Schools and Adolescent Schools and Adolescent DevelopmentDevelopmentJacquelynne S. EcclesJacquelynne S. Eccles

University of MichiganUniversity of Michigan

Presentation given at Presentation given at

Chinese University of Hong KongChinese University of Hong Kong

February 2004February 2004

What About Schools and What About Schools and Teachers?Teachers?

There is Extensive Work on the Influence There is Extensive Work on the Influence of Schools and Teachers on Students’ of Schools and Teachers on Students’ Academic Achievement and More General Academic Achievement and More General Socio-emotional DevelopmentSocio-emotional Development

Much More than I can Discuss TodayMuch More than I can Discuss Today

I’ll Focus on Just One Effect – The Decline I’ll Focus on Just One Effect – The Decline in Students’ School Motivation as They in Students’ School Motivation as They Move Through SchoolMove Through School

Changes in Motivation Changes in Motivation Associated with Transition Associated with Transition

into Adolescenceinto Adolescence Decline in General Interest in SchoolDecline in General Interest in School Increase in Extrinsic Motivational Increase in Extrinsic Motivational

OrientationOrientation Work for Grades and TestsWork for Grades and Tests

Decrease in Intrinsic Motivational Decrease in Intrinsic Motivational OrientationOrientation Work for Enjoyment of Subject and Desire to Work for Enjoyment of Subject and Desire to

LearnLearn Increase in Test Anxiety and in the Increase in Test Anxiety and in the

Relation of Test Anxiety to School Relation of Test Anxiety to School Performance and Intrinsic MotivationPerformance and Intrinsic Motivation

Changes in Motivation Changes in Motivation Associated with Transition Associated with Transition

into Adolescence 2into Adolescence 2 Decline in Confidence in Some Academic Decline in Confidence in Some Academic

Disciplines Disciplines Math and Physical Science for Many StudentsMath and Physical Science for Many Students Literacy-Related Subject Areas for Some Literacy-Related Subject Areas for Some

StudentsStudents

Decline in Subjective Task Value attached Decline in Subjective Task Value attached to Some Academic Disciplines to Some Academic Disciplines Math and Physical Science for Many StudentsMath and Physical Science for Many Students Literacy-Related Subject Areas for Some Literacy-Related Subject Areas for Some

StudentsStudents

Changes in Motivation Changes in Motivation Associated with Transition Associated with Transition

into Adolescence 3into Adolescence 3 Increase in Endorsement of View that Ability Increase in Endorsement of View that Ability

is Stable Entity rather than Incremental Skill is Stable Entity rather than Incremental Skill (Dweck) (Dweck)

Increase in Ego-Focused and Performance-Increase in Ego-Focused and Performance-Oriented Motivation (Nicholls, Ames, Midgley, Oriented Motivation (Nicholls, Ames, Midgley, Maehr, Elliott)Maehr, Elliott) Focus on Doing Better than OthersFocus on Doing Better than Others Focus on Avoiding Doing Worse than OtherFocus on Avoiding Doing Worse than Other

Decline in Mastery MotivationDecline in Mastery Motivation Focus on Learning to be LearningFocus on Learning to be Learning

Change in Mental Health IndictorsDuring Early Adolescence

General Affective Experience

Academic Concerns/Anxiety Increase Grade 6 to 9

Inner Conflict/Negative Affect Slight Increase Grades 4 to 9Increase Greatest for High Stress Youth

Stress Increase Grades 7 to 10; Girls>Boys

Loneliness Stable Grades 1 to 6;Increases in Adolescence

Self-Consciousness Slight Increase Grades 6 and up

Perceived Anonymity/Victimization Trend is unclear

Feelings of Belonging in School Lowers Middle vs. Elementary Students

General Self-Perceptions

Self-Esteem Trend is unclear; first drops and then increases in High School

Change in Mental Health IndicatorsDuring Early Adolescence

Depression and Suicide

Depressive Symptomatology Increases During Early Adolescence; Girls>Boys

Suicide Attempts and Completions Increases During Adolescence

Problem Behaviors

Overall Problem Behaviors General Decline with Age inNon-Referred Young Adults;Trend form Externalizing toInternalizing Problem

Delinquency-Truancy-Suspension Increases Beginning in EarlyAdolescence; Boys>Girls

Substance Use/Abuse Increases Across Adolescence(e.g. cigarettes, alcohol, marijuana, ect.)

Why?Why?

Most common explanations focus on Most common explanations focus on the biological changes associated the biological changes associated with pubertywith puberty

Alternatively we could look to shared Alternatively we could look to shared social transitionssocial transitions

For example, let us consider the For example, let us consider the transition into secondary schooltransition into secondary school

Few studies available to distinguish Few studies available to distinguish between these hypothesesbetween these hypotheses

Roberta Simmons and Dale Blyth’s Roberta Simmons and Dale Blyth’s workwork Compared adolescents moving through Compared adolescents moving through

two types of school systems in same citytwo types of school systems in same city K-8, 9-12 (ages 6-14; 15-18) versusK-8, 9-12 (ages 6-14; 15-18) versus 1-6, 7-9, 10-12 (ages 6-12, 13-15, 16-18)1-6, 7-9, 10-12 (ages 6-12, 13-15, 16-18)

First compared self esteem changes:First compared self esteem changes: Found transitional effects for girls onlyFound transitional effects for girls only

Self Esteem Data From Self Esteem Data From Simmons & Blyth – Girls Simmons & Blyth – Girls

OnlyOnly

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

6 7 8 9 10

K-8 GirlsJHS Girls

School Year

SelfEsteem

Simmons’ Explanation for Simmons’ Explanation for Gender DifferencesGender Differences

At this age, girls are at the height of At this age, girls are at the height of pubertal developmentpubertal development

Stress theories suggest that dealing Stress theories suggest that dealing with multiple changes is more with multiple changes is more difficult than dealing with single life difficult than dealing with single life changeschanges

Therefore, the Junior High School Therefore, the Junior High School Transition should be more stressful Transition should be more stressful for girls than for boysfor girls than for boys

BUTBUT On the one hand, her self esteem On the one hand, her self esteem

findings are consistent with this findings are consistent with this interpretation and interpretation and

She has other data showing that the She has other data showing that the declines in self esteem at this age are declines in self esteem at this age are directly linked to the number of other directly linked to the number of other life transitions such as geographical life transitions such as geographical moves, marital disruptions, and family moves, marital disruptions, and family deathsdeaths

BUT the gender differences in the BUT the gender differences in the patterns of change are not consistent …patterns of change are not consistent …

NonethelessNonetheless

Simmons’ work did point the Simmons’ work did point the importance of thinking about school importance of thinking about school transitions in terms of issues of coping.transitions in terms of issues of coping. Need to consider aspects of the situation Need to consider aspects of the situation

and the individual if we are to understand and the individual if we are to understand how well people cope with transitionshow well people cope with transitions

Multiple transition harder than single Multiple transition harder than single transitiontransition

Psychological and maturational readiness for Psychological and maturational readiness for transition is importanttransition is important

Psychological strengths and vulnerabilities are Psychological strengths and vulnerabilities are importantimportant

Eccles and Midgley Stage Eccles and Midgley Stage Environment ApproachEnvironment Approach

We argued that it is not the transition itself We argued that it is not the transition itself that matters but the nature of that that matters but the nature of that transition.transition.

Person Environment Fit theories suggest Person Environment Fit theories suggest thatthat People are optimally motivated with there is a People are optimally motivated with there is a

good fit between the needs of the individual and good fit between the needs of the individual and the opportunities provided by the environments the opportunities provided by the environments in which they must work, live, and studyin which they must work, live, and study

Bad fits lead to less than optimal motivation and Bad fits lead to less than optimal motivation and mental health problems mental health problems

Stage Environment FitStage Environment Fit

Perhaps the motivational changes Perhaps the motivational changes seen during this age period reflect seen during this age period reflect the fact that we force young people the fact that we force young people to move from a good fitting to move from a good fitting elementary school environment to a elementary school environment to a poor fitting secondary school poor fitting secondary school environment.environment.

Environmental Changes in Environmental Changes in School Level School Level

CharacteristicsCharacteristics Increase in School SizeIncrease in School Size

Increase in Curricular Increase in Curricular

DepartmentalizationDepartmentalization

Increase in Formal Bureaucratic Increase in Formal Bureaucratic

StructuresStructures

Building Level and Building Level and Classroom Level ChangesClassroom Level Changes

These types of building level changes lead These types of building level changes lead to other changes at both the building and to other changes at both the building and classroom levelclassroom level Decrease in Teachers’ Trust of StudentsDecrease in Teachers’ Trust of Students

Increase in Teachers’ Concern with ControlIncrease in Teachers’ Concern with Control

Decrease in Teachers’ Sense of EfficacyDecrease in Teachers’ Sense of Efficacy

Decrease in Opportunity for Close Student-Decrease in Opportunity for Close Student-Teacher Relationships to FormTeacher Relationships to Form

In TurnIn Turn

Decrease in Student AutonomyDecrease in Student Autonomy

Decrease in Student Participation in Decrease in Student Participation in Classroom Decision MakingClassroom Decision Making

Other Building Level and Other Building Level and Classroom Level ChangesClassroom Level Changes

Focus on Sorting and Testing Focus on Sorting and Testing More Rigorous Grading Practices Based More Rigorous Grading Practices Based

on Normative Performanceon Normative Performance

Increase in Use of Extrinsic Motivational Increase in Use of Extrinsic Motivational StrategiesStrategies

More Whole Class Instruction TechniquesMore Whole Class Instruction Techniques

More Ability GroupingMore Ability Grouping

All of which are likely to lead to All of which are likely to lead to increases inincreases in

Students’ Focus on Ability as a Stable Students’ Focus on Ability as a Stable

EntityEntity

Students’ Ego- rather than Mastery-Students’ Ego- rather than Mastery-focused Motivationfocused Motivation

Other Building Level and Other Building Level and Classroom Level ChangesClassroom Level Changes

Disruption of Peer NetworksDisruption of Peer Networks

ConclusionsConclusions

Research suggests that there are Research suggests that there are systematic differences in the building systematic differences in the building level and classroom level environmental level and classroom level environmental characteristics of 6characteristics of 6thth grades in grades in elementary schools and 7elementary schools and 7thth grades in grades in junior high schoolsjunior high schools

Furthermore, these changes are directly Furthermore, these changes are directly at odds with the developmental needs of at odds with the developmental needs of early adolescenceearly adolescence

DEVELOPMENTAL CHARACTERISTICS DEVELOPMENTAL CHARACTERISTICS OF EARLY ADOLESCENTSOF EARLY ADOLESCENTS

Increased Desire for AutonomyIncreased Desire for Autonomy Increased Salience of Identity IssuesIncreased Salience of Identity Issues Continuing Need for Safe Environment in Continuing Need for Safe Environment in

which to explore Autonomy and Identitywhich to explore Autonomy and Identity Increased Peer OrientationIncreased Peer Orientation Increased Importance of HeterosexualityIncreased Importance of Heterosexuality Increased Self-Focus and Self-ConsciousnessIncreased Self-Focus and Self-Consciousness Increased Cognitive Capacity with Movement Increased Cognitive Capacity with Movement

toward Formal Operational Thoughttoward Formal Operational Thought Physical and Hormonal Changes Associated Physical and Hormonal Changes Associated

with Pubertal Development with Pubertal Development

Michigan Study of Adolescent Life Transitions(MSALT)

U of M Affiliated Investigators:

Waves 1-4Jacque EcclesCarol MidgleyAllan Wigfield

Jan JacobsConnie Flanagan

Harriet FeldlauferDavid ReumanDoug MacIverDave Klingel

Doris YeeChristy Miller Buchanan

Waves 5-8Jacque EcclesBonnie BarberLisa Colarossi

Deborah JozefowiczPam FromeSarah Lord

Robert RoeserLaurie Meschke

OVERVIEW OF DESIGN AND SAMPLE:OVERVIEW OF DESIGN AND SAMPLE:Michigan Study of Adolescent Development– Michigan Study of Adolescent Development–

MSALTMSALT

DESIGN: DESIGN: On-going Longitudinal Study of One On-going Longitudinal Study of One Birth Cohort Birth Cohort

Data Collected in Grades 6, 7, 10, 12; Data Collected in Grades 6, 7, 10, 12; and again at Ages 20 and again at Ages 20

and 25and 25Data Collected from Adolescents, Data Collected from Adolescents,

Parents, and School Parents, and School Survey Forms and ObservationsSurvey Forms and Observations

SAMPLE:SAMPLE: Nine School DistrictsNine School DistrictsApproximately 1,200 AdolescentsApproximately 1,200 AdolescentsApproximately 90% WhiteApproximately 90% WhiteApproximately 51% FemaleApproximately 51% FemaleWorking/Middle Class BackgroundWorking/Middle Class Background

MSALT Study DesignMSALT Study Design

W1W1 W2W2 W3W3 W4W4 W5W5 W6W6

Fall 1983Fall 1983 Spring 1984Spring 1984 Fall 1984Fall 1984 Spring 1985Spring 1985 Spring 1988Spring 1988 Spring 1990Spring 1990

  6th6th

GradeGrade7th7th

GradeGrade10th10th

GradeGrade12th12th

GradeGrade

StudentsStudents NN=3135=3135 NN=1492=1492 NN=1384=1384

DistrictsDistricts NN=12=12 NN=6=6 NN=9=9

ClassroomsClassrooms NN=117=117 NN=131=131 -------- --------

                 

MSALT ResultsMSALT Results

First, I’ll summarize the teacher First, I’ll summarize the teacher differences we found between 6differences we found between 6thth and and 77thth grade teachers (before and after grade teachers (before and after the junior high school transition)the junior high school transition)

Second, I’ll summarize the relation of Second, I’ll summarize the relation of these changes to changes in the these changes to changes in the students’ school-related motivation for students’ school-related motivation for mathematicsmathematics

Teacher BeliefsTeacher Beliefs

0

5

10

15

20

25

Trust Control Efficacy

Sixth GradeSeventh Grade

Observed Classroom Observed Classroom Environment Environment

20

25

30

35

40

45

WholeClass

Coop. Compare

6th Grade7th Grade

Teacher Rates Student Teacher Rates Student Decision-Making Decision-Making

OpportunitiesOpportunities

0102030405060708090

100

Percent Yes

Where Sit Classwork MakingRules

Do Next

6th Grade7th Grade

Relation of Teacher Sense Relation of Teacher Sense of Efficacy to Student of Efficacy to Student Expectations for Own Expectations for Own Performance in MathPerformance in Math

Created Four Groups of Students Created Four Groups of Students Based on Change in Teachers’ Sense Based on Change in Teachers’ Sense of Efficacy as They Moved from 6of Efficacy as They Moved from 6thth to to 77thth Grade Grade LOW TO LOW = 35%LOW TO LOW = 35% HIGH TO HIGH = 14%HIGH TO HIGH = 14% HIGH TO LOW = 38%HIGH TO LOW = 38% LOW TO HIGH = 13%LOW TO HIGH = 13%

Teacher Sense of Efficacy Teacher Sense of Efficacy and Students’ Self and Students’ Self

ExpectationsExpectations

Found Significant Effects Primarily Found Significant Effects Primarily for Those Students for Whom Their for Those Students for Whom Their 66thth Grade Teachers had the Lowest Grade Teachers had the Lowest Performance ExpectationsPerformance Expectations

Teacher Sense of Efficacy Teacher Sense of Efficacy and Students’ Self and Students’ Self

ExpectationsExpectations

40

4244

46

48

5052

54

56

Fall 6th Spring6th

Fall 7th Spring7th

Low LowLow High

Teacher Sense of Efficacy Teacher Sense of Efficacy and Students’ Self and Students’ Self

ExpectationsExpectations

40424446485052545658

Fall 6th Spring6th

Fall 7th Spring7th

High HighHigh Low

Perceived Teacher Support Perceived Teacher Support and Students’ Intrinsic and Students’ Intrinsic

Valuing of MathValuing of Math

2527293133353739414345

Fall 6th Spring6th

Fall 7th Spring7th

Low LowLow HighHigh LowHigh High

ConclusionsConclusions

Changes in students’ school-related Changes in students’ school-related motivation are directly linked to the motivation are directly linked to the nature of the changes the students nature of the changes the students experience in their classroom experience in their classroom environments as they make the junior environments as they make the junior high school transition.high school transition.

The patters of results are consistent The patters of results are consistent with our Stage – Environment Fit with our Stage – Environment Fit Theory or rather our Stage – Theory or rather our Stage – Environment Misfit TheoryEnvironment Misfit Theory

Individual DifferencesIndividual Differences

Already Noted That We Only Got the Already Noted That We Only Got the Impact of the School Transition for Impact of the School Transition for Students’ Self Expectations for the Students’ Self Expectations for the Low Ability StudentsLow Ability Students

Are There Other Individual Are There Other Individual Differences that Might Effect Differences that Might Effect Susceptibility to the Junior High Susceptibility to the Junior High School Transition Effect?School Transition Effect?

This work suggests that there are both This work suggests that there are both risk factors and protective factors:risk factors and protective factors:

Risk FactorsRisk Factors Low Prior AchievementLow Prior Achievement Test AnxietyTest Anxiety Social AnxietiesSocial Anxieties

Protective FactorsProtective Factors Confidence in One’s Academic and Social Confidence in One’s Academic and Social

AbilitiesAbilities

Other Risk and Other Risk and Protective FactorsProtective Factors

Family LevelFamily Level Support for Autonomy versus Excessive Support for Autonomy versus Excessive

ControlControl Close Relationships versus Hostile Close Relationships versus Hostile

RelationshipsRelationships

Study 2Study 2

Maryland Adolescent Growth In Maryland Adolescent Growth In Context – MADICSContext – MADICS

Look more closely at the impact of Look more closely at the impact of classroom characteristics on change classroom characteristics on change in students’ motivation and mental in students’ motivation and mental healthhealth

Contributors to the Contributors to the Maryland Adolescent Maryland Adolescent

Development in Context Development in Context Study (MADICS)Study (MADICS) Jacquelynne Eccles, PIJacquelynne Eccles, PI

Arnold Sameroff, PIArnold Sameroff, PI

W. Todd BartkoW. Todd Bartko Elaine BelanskyElaine Belansky Diane EarlyDiane Early Kari FraserKari Fraser Leslie GutmanLeslie Gutman Yael HarlapYael Harlap Katie JodlKatie Jodl Ariel KalilAriel Kalil

Linda KuhnLinda Kuhn Alice MichaelAlice Michael Melanie OverbyMelanie Overby Stephen PeckStephen Peck Katherine RosenblumKatherine Rosenblum Robert RoeserRobert Roeser Sherri SteeleSherri Steele Erika TaylorErika Taylor Cynthia WinstonCynthia Winston Carol WongCarol Wong

SampleSampleRespondent characteristics:Respondent characteristics:

African-American African-American N=625N=625 Average age = 11 at Average age = 11 at

Wave 1Wave 1 Seventh grade at W 1Seventh grade at W 1 53 % male53 % male Data being presented Data being presented

today is from waves 1, today is from waves 1, 3, and 4; Grades 7, 8-3, and 4; Grades 7, 8-9, 11-129, 11-12

Family background:Family background: Median Family Income (1993): Median Family Income (1993):

$50-55,000$50-55,000

Highest Education: 38% Highest Education: 38% College DegreeCollege Degree

Highest Occupation: Highest Occupation: 44% Skilled44% Skilled 30% Professional30% Professional

Longitudinal Mixed Longitudinal Mixed MethodsMethods

Face-to-face, in home interviews with Face-to-face, in home interviews with youth and their parents which included youth and their parents which included both close-ended and quite open-ended both close-ended and quite open-ended questionsquestions

Self-administered questionnaires with Self-administered questionnaires with youth and their parentsyouth and their parents

Open-ended phone interviews with youth Open-ended phone interviews with youth and their parentsand their parents

Repeated intensive interviews with a Repeated intensive interviews with a subset of the youthsubset of the youth

School Achievement, Attendance & MotivationSchool Achievement, Attendance & MotivationIn MADICSIn MADICS

7th Grade

Grade Point Average

Days Absent from School

Academic Competence Beliefs

Academic Importance Beliefs

Academic Utility Beliefs

8th Grade

3.67

9.35

5.36

4.05

5.49

3.63

10.78

5.23

3.91

5.15

(ns)

0%

10%

20%

30%

40%

50%

60%

Per

cent

Men

tioni

ngO

nce

in T

wo

Cha

nces

Seventh GradeEighth Grade

School Problem BehaviorsSchool Problem BehaviorsSeventh and Eighth GradeSeventh and Eighth Grade

Sent toPrincipal’sOffice

Cheatedon Tests

SuspendedfromSchool

SkippedClass

BroughtDrugs/Alcohol

Expelledfrom

School

BELONGINGBELONGINGFITFIT

ENGAGEMENTENGAGEMENTPRACTICESPRACTICES

STUDENTSTUDENTAUTONOMYAUTONOMYCLASSROOMCLASSROOM

STUDENTSTUDENT

MENTAL HEALTHMENTAL HEALTH

COMPETENCECOMPETENCESCHOOL CULTURESCHOOL CULTURE

MEDIATORSMEDIATORS

OUTCOMEOUTCOME    PSYCHOLOGICALPSYCHOLOGICAL  INFLUENCESINFLUENCES

CONNELL, RYAN DECI, SKINNER MOTIVATION MODELCONNELL, RYAN DECI, SKINNER MOTIVATION MODEL

Perceived Middle School Psychological Perceived Middle School Psychological Environment: Conceptualization and Environment: Conceptualization and

Measures.Measures.

School Psychological Environment

Support of Competence

Support of Autonomy

Quality of Relationships

TEACHEREXPECTATIONS

ACADEMIC GOAL STRUCTURES

CURRICULAR MEANINGFULNESS

STUDENT EMPOWERMENT

DISCRIMINATIONEXPERIENCES

TEACHER SUPPORTIVENESS

Quality of Relationships:Quality of Relationships:√√ Perceived Teacher Supportiveness (1 item)Perceived Teacher Supportiveness (1 item)

When you have a personal or social problem in school, how often can you depend on When you have a personal or social problem in school, how often can you depend on your teachers to help you out? (1 = almost never, 3 = sometimes, 5 = almost always)your teachers to help you out? (1 = almost never, 3 = sometimes, 5 = almost always)

√ √ Perceived Discrimination by Race (5 items) α = .88Perceived Discrimination by Race (5 items) α = .88

At school, how often do you feel that:At school, how often do you feel that:Teachers think you are less smart than you really are because of your race?Teachers think you are less smart than you really are because of your race?Teachers/Counselors discourage you from taking certain classes because of your Teachers/Counselors discourage you from taking certain classes because of your race?race?You are disciplined more harshly than other kids because of your race?You are disciplined more harshly than other kids because of your race?

√ √ Perceived Discrimination by Gender (5 items) Perceived Discrimination by Gender (5 items) α = .82α = .82

At school, how often do you feel that:At school, how often do you feel that:Teachers call on you less often than they call on kids of the opposite sex?Teachers call on you less often than they call on kids of the opposite sex?Teachers/Counselors discourage you from taking certain classes because of your sex?Teachers/Counselors discourage you from taking certain classes because of your sex?You are disciplined more harshly by teachers than kids of the opposite sex?You are disciplined more harshly by teachers than kids of the opposite sex?

(1 = never, 3 = a couple of times a month, 5 = every day)(1 = never, 3 = a couple of times a month, 5 = every day)

Percentage of Adolescents Reporting Different Percentage of Adolescents Reporting Different Phenomenological Risks and Protection Associated Phenomenological Risks and Protection Associated

with Schoolwith School

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

Sch

ool

Rel

ativ

e A

bilit

yFo

cus

Rac

ial

Dis

crim

inat

ion

in S

choo

l

Gen

der

Dis

crim

inat

ion

in S

choo

l

Sch

ool

Mas

tery

Foc

us

Mea

ning

ful

Cur

ricul

um

Aut

onom

yP

rovi

sion

s

Teac

her

Sup

port

Pos

itive

Teac

her

Exp

ecta

tions

% Y

outh

Risk Factors Protective Factors

Change in Psychological Distress and School Change in Psychological Distress and School MotivationMotivation

by (Risks-Protections) in Schoolby (Risks-Protections) in SchoolSeventh to Eighth GradeSeventh to Eighth Grade

-0.4

-0.3

-0.2

-0.1

0

0.1

0.2

0.3

0.4

0.5

-4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3

Distress Motivation

More Protections <--------------------> More Risks

Cha

nge

in R

elat

ive

Sta

tus

(Sta

ndar

d U

nits

)

Change in School Problem Behaviors and GPAChange in School Problem Behaviors and GPAby (Risk - Protective) Factors in Schoolby (Risk - Protective) Factors in School

Seventh to Eighth GradeSeventh to Eighth Grade

-0.50

-0.35

-0.20

-0.05

0.10

0.25

0.40

0.55

-4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3

School Problems Grade Point Average

More Protections <--------------------> More Risks

Cha

nge

in R

elat

ive

Sta

tus

(Sta

ndar

d U

nits

)

ConclusionConclusion

Indicators of both academic Indicators of both academic achievement-related outcomes and achievement-related outcomes and mental health increase as the mental health increase as the number of perceived school related number of perceived school related protective factors increase and protective factors increase and decrease as the number of perceived decrease as the number of perceived school-related risk factors increase.school-related risk factors increase.

Now what about individual Now what about individual differences differences

Thank YouThank You

More details and copies can be More details and copies can be found at found at

www.rcgd.isr.umich.edu/garp/www.rcgd.isr.umich.edu/garp/

The EndThe End