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Early history[edit]

Legendary origins and founding of Qin[edit]According to the 2nd century BC historical text Records of the Grand Historian by Sima Qian, theQin state traced its origin to Zhuanxu, one of the Five Emperors in ancient times. Boyi, anancestor of the royal clan of Qin, was granted the family name of "Ying" (Chinese: ) by Shun.

[2][3]During the Xia and Shang dynasties, the Ying clan split into two branches: a westernbranch in Quanqiu (; near present-day Tianshui, Gansu), and an eastern branchthat lived east of the Yellow River and became the ancestors of the rulers of the Zhaostate.[2][4]Feizi from a cadet branch of the western Ying clan was first enfeoffed in the 9thcentury BC. He served King Xiao of Zhou as a horse breeder and trainer, and wasrewarded for his efforts with a small fief in Qin (in present-day Zhangjiachuan County,Gansu province). The western Ying clan lived in the midst of the Rong tribes. Qinwould later be frequently at war with the Rong as relations between the Rong and theZhou Dynasty worsened.[2][5]In 771 BC, Marquess of Shen formed an alliance with the Zeng state and Dog Rongnomads, and they attacked and captured the Zhou capital Haojing, killing King You of

Zhou. Duke Xiang of Qin led his troops to escort King You's son King Ping of Zhou toLuoyi, where the new capital city of the Eastern Zhou Dynasty was established. Inrecognition of Duke Xiang's efforts, King Ping formally enfeoffed Duke Xiang as afeudal lord, and elevated Qin from an "attached state" (, fuyong) to a major vassalstate. King Ping further promised to give Qin the land west of Qishan, the formerheartland of Zhou, if Qin could expel the Rong tribes that were occupying the land.

The future generations of the Qin rulers were encouraged by this promise, and theylaunched several military campaigns on the Rong, eventually expanding theirterritories to beyond the original lands lost by the Western Zhou Dynasty.[2][6]Ascendancy during the Spring and Autumn Period[edit]Qin's interaction with other feudal states in eastern and central China remainedminimal throughout the Spring and Autumn Period (722-481 BC), except with itsneighbour Jin. Qin maintained good diplomatic relations with Jin and there were alsomarriages between members of the royal clans of both states, but relations betweenboth sides had also deteriorated to the point of armed conflict before. During theearly reign of Duke Mu of Qin, the Jin state was a formidable power under theleadership of Duke Xian of Jin. However, after the death of Duke Xian, Jin plunged intoa state of internal conflict as Duke Xian's sons fought over the succession. One ofthem won the contention and became Duke Hui of Jin, but Jin was struck by a faminenot long later and Duke Hui requested aid from Qin. Duke Mu of Qin sent relief foodsupplies and agricultural equipment to Jin. However, Qin was struck by famine laterand by then, Jin had recovered and it turned to attack Qin. Qin and Jin engaged inseveral battles over the next few years.During the battles with Jin, Duke Mu heard that one of Duke Xian's sons, Chong'er,was in exile in the Chu state. After consulting his subjects, Duke Mu sent an emissaryto Chu to invite Chong'er to Jin, and Qin helped Chong'er defeat Duke Hui andChong'er became the new ruler of Jin, with his title as "Duke Wen". Duke Wen wasgrateful to Duke Mu and relations between Qin and Jin improved. Qin used theopportunity when its eastern front was stable, to launch military campaigns againstthe minority tribes in the west. In 627 BC, Duke Mu of Qin planned a secret attack onthe Zheng state, but the Qin army retreated after being tricked into believing thatZheng was prepared for Qin's invasion. Duke Wen had died and his successor, DukeXiang of Jin, ordered his troops to lay an ambush for the retreating Qin army. The Qinforces were defeated in the ambush at the Battle of Yao (; near present-day LuoningCounty, Henan province) by Jin and suffered heavy casualties. Three years later, Qinattacked Jin for revenge and scored a major victory. Duke Mu refused to advance east

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further after holding a funeral service for those killed in action at the Battle of Yao,and focused on the traditional policy of expanding Qin's borders in the west. DukeMu's achievements in the western campaigns and his handling of foreign relationswith Jin earned him a position among the Five Hegemons of the Spring and AutumnPeriod.Decline in the early Warring States Period[edit]

During the early Warring States period, as its neighbours in east and central Chinabegan rapidly developing, Qin was still in a state of underdevelopment and decline.The population of Qin comprised a large proportion of Sinicized semi-tribal peoples,believed to be descendants of the Rong. This was believed to be a major cause ofdistinct unease and discrimination towards Qin from other states. The Wei state,formed from the Partition of Jin, became the most powerful state on Qin's easternborder. Qin was equipped with natural defenses, with Hangu Pass (; northeast ofpresent-day Lingbao, Henan province) in the east and Tong Pass (; present-day

Tongguan County, Shaanxi province) in the west. Between 413 and 409 BC during thereign of Duke Jian of Qin, the Wei army led by Wu Qi, with support from Zhao andHan, attacked Qin and conquered Qin territories west of the Yellow River.Reformation[edit]Despite suffering losses in the battles with rival states such as Wei, the Qin rulerswere actively pursuing reforms to the legal, economic and social systems of Qin.When Duke Xiao came to the throne of Qin, he issued an announcement, calling forthmen of talent (including scholars, administrators, theorists and militarists) from otherstates to enter Qin and help him with his reforms, promising rewards of high officesand lands in return. Among these foreign talents, Wei Yang (later renamed to Shang

Yang), a scholar from the Legalist School, successfully conducted a series of reformsin Qin with the support of Duke Xiao, despite facing strong opposition from severalQin politicians. The aristocracy system was abolished, with all slaves grantedcitizenship rights. People were forced to resettle in new clusters, where they focusedon increasing agricultural output. Meritocracy was practised in the military, withsoldiers and officers receiving due rewards according to their contributions,regardless of their backgrounds. However, tough and strict laws were imposed aswell, with draconian punishments being meted out for the slightest of offenses, andeven nobles and royals were not spared. After decades, the reforms strengthened Qineconomically and militarily and transformed it into a highly centralized state with anefficient administrative system.After Duke Xiao's death, King Huiwen became the new ruler of Qin and he put Shang

Yang to death on charges of treason, but some believed that the king harboured apersonal grudge against Shang because he was harshly punished under Shang'sreformed system in his adolescence for a minor infraction. However, King Huiwen andhis successors retained the reformed systems and they helped to lay the foundationfor Qin's eventual unification of China under the Qin Dynasty in 221 BC. Shang Yang'stheories were further elaborated later by Han Fei, who combined Shang's ideas withthose of Shen Buhai and Shen Dao, that would form the core of the philosophies ofLegalism. Qin rose to prominence in the late 3rd century BC after the reforms andemerged as one of the dominant superpowers of the Seven Warring States.Effects of the successful Qin reforms[edit]

Qin before the conquest of Sichuan, 5th century BCEQin's power continued growing in the following century after Shang Yang's reform,owing the success to the industriousness of its people. The Qin kings authorizedmany state development projects, including large public works such as irrigationcanals and defensive structures.One of the most obvious results of the reforms was the change in Qin's military.Previously, the army was under the control of Qin's nobles and comprised feudal

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levies. After Shang Yang's reforms, the aristocracy system was abolished andreplaced by one based on meritocracy, in which ordinary citizens had equalopportunities as the nobles to be promoted to high ranks. In addition, militarydiscipline was strongly enforced and the troops were trained to adapt better todifferent battle situations. Qin's military strength increased largely with the fullsupport of the state. In 318 BC, the states of Wei, Zhao, Han, Yan and Chu formed an

alliance and attacked Qin, but did not manage to advance beyond Hangu Pass, andwere defeated by counter-attacking Qin forces. The alliance crumbled due to mistrustand suspicion and lack of coordination among the five states.Apart from the effects on Qin's military, Shang Yang's reforms also increased labourfor numerous public works projects aimed at boosting agriculture, and made itpossible for Qin to maintain and supply an active military force of more than a milliontroops. This feat could not be accomplished by any other state, except Chu, duringthat time. Qin's conquests of the southern states of Ba and Shu in present-daySichuan province also provided Qin with major strategic advantages. The lands in thenew territories were very fertile, and helped serve as a "backyard" for supplies andadditional manpower. It was hard for Qin's rivals to attack Ba and Shu, since theterritories were located deep in the mountains upstream of the Yangtze River. At thesame time, Qin's strategic position in Ba and Shu provided it with a platform forlaunching attacks on the Chu state, which lies downstream of the Yangtze.Later history[edit]

Summary of major eventsYear Eventsc. 557 BC Qin fought with Jin361 BCDuke Xiao became ruler of Qin356 BCShang Yang implemented his first set of reforms in Qin350 BCShang Yang implemented his second set of reforms in Qin338 BCKing Huiwen became ruler of Qin316 BCQin conquered Shu and Ba293 BCQin defeated the allied forces of Wei and Han at the Battle of Yique260 BCQin defeated Zhao at the Battle of Changping256 BCQin ended the Zhou Dynasty247 BCYing Zheng became ruler of Qin230 BCQin conquered Han228 BCQin conquered Zhao225 BCQin conquered Wei223 BCQin conquered Chu222 BCQin conquered Yan, Dai and the Wuyue region221 BCQin conquered Qi and unified China under the Qin DynastyAscendancy and conquests during the Warring States Period[edit]Wars against Chu, Han and Wei[edit]During the reign of King Huiwen of Qin, the Chu state, to the southeast of Qin,became a target for Qin's aggression. Although Chu had the largest operationally-ready army of all the Seven Warring States at over a million troops, its administrativeand military strength was plagued by corruption and divided among the nobles.Zhang Yi, a Qin strategist, suggested to King Huiwen to exercise Qin's interest at theexpense of Chu. Over the following years, Zhang engineered and executed a numberof diplomatic plots against Chu, supported by the constant military raids on Chu'snorthwestern border. Chu suffered many defeats in battles against Qin and wasforced to cede territories to Qin. King Huai I of Chu was furious and ordered a militarycampaign against Qin, but he was tricked by Zhang Yi into breaking diplomatic tieswith his allies, and his angered allies joined Qin in inflicting a crushing defeat on Chu.In 299 BC, King Huai I was tricked into attending a diplomatic conference in Qin,where he was captured and held hostage until his death. In the meantime, Qin

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launched several attacks on Chu and eventually sacked the Chu capital city of Chen(; present-day Jiangling County, Hubei province). The crown prince of Chu fled eastand was crowned King Qingxiang of Chu in the new capital city of Shouchun (;present-day Shou County, Anhui province).In the next five decades after King Huiwen's death, King Zhaoxiang of Qin shifted hisattention to northern China after Qin's victories in the south against Chu. In the early

years of King Zhaoxiang's reign, the Marquis of Rang (

) served as Qin's chancellorand he actively pushed for military campaigns against the Qi state in the far easternpart of China. However, the marquis had his personal motives, as he intended to useQin's powerful military to help him conquer a fief in Qi territories, since the landswere not directly linked to Qin and would not be under the Qin government's directadministration.Subsequently, King Zhaoxiang's foreign advisor, Fan Sui, advised the king to abandonthose fruitless campaigns against distant states. King Zhaoxiang heeded Fan's adviceand changed Qin's foreign policy to adopting good diplomatic relations with distantstates (Yan and Qi), while concentrating on attacking nearby states (Zhao, Han andWei). As a consequence, Qin began to launch constant attacks on Han and Wei overthe next decades, conquering several territories in its campaigns. By then, Qin'sterritories had expanded to beyond the eastern shore of the Yellow River and Han andWei were reduced to the status of "buffers" from Qin for the other states in the east.Wars against Zhao[edit]Main article: Battle of ChangpingStarting from 265 BC, Qin launched a massive invasion on Han and forced Han tocede its territory of Shangdang (; in present-day Shanxi province). However, Hanoffered Shangdang to Zhao instead, which led to a conflict between Qin and Zhao forcontrol of Shangdang. Qin and Zhao engaged in the three-year long Battle ofChangping, followed by another three-year siege by Qin on Zhao's capital city ofHandan. The conflict at Changping was deemed as a power struggle, as both sidespitted their forces against each other not only on the battlefield, but also in thedomestic context. Although Qin had an abundance of resources and vast manpower,it had to enlist every man above the age of 15 for war-related duties, ranging fromfront-line service to logistics and agriculture. King Zhaoxiang of Qin even personallydirected his army's supply lines. The extent of mobilization and the exhaustion in theaftermath was not seen in world history for another 2,000 years, until this concept oftotal war re-entered the stage during World War I.[citation needed] Qin's eventualvictory in 260 BC was attributed to its use of schemes to stir up internal conflict inZhao, which led to the replacement of Zhao's military leaders.Following the Qin victory at the Battle of Changping, the Qin commander Bai Qiordered the 400,000 prisoners-of-war from Zhao to be executed by burying alive.Subsequently, the Qin forces marched on the Zhao capital city of Handan in anattempt to conquer Zhao completely. However, the Qin troops were unable to captureHandan as they were already exhausted and also because the Zhao forces put upfierce resistance. King Xiaocheng of Zhao offered six cities to Qin as a peace offerand King Zhaoxiang of Qin accepted the offer after being persuaded by Fan Sui.Within Zhao, many officials strongly opposed King Xiaocheng's decision to give upthe cities and subsequent delays caused the siege on Handan to be prolonged until

258 BC. Meanwhile, Bai Qi was consecutively replaced by Wang Xi, Wang Ling andZheng Anping as the Qin commander at the siege.In 257 BC, Qin was still unable to penetrate Handan after besieging it for three years,and Zhao requested aid from the neighbouring states of Wei and Chu. Wei washesitant to help Qin initially, but launched an attack on Qin after seeing that Qin wasalready exhausted after years of war. The Qin forces crumbled and retreated andZheng Anping surrendered. The combined forces of Wei and Chu continued to pursuethe retreating Qin army and Wei managed to retake part of its original lands thatwere lost to Qin earlier.

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Qin's irrigation projects[edit]In the middle of the 3rd century BC, Zheng Guo, a hydraulic engineer from the Hanstate, was sent to Qin to advise King Zhaoxiang of Qin on constructing irrigationcanals. Qin had a penchant for building large-scale canals, as evident from its MinRiver irrigation system. King Zhaoxiang approved Zheng Guo's idea on constructingan even bigger canal. The project was completed in 264 BC and the canal was named

after Zheng. Qin benefitted from the project as it became one of the most fertilestates in China due to the good irrigation system, and also because it could now raisemore troops as a consequence of increased agricultural yield.

State of Qin(small seal script, 220 BC)Conquest of the six states and unification of China[edit]Main article: Qin's wars of unificationIn 247 BC, the 13-year-old Ying Zheng became king of Qin after the sudden death ofKing Zhuangxiang. However, Ying Zheng did not wield state power fully in his handsuntil 238 BC, after eliminating his political rivals L Buwei and Lao Ai. Ying formulated aplan for conquering the other six states and unifying China with help from Li Si and Wei Liao.In 230 BC, Qin attacked Han, the weakest of the Seven Warring States, and succeeded in

conquering Han within a year. Since 236 BC, Qin had been launching several assaults on Zhao,which had been devastated by its calamitous defeat at the Battle of Changping three decadesago. Although Qin faced strong resistance from the Zhao forces, led by general Li Mu, it stillmanaged to defeat the Zhao army by using a ploy to sow discord between King Qian of Zhao andLi Mu, causing King Qian to order Li Mu's execution and replace Li with the less competent ZhaoCong. Zhao eventually fell to Qin in 228 BC after the capital city of Handan was taken. However,a Zhao noble managed to escape with remnant forces and proclaim himself king in Dai. Dai fell toQin six years later.

After the fall of Zhao, Qin turned its attention towards Yan. Crown Prince Dan of Yan sent Jing Keto assassinate Ying Zheng but the assassination attempt failed and Qin used that as an excuse toattack Yan. Yan lost to Qin at a battle on the eastern bank of the Yi River in 226 BC and King Xi ofYan fled with remnant forces to Liaodong. Qin attacked Yan again in 222 BC and annexed Yancompletely. In 225 BC, the Qin army led by Wang Ben invaded Wei and besieged Wei's capitalcity of Daliang for three months. Wang directed the waters from the Yellow River and the HongCanal to flood Daliang and King Jia of Wei surrendered and Wei was conquered.In 224 BC, Qin prepared for an attack on Chu, its most powerful rival among the six states.During a discussion between Ying Zheng and his subjects, the veteran general Wang Jianclaimed that the invasion force needed to be at least 600,000 strong, but the younger general LiXin thought that 200,000 men would be sufficient. Ying Zheng put Li Xin in command of the Qinarmy to attack Chu. The Chu defenders, led by Xiang Yan, took Li Xin's army by surprise anddefeated the Qin invaders. The defeat was deemed as the greatest setback for Qin in its wars tounify China. Ying Zheng put Wang Jian in command of the 600,000 strong army as he hadrequested and ordered Wang to lead another attack on Chu. Wang scored a major victory againstthe Chu forces in 224 BC and Xiang Yan was killed in action. The following year, Qin pushed onand captured Chu's capital city of Shouchun, bringing an end to Chu's existence. In 222 BC, theQin army advanced southward and annexed the Wuyue region (covering present-day Zhejiangand Jiangsu provinces).

By 221 BC, Qi was the only rival state left. Qin advanced into the heartland of Qi via a southerndetour, avoiding direct confrontation with the Qi forces on Qi's western border and arrived at Qi'scapital city of Linzi swiftly. The Qi forces were taken by surprise and surrendered without puttingup resistance. Following the fall of Qi in 221 BC, China was unified under the rule of Qin. YingZheng declared himself "Qin Shi Huang" (meaning "First Emperor of Qin") and founded the QinDynasty, becoming the first sovereign ruler of a united China.

State of Qin(bronzeware script, c. 800 BC)

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Culture and society[edit]

Before Qin unified China, each state had its own customs and culture. According to the Tribute ofYu, composed in the 4th century BC, there were nine distinct cultural regions of China, describedin detail in the work. The work focuses on the travels of the titular sage, Yu Gong, throughouteach of the regions. Other texts, predominantly military, also discussed these cultural variations.

[7]One of these texts was Master Wu, written in response to a query by Marquis Wu of Wei on howto cope with the other states. Wu Qi, the author of the work, declared that the government andnature of the people were reflective of the terrain they live in. Of Qin, he said:Qin's nature is strong. Its terrain is harsh. Its government is strict. Its rewards and punishmentsare reliable. Its people are unyielding and belligerent. Therefore, they scatter and fight asindividuals. As the way to attack them, one must first entice them with profit and lead them away.Their officers are greedy for gain and will betray their generals. Take advantage of theirseparation to attack them when scattered, set traps and seize the key moment, then theirgenerals can be captured.Wuzi, Master Wu

According to Wu, the nature of the people is a result of the government, which is in turn a result ofthe roughness of the terrain. Each of the states is expounded upon by Wu in this manner.[8]In his Petition against driving away foreigners (), Li Si mentioned that guzheng andpercussion instruments made of pottery and tiles were the characteristics of Qinmusic.