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How Social Group Membership Gets How Social Group Membership Gets “Under the Skin”:“Under the Skin”:
Discrimination and Educational Discrimination and Educational InequitiesInequities
Jacquelynne EcclesJacquelynne EcclesLLAKES ConferenceLLAKES Conference
LondonLondonJuly 5, 2010July 5, 2010
Goals of my talkGoals of my talk Look at social group membership as a broader
social context for development and identity formation – Discuss how membership in ascribed social groups
such as gender, ethnicity, social class can influence Both one’s experiences (Outside In) and One’s Social and Personal Identities, which, in turn, can
influence behavioral choices (Inside Out)
Present some empirical findings from our longitudinal study of African-American youth living near Washington DC as one example of such processes.
Outside InOutside InSocial Group Membership can Social Group Membership can
affect the ways in which people affect the ways in which people respond to yourespond to you
Differential treatment and provision of experiences (Ruble & Martin)
Experiences related to daily experiences of discrimination and racism (Essed; Feagin)
More pervasive structural forms of racism and inequality (McLoyd; Ogbu; Omi & Winant; Schoon)
Inside OutInside OutEthnicity Can Affect Self Processes Ethnicity Can Affect Self Processes
Stereotypes about future discrimination can lead to oppositional identity formation (Fordham & Ogbu)
Knowledge of stereotypes can lead to stereotype-threat effects (Steele & Aronson)
Incorporating stereotypes into one’s personal identity can lead to stereotypic perceptions of one’s skills and opportunities and stereotypic goals and aspirations (Ashmore; Crocker; Deaux; Eccles; Ruble)
Inside OutInside Out
Ethnicity and Social Identity Formation Ethnicity and Social Identity Formation
Let me step back here and say a bit more about the distinction between personal and social identities.
What do I mean by the distinction between social (collective) and personal identities?
•Social identity refers to that part of an individual's self‑concept that derives from his/her knowledge of and attitudes toward membership in a social group coupled with the value and emotional significance attached to that membership.
•Social identities are that part of the collective self that defines the individual in terms of his/her shared similarities with members of certain social groups
•Social identities serve the function of relatedness and membership.
What do I mean by the distinction between social (collective) and personal identities?
•Social identities include those that are socially ascribed (race and gender) as well as those that emanate from group memberships of choice.
•Different social identities may vary in salience in time and as a function of various social situations.
What do I mean by the distinction between social (collective) and personal identities?
Personal identity refers to that part of an individual’s self-concept that makes a person feel unique. It is most similar to the type of identity Erikson was interested it.
I am most concerned with the content of both personal and social identities because these aspects of identities influence behavioral choices and engagement intensity.
How Might Social and Personal Identities Influence Behavioral Choices and Engagement Intensity?
– Through Their Influence on Individuals’
Expectancies/ Ability Self-Concepts (the ME selves)
Subjective Task Values linked to Goals, Aspirations, and Possible Selves
PersonalExperiences
PersonalExperiences
Subcultural Beliefs, Images,Stereotypes
Subcultural Beliefs, Images,Stereotypes
Societal Beliefs,Images, Ideology,Stereotypes
Societal Beliefs,Images, Ideology,Stereotypes
• Personal Identities Self-concepts Self-schema Future possible selves Values Goals, Aspirations
• Personal Identities Self-concepts Self-schema Future possible selves Values Goals, Aspirations
• Social Identities Salience Content Perception of barriers and opportunities linked to category membership
• Social Identities Salience Content Perception of barriers and opportunities linked to category membership
ExpectationsPersonal Efficacy
ExpectationsPersonal Efficacy
Perceived Valueof Specific Activities
Perceived Valueof Specific Activities
BehaviorPatterns &Choices
BehaviorPatterns &Choices
"...in discussing identity ...we cannot separate personal growth and communal change, nor can we separate the identity crisis in individual life and contemporary crises in historical development because the two help to define each other and are truly relative to one another. In fact, the whole interplay between the psychological and the social, the developmental and the historical, for which identity formation is of prototypal significance, could be conceptualized as a kind of psychosocial relativity." (Erikson, Identity. Youth and Crisis, 1968; pg. 23)
"A child has many opportunities to identify himself, more or less experimentally, with real or fictitious people of either sex and with habits, traits, occupations, and ideas .... However, the historical era in which he lives offers only a limited number of socially meaningful models for workable combinations of identity fragments. Their usefulness depends on the way in which they simultaneously meet the requirements of the organism's maturational stage, the ego's style of synthesis, and the demands of the culture.“
(Erikson,1968, Identity, Youth and Crisis, pp 53‑54)
Inside OutInside Out
Ethnicity and Social Identity Formation Ethnicity and Social Identity Formation Ethnicity salience can lead to social identity
formation (Aboud; Cross; McGuire; Phinney; Omi & Winant)
Social identities can influence goals and aspirations, as well as behavioral style and friendship networks, which, in turn can influence behavior (Eccles; Gurin; Fordham & Ogbu; Kao; Mickelson; O’Connor; Oyserman; Rotherman & Phinney; Spencer; Sellers; Taylor; Ruble)
– Need to understand individual’s stereotypes of their own group– Need to understand the centrality of group membership to the
individual’s core identities
Inside OutInside Out
Ethnicity and Social Identity Formation Ethnicity and Social Identity Formation
Social identities can help adolescents make meaning of experiences of racism and discrimination (Cross; Deaux; Phelan; Sellers; Spencer)
– Buffer or exacerbate the influences of stigmatizing social group related experiences
– Oppositional Identity formation
– Resistance at personal and/or social level
PersonalExperiences
PersonalExperiences
Subcultural Beliefs, Images,Stereotypes
Subcultural Beliefs, Images,Stereotypes
Societal Beliefs,Images, Ideology,Stereotypes
Societal Beliefs,Images, Ideology,Stereotypes
• Personal Identities Self-concepts Self-schema Future possible selves Values Goals, Aspirations
• Personal Identities Self-concepts Self-schema Future possible selves Values Goals, Aspirations
• Social Identities Salience Content Perception of barriers and opportunities linked to category membership
• Social Identities Salience Content Perception of barriers and opportunities linked to category membership
ExpectationsPersonal Efficacy
ExpectationsPersonal Efficacy
Perceived Valueof Specific Activities
Perceived Valueof Specific Activities
BehaviorPatterns &Choices
BehaviorPatterns &Choices
Illustrate with one empirical Illustrate with one empirical exampleexample
Experiences of Racism
And How Such Experiences Can Help Us Understand Group Differences in School
Achievement
Use This Approach to Use This Approach to Understand Group Differences in Understand Group Differences in
Achievement or Life-ChoicesAchievement or Life-Choices
African-American youth continue to do less well academically in school than European-American youth– High school grades– High school completion rates– Standardized test scores– College attendance rates
WHY?WHY?
Inequities in opportunities and barriers – – Institutional and structural racism
Differential face-to-face treatment - Racism
Contributors to the Maryland Contributors to the Maryland Adolescent Development in Context Adolescent Development in Context
Study (MADICS)Study (MADICS) Jacquelynne Eccles, PI Arnold Sameroff, PI
W. Todd Bartko Elaine Belansky Diane Early Kari Fraser Leslie Gutman Yael Harlap Katie Jodl Ariel Kalil
Linda Kuhn Alice Michael Melanie Overby Stephen Peck Katherine Rosenblum Robert Roeser Sherri Steele Erika Taylor Cynthia Winston Carol Wong
Funders Funders
MacArthur Research Network on Successful Pathways Through Adolescence:– Chair Richard Jessor
NICHDW.T. GrantSpencer FoundationUniversity of ColoradoUniversity of Michigan
SampleSample
Respondent characteristics:– African-American – N=625– Average age = 11 at
Wave 1– Seventh grade at W 1– 53 % male– Data presented today
were collected in Fall of 7th grade and Summer following 8th grade
Family background:
– Median Family Income (1993): $50-55,000
– Highest Education: 38% College Degree
– Highest Occupation: 44% Skilled 30% Professional
Longitudinal Mixed MethodsLongitudinal Mixed Methods
Face-to-face, in home interviews with youth and their parents which included both close-ended and quite open-ended questions
Self-administered questionnaires with youth and their parents
Open-ended phone interviews with youth and their parents
Repeated intensive interviews with a subset of the youth
Data CollectionData Collection
Fall of 7th Grade Summer following 8th GradeFall and Winter of 11th GradeFall after 12th GradeThree Years after High School
Two Types of Perceived Two Types of Perceived DiscriminationDiscrimination
Future discrimination
Day to Day experiences of discrimination
Day to Day Discrimination: Day to Day Discrimination: Sample ItemsSample Items
How often do you … because of your race:– Get into fights with kids– Not get picked for certain school activities
How often does your teacher … because of your race:– Call on you– Grade you harder– Discourage you from taking certain classes– Think you are less smart.
0%
10%
20%
30%
40%
50%
Per
cent
One
Tim
e or
Mor
e
Whites
Blacks
Adolescents’ Race-Related Experiences in SchoolAdolescents’ Race-Related Experiences in SchoolEighth GradeEighth Grade
Call on You Grade You Harsher Think You Are Discourage Less Harder Discipline Less Smart From Taking Classes
ConclusionConclusion
Daily experiences of perceived racial discrimination appear to undermine many aspects of the healthy development of African American JHS youth.
In contrast, anticipated future racial discrimination has very little impact
Modeling Developmental Modeling Developmental AssociationsAssociations
Next we used SEM to model these effects on school achievement in a more theoretically driven manner
We included the perceived racial discrimination experienced by parents
0%
20%
40%
60%
80%
100%
Percent of Adolescents’ Parents Experiencing Racial Percent of Adolescents’ Parents Experiencing Racial Discrimination in Their CommunitiesDiscrimination in Their Communities
Black Black White White Males Females Males Females
Youth Perception of Glass Ceiling
Youth Perception of Discrimination
by Teachers
Youth Perception of Discrimination
by Peers
Parent Perception of Discrimination
at Work
Parent Perception of Discrimination
in Community
Youth Value of School
AcademicAchievement
Youth Self-Concept
of Ability
R2 = .12
R2 = .31
R2 = .36
.10*
-.31***
-.25***
.09+
-.13**
.11*-.04-.25***
.11*
-.11*
.09**
.22***
Relation of Different Types of Racial DiscriminationRelation of Different Types of Racial Discrimination to African American Adolescents’ Academic Motivation and Achievementto African American Adolescents’ Academic Motivation and Achievement
Youth Perception of Glass Ceiling
Youth Perception of Discrimination
by Teachers
Youth Perception of Discrimination
by Peers
Parent Perception of Discrimination
at Work
Parent Perception of Discrimination
in Community
Youth Value of School
AcademicAchievement
Youth Self-Concept
of Ability
R2 = .12
R2 = .31
R2 = .36
.10*
-.31***
-.25***
.09+
-.13**
.11*-.04-.25***
.11*
-.11*
.09**
.22***
Relation of Different Types of Racial DiscriminationRelation of Different Types of Racial Discrimination to African American Adolescents’ Academic Motivation and Achievementto African American Adolescents’ Academic Motivation and Achievement
Youth Perception of Glass Ceiling
Youth Perception of Discrimination
by Teachers
Youth Perception of Discrimination
by Peers
Parent Perception of Discrimination
at Work
Parent Perception of Discrimination
in Community
Youth Value of School
AcademicAchievement
Youth Self-Concept
of Ability
R2 = .12
R2 = .31
R2 = .36
.10*
-.31***
-.25***
.09+
-.13**
.11*-.04-.25***
.11*
-.11*
.09**
.22***
Relation of Different Types of Racial DiscriminationRelation of Different Types of Racial Discrimination to African American Adolescents’ Academic Motivation and Achievementto African American Adolescents’ Academic Motivation and Achievement
Youth Perception of Glass Ceiling
Youth Perception of Discrimination
by Teachers
Youth Perception of Discrimination
by Peers
Parent Perception of Discrimination
at Work
Parent Perception of Discrimination
in Community
Youth Value of School
AcademicAchievement
Youth Self-Concept
of Ability
R2 = .12
R2 = .31
R2 = .36
.10*
-.31***
-.25***
.09+
-.13**
.11*-.04-.25***
.11*
-.11*
.09**
.22***
Effects of Different Types of Racial DiscriminationEffects of Different Types of Racial Discrimination on African American Adolescents’ Academic Motivation and Achievementon African American Adolescents’ Academic Motivation and Achievement
Youth Perception of Glass Ceiling
Youth Perception of Discrimination
by Teachers
Youth Perception of Discrimination
by Peers
Parent Perception of Discrimination
at Work
Parent Perception of Discrimination
in Community
Youth Value of School
AcademicAchievement
Youth Self-Concept
of Ability
R2 = .12
R2 = .31
R2 = .36
.10*
-.31***
-.25***
.09+
-.13**
.11*-.04-.25***
.11*
-.11*
.09**
.22***
Effects of Different Types of Racial DiscriminationEffects of Different Types of Racial Discrimination on African American Adolescents’ Academic Motivation and Achievementon African American Adolescents’ Academic Motivation and Achievement
Thus, there is strong supportThus, there is strong support for the undermining impact of for the undermining impact of
daily experiences of discrimination daily experiences of discrimination in school in school
on on school achievement school achievement
as well as on other indicators of as well as on other indicators of healthy adolescent development. healthy adolescent development.
Furthermore,Furthermore,these effects appear to these effects appear to
influence academic influence academic achievement through their achievement through their influence on the students’influence on the students’
Ability Self ConceptsAbility Self ConceptsSubjective Task ValuesSubjective Task Values
We see the similar processes We see the similar processes when we look at gender and when we look at gender and
its association with its association with educational choiceseducational choices
although these are linked less although these are linked less to experiences of to experiences of
discrimination and more to discrimination and more to experiences related to experiences related to
gender-role socializationgender-role socialization
Predicting Number of Honors Math ClassesPredicting Number of Honors Math ClassesN = 223 (honors students)N = 223 (honors students)
Gender
Math Aptitude
Self-Concept of Ability in
Math
(R² = .06)
Interest in Math
(R² = .02)
Utility of Math
(R² = .04)
Number of Honors Math
Courses
(R² = .19)
.15
.12
.14.18
.14
.13
.25
Predicting # of Physics ClassesPredicting # of Physics Classes
Thank youThank you
Web Address:Web Address:www.rcgd.isr.umich.edu/garpwww.rcgd.isr.umich.edu/garp