming the environment

• Outside factors influence work


How can Macroergonomics Help?

• Analyze the whole system• Determine the “fit” of each element• Consider aspects other than just changing the job

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Balance Model

Organization

Tools/Technology

Environment

Tasks

Human

• All elements interact - any change in one will affect other elements

• If all elements are not designed to fit together, there may be a big misfit

• Misfits lead to safety, productivity, efficiency, quality problems


Balance Model (Model Picture)

Technology

Task

Organization

Environment

Individual

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Six (Macro)-Ergonomics Guidelines

1. Plan the work, then work the plan2. Reward results3. Optimize system availability4. Minimize idle capacity5. Use filler jobs or filler people6. Communicate information


1. Plan the Work, Then Work the Plan

Plan the Work

1. List goals2. Set goal priorities3. Make a “to do” list4. Set activity priorities

Work the Plan

1. Start with A’s, not with C’s

2. Do it now

3. Reduce complexity

4. Cut big activities into bits

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1. Plan the Work, Then Work the Plan

PDCA Wheel, Deming/Shewhart


PDCAPLAN

Establish the objectives and processes necessary to deliver results in accordance with the expected output. By making the expected output the focus, it differs from other techniques in that the completeness and accuracy of the specificaton is also part of the improvement.

DOImplement the new processes. Often on a small scale if possible, to test possible effects.

CHECKMeasure the new processes and compare the results against the expected results to ascertain any differences.

ACTAnalyze the differences to determine their cause. Each will be part of either one or more of the P-D-C-A steps. Determine where to apply changes that will include improvement. When a pass through these four steps does not result in the need to improve, refine the scope to which PDCA is applied until there is a plan that involves improvement.

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2. Reward Results

• Get people to work hard and smart.!!!

• Types of motivation:– Positive

• Internal (self-motivation)• External

– Financial– Nonfinancial

– Negative


Financial Rewards

• Pay independent of output• Pay independent but step function• Piecework with a guaranteed base• Piecework without a guarantee

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Non-Financial Motivation

• If you expect your workers to do well, honor them, and trust them, they will do well and will earn your trust.

• Positive rewards may be awarded to individuals or teams.

• Negative rewards include point systems for delay and absence.


Human Element

• Can you change the human?• How do you motivate employees?• How do you get employees to accept change?

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Human

• Properties

– Background– Attributes– Experience– Needs– Skills– Motivations– Intelligence

• Most difficult element to change


Four Main Areas of Concern for Human

• Physiological factors

– Vision– Height– Weight– Forward arm reach– Strength– Disabilities

• Psychological factors

– Attention– Memory– Fear– Monotony– Fatigue– Satisfaction– Stress

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• Psychosocial factors

– Workload– Work content– Repetition– Role uncertainty– Role conflict– Mental demands– Supervisor-employee

relationship– Social support at work

and home/community

– Shift work– Reward structure - pay,

benefits, equity– Status

• Behavioral factors

– Reaction time– Response accuracy– Appropriateness of

response– Adaptation– Endurance

Four Main Areas of Concern for Human (cont.)


Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

Physiological Needs

Safety Needs

Social Needs

Respect Needs

SelfActualization

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Maslow’s hierarchy of needs theory

• Humans are motivated by multiple needs and these needs exist in a hierarchical order.

– Physiological needs, safety needs, belongingness, respect, and self-actualization.

– How are these needs satisfied on the job and off the job?

• Needs are satisfied in sequence. Lower needs take priority; they must be satisfied before higher-order needs are activated.


Hertzberg’s Two-Factor Theory

• Employees’ satisfaction and dissatisfaction stem from different sources.

– Dissatisfaction results from the absence of what Hertzberg calls hygiene factors.• salary• relationship with others

– Satisfaction results from the presence of motivating factors.• opportunities

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• The supervisor has control of many of the motivating factors, including– recognition,– responsibility,– advancement, and– personal growth.

Hertzberg’s Two-Factor Theory (cont.)


3. Optimize System Availability

• Availability = Uptime / Total Time

• Strategies to improve availability:– Increase uptime– Decrease downtime– Make loss of availability less costly

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n Availability of a Service Channel:Meantime Between Failures (MTBF)

n Availability = MTBF + Mean Time to Repair (MTR)

n Increase capability or decrease the load,n Consider Parallel vs Series Arrangementn Reliability: Rseries = R1 R2 and Rparallel = 1 - U1U2

n Unreliability: U1 = 1 - R1 and U2 = 1 - R2

n Increase Maintainabilityn Decrease MTR (downtime)n Make Loss of Availability Less Costly

Optimize System Availability (of what ?)


Increase Uptime

• Use longer production runs• Increase reliability (MTBF)

– Increase capability– Decrease load– Consider series vs. parallel circuits– Use standby circuit or modularization

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Decrease Downtime

• Decrease voluntary downtime (reduce setup time)

• Increase maintainability (decrease MTR)

– Use standby systems/modularization– Reduce fault location time– Reduce logistics time– Reduce repair time


Make Loss of Availability Less Costly

• Use preventive maintenance

• Allow partial function

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4. Minimize Idle Capacity: Fixed Costs

• Annual cost of many machines and people varies little with output.

• Solutions:– Operate more hours/year– Use pools (Rental cars, printers, technicians)– Revise work schedules– Encourage off-peak use


Minimize Idle Capacity: Variable Costs

• Some team members are more expensive than others.• (What is a team? Lift truck driver and lift truck)

• Solutions:– Duplicate components (production line, supervisor keeps 30

workers, but work is only for 29, illness, absence)– Idle low-cost components (use double tooling, duplicate

service lines)– Do not use one on one. (one worker - one machine, this is bad)!

Solution two workers for three machines, cell layout)

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5. Use Filler Jobs or Filler People

• Problem: Match worker time to job requirements.

• Strategies:

1. Adjust the workload but keep the workforce constant.2. Adjust the workforce but keep the workload constant.


Adjust the Workload

• Break longer jobs into shorter jobs• Do short, low-priority jobs during idle time• Use scheduling to decrease idle time• Assign more work to subordinates than they have time to

do

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Adjust the Workforce

• Use staggered (flextime) work times (dishwasher and waiters, hospital emergency rooms)

• Use temporary workers• Use part-time workers


Use Staggered (flextime, or shifts) Work Times

• Different workers have different start and stop times.• The business can be open more hours with no additional

cost.• Consider compressed work weeks and flexible schedules.• Require vacations to be taken during relaxed times.

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Use Temporary Workers

• Temporary workers usually cost more.

• Temporary workers allow the business to staff for the bottom of the business cycle and have a no-layoff (stop) policy for core staff.

• Temporary workers can be removed from the payroll quickly.


Use Part-Time Workers

• Permits better matching of work requirements and work availability.

• Labor costs will be lower (lower fringe benefits and wages).

• Labor can be made a variable rather than a fixed cost.

• Part-timers may be allowed to share a job. (job sharing)

• Part time may be within a day or within the week or month.

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6. Communicate Information

• Provide job instruction or training

• Provide command and control:

short messages that activate behavior patterns.


Macroergonomics - Review

• Examines all aspects of the system• A misfit in any area can lead to total failure• Work to ensure harmony within every part of the system

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End

Documents

Second Semester 2013 2014 Assistant Professor Abed Schokry