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School-Based Mentoring: An School-Based Mentoring: An Effective Intervention with Effective Intervention with Students at Risk for EBDStudents at Risk for EBD
Paul Caldarella Ph.D. Paul Caldarella Ph.D. Michael B. Adams M.Ed. Michael B. Adams M.Ed. Shauna B. Valentine B.S.Shauna B. Valentine B.S.K. Richard Young Ph.D.K. Richard Young Ph.D.
Presentation OverviewPresentation Overview
• IntroIntro
• MethodsMethods
• ResultsResults
• ConclusionConclusion
Risk FactorsRisk Factors
• Low family income, Low family income, large family size, poor large family size, poor child-rearing techniques child-rearing techniques & parental criminality & parental criminality linked to juvenile linked to juvenile delinquency delinquency
(Howard, Dryden, & Johnson 1999)(Howard, Dryden, & Johnson 1999)
• Strained family Strained family relationships, family relationships, family conflict, poor conflict, poor communication skills communication skills contribute to rates of contribute to rates of depression among depression among children children (Merrell, 2001)(Merrell, 2001)
EBD Under-Identified?EBD Under-Identified?
• Estimated 10-20% of school-age children experience mental Estimated 10-20% of school-age children experience mental health concerns (Mash & Dozois, 2002) - many are not identified health concerns (Mash & Dozois, 2002) - many are not identified and do not receive interventions.and do not receive interventions.
• Students identified with Emotional and Behavioral Disorders Students identified with Emotional and Behavioral Disorders (EBD) constitute just less than 1% of the school-age population (EBD) constitute just less than 1% of the school-age population (Wagner et al., 2005). (Wagner et al., 2005).
• Of those students identified as EBD, approximately 65% are 12 Of those students identified as EBD, approximately 65% are 12 years of age or older (U.S. Department of Education, 2001). years of age or older (U.S. Department of Education, 2001).
EBD Students experience…EBD Students experience…
• Fewer positive outcomesFewer positive outcomes
• More frequent removal from classMore frequent removal from class
• Less academic instruction than any other group of students with Less academic instruction than any other group of students with disabilitiesdisabilities
• Years of academic failure and peer rejection before evaluations Years of academic failure and peer rejection before evaluations and diagnoses are begunand diagnoses are begun
(Lane, Gresham, & O’Shaugnessy, 2002;Jolivette, Stitchter, Nelson, Scott, & Liaupsin, 2000)(Lane, Gresham, & O’Shaugnessy, 2002;Jolivette, Stitchter, Nelson, Scott, & Liaupsin, 2000)
EBD Continued…EBD Continued…
• Teachers reportTeachers report– Students with EBD among least desirable to have Students with EBD among least desirable to have
in classin class
– They are not prepared to address needs of EBD They are not prepared to address needs of EBD studentsstudents
• ResultsResults– More than 50% drop outMore than 50% drop out
(Lewis & Sugai, 1999; Soodak, Podell & Lehman, 1998; Cheney & Barringer, 1995)(Lewis & Sugai, 1999; Soodak, Podell & Lehman, 1998; Cheney & Barringer, 1995)
Common School InterventionsCommon School Interventions
• ReactiveReactive
• PunishmentPunishment
• Suspension and expulsionSuspension and expulsion
• School psychologists or School psychologists or counselorscounselors
• Special education servicesSpecial education services
Foundations of MentoringFoundations of Mentoring
• Homers OdysseyHomers Odyssey
• Extended FamiliesExtended Families
• Heroic LegendsHeroic Legends
• SportsSports
• BusinessBusiness
• President Bush $450 President Bush $450 millionmillion
RationaleRationale
• For healthy development children need positive For healthy development children need positive relationships with adults relationships with adults (Scales, 2003)(Scales, 2003)
• Children may be discouraged from forming natural Children may be discouraged from forming natural relationships with clergy, neighbors, and other adults relationships with clergy, neighbors, and other adults (Rhodes, 2005)(Rhodes, 2005)
• Studies of resilience among youth from at-risk Studies of resilience among youth from at-risk backgrounds alerted scholars to protective functions backgrounds alerted scholars to protective functions that can be fulfilled by relationships with non-parental that can be fulfilled by relationships with non-parental adults adults (Werner, 1995)(Werner, 1995)
What is a Mentor?What is a Mentor?
• Greater wisdom or Greater wisdom or experienceexperience
• Offers guidance or Offers guidance or instruction intended instruction intended to facilitate growth to facilitate growth and developmentand development
“There is an emotional bond between mentor and
mentee, a hallmark of which is a sense of trust”
(Freedman 1992)
Benefits of MentoringBenefits of Mentoring
• Self EsteemSelf Esteem
• Attitudes Toward SchoolAttitudes Toward School
• Peer and Parental Peer and Parental Relationships Relationships
• Relationships with Teachers Relationships with Teachers and Administratorsand Administrators
• Academic AchievementAcademic Achievement
• Behavioral ImprovementsBehavioral Improvements
(Hancock, 2003; Rhodes et al, 2005; Keating et al 2002)(Hancock, 2003; Rhodes et al, 2005; Keating et al 2002)
Advantages of School-based MentoringAdvantages of School-based Mentoring
• Less CostlyLess Costly
• Identify More Children via the Identify More Children via the School ContextSchool Context
• School Resources Staff School Resources Staff AdministrationAdministration
• More Convenient for VolunteersMore Convenient for Volunteers
• Time CommitmentTime Commitment
• Mentors Feel SaferMentors Feel Safer
• Establish Community Support Establish Community Support within Schoolwithin School
Dubois & Karcher (2005)Dubois & Karcher (2005)
GoalGoal
““The goal of true The goal of true mentoring is the mentoring is the development of the development of the youth--not necessarily youth--not necessarily the solution of specific the solution of specific problems problems (Ambrose, 1998)(Ambrose, 1998)
Secondary Level InterventionsSecondary Level Interventions
• Interventions for small Interventions for small groups at risk for school groups at risk for school failurefailure
• For students For students unresponsive to unresponsive to universal interventionsuniversal interventions
• 7%-10% of student 7%-10% of student populationpopulation
(Sugai, Horner, & Gresham, 2002)(Sugai, Horner, & Gresham, 2002)
Question:Question:
Is school-based mentoring an effective Is school-based mentoring an effective intervention for elementary students at intervention for elementary students at
risk for emotional and behavioral risk for emotional and behavioral disorders?disorders?
SettingSetting
• Elementary School in Elementary School in Central UtahCentral Utah– 532 Students532 Students– Over 50% free or Over 50% free or
reduced lunchreduced lunch– EthnicityEthnicity
75% Caucasian75% Caucasian21% Hispanic21% Hispanic 2% African American2% African American 2% Other2% Other
• Student SupportStudent Support– PrincipalPrincipal– .50 Advocate.50 Advocate– .25 Psychologist.25 Psychologist
Student SelectionStudent Selection
• Systematic Screening For Behavior Disorders (SSBD)Systematic Screening For Behavior Disorders (SSBD) (Walker & Severson 1992)(Walker & Severson 1992)
– Screens All StudentsScreens All Students
– Internalizing & ExternalizingInternalizing & Externalizing
• Suggests Risk LevelSuggests Risk Level
– Primary, Secondary, TertiaryPrimary, Secondary, Tertiary
Student ParticipantsStudent Participants
• N = 17N = 1776 % male76 % male
• Ethnicity:Ethnicity:70% Caucasian70% Caucasian24% Hispanic24% Hispanic 6% African American6% African American
• Age:Age:Range 6-11yrs., M = 8.5yrs (sd = 1.84)Range 6-11yrs., M = 8.5yrs (sd = 1.84)
• Free or Reduced Lunch = 81%Free or Reduced Lunch = 81%• SSBD results: SSBD results:
Critical Events: range 1–6, M = 2.73 (sd = 1.62)Critical Events: range 1–6, M = 2.73 (sd = 1.62)Adaptive: range 25-44, M = 33.67 (sd = 5.05)Adaptive: range 25-44, M = 33.67 (sd = 5.05)Maladaptive: range 14-45, M = 29.60 (sd = 8.47)Maladaptive: range 14-45, M = 29.60 (sd = 8.47)
Mentor RecruitmentMentor Recruitment
• SourcesSources– Principal and staff, PTA, volunteersPrincipal and staff, PTA, volunteers
– BusinessesBusinesses
– Community groupsCommunity groups
– Church out-reach programsChurch out-reach programs
– Retirement communitiesRetirement communities
– Word of MouthWord of Mouth
Application and ScreeningApplication and Screening
• Basic DemographicsBasic Demographics• Brief QuestionnaireBrief Questionnaire• ReferencesReferences• Background CheckBackground Check
RetiredStudentFull-time
Part-timeUnemployed
Employment
PhDMDMasters
BA/BS Degree
Some College
High School
Education
61-8051-6041-5031-4020-30
AgeRange 2 1 4 9
1 5
0
4 2 3
3 1 1 2 9
Profile of MentorsProfile of Mentors
Mentor ExpectationsMentor Expectations
• Time commitmentTime commitment• Reliability and Consistency Reliability and Consistency • OptimismOptimism• HonestyHonesty• Supportive AcceptanceSupportive Acceptance• Avoid preaching or lecturingAvoid preaching or lecturing• Good exampleGood example• TrainingTraining
Mentor Skills TrainingMentor Skills Training
• Communication skillsCommunication skills
• Listening skillsListening skills
• Effective praiseEffective praise
MentorMentor Activity TrainingActivity Training
• Social Skills InstructionSocial Skills Instruction
• Goal SettingGoal Setting
• Problem SolvingProblem Solving
Matching ProcessMatching Process
• CollaborativeCollaborative– School PersonnelSchool Personnel– Mentoring Mentoring
CoordinatorCoordinator• GenderGender• Application/InterviewApplication/Interview• Similarity of Similarity of
InterestsInterests• PersonalityPersonality• Need - ExperienceNeed - Experience
Typical Mentoring SessionTypical Mentoring Session
• Call to school ensure attendanceCall to school ensure attendance
• Sign in at officeSign in at office
• 10 min check in10 min check in
• Work on goals academic/social activitiesWork on goals academic/social activities
• Review progressReview progress
• Plan future visitPlan future visit
• Entry in mentoring journalEntry in mentoring journal
Evaluation DesignEvaluation Design
• 1 Group1 Group
• Pre-Test/Post-TestPre-Test/Post-Test
Measures of OutcomeMeasures of Outcome
• Quantitative DataQuantitative Data– Social CompetenceSocial Competence– Anti-social BehaviorAnti-social Behavior– AcademicsAcademics– AttendanceAttendance
• Qualitative DataQualitative Data– Log and JournalLog and Journal– Social ValiditySocial Validity
Mentoring JournalMentoring JournalMentoring J ournal
Date Attitude A ctivity G oal(s)/Progress C omments Sample 1
Very Cooperative Happy, Anxious to
see me
Gave her a “Believe” star and talked about setting
goals. Filled out “Let’s Get To Know You Better This
Year” sheet.
Set two goals: (1) Be nicer to her sister and (2) Listen better in
school. Will check on goals next
week.
(Mary) was very willing to open up and
address some concerns she has,
especially when her step sister visits.
Sample 2
Positive We worked on spelling words and handwriting.
We read some, too.
Set a goal of improving handwriting and spelling
He did great writing. He really tried to do
his best.
Sample 3
Quiet. Happy to see me
Reviewed numbers. Punched out valentines. Read a book and talked
about how to make friends, how to always remember to do your
best.
Worked on writing numbers correctly. She is
remembering not to reverse her numbers.
She remembered we were going to read a
book
Analysis of JournalsAnalysis of Journals
Categories Categories %% HoursHoursAcademic-related Academic-related 44.5% 44.5% 104104
Social Social 40.8% 40.8% 9595
Games, puzzles, etc. Games, puzzles, etc. 14.7% 14.7% 3434
Top 3 ActivitiesTop 3 ActivitiesConversations Conversations 15.6%15.6% 36.536.5
Reading activities Reading activities 13.8%13.8% 32.332.3
Goal setting Goal setting 8.4%8.4% 19.519.5
Total # of visitsTotal # of visits 233233
Mean visits per studentMean visits per student 14.2414.24
School Social Behavior Scales (SSBS)School Social Behavior Scales (SSBS)
• Teacher RatingTeacher Rating– 64 Likert-scale items64 Likert-scale items– Nationally normedNationally normed– Evidence of reliability & validityEvidence of reliability & validity
• Social CompetenceSocial Competence– Cooperates with other studentsCooperates with other students– Shows self controlShows self control– Sensitive to others feelingsSensitive to others feelings
• Antisocial BehaviorAntisocial Behavior– Is physically aggressiveIs physically aggressive– Is easily irritatedIs easily irritated– Gets into trouble at schoolGets into trouble at school
(Merrell, 2002)(Merrell, 2002)
Home and Community Social Behavior Scales Home and Community Social Behavior Scales (HCSBS)(HCSBS)
• Parent RatingParent Rating– Companion to the SSBSCompanion to the SSBS– 64 Likert-scale items64 Likert-scale items– Nationally normedNationally normed– Evidence of reliability & validityEvidence of reliability & validity
• Social CompetenceSocial Competence– Cooperates with peersCooperates with peers– Shows self controlShows self control– Sensitive to others feelingsSensitive to others feelings
• Antisocial BehaviorAntisocial Behavior– Is physically aggressiveIs physically aggressive– Is easily irritatedIs easily irritated– Gets into trouble at school or in Gets into trouble at school or in
communitycommunity(Merrell & Caldarella, 2002)(Merrell & Caldarella, 2002)
Social CompetenceSocial Competence
Social Competence Total T-Scores
52.82
44.0049.2749.75
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
SSBS HCSBS
T-S
core
Pre
Post
Antisocial BehaviorAntisocial Behavior
Anti-Social Behavior Total T-Scores
58.94
48.25 47.17
53.00
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
SSBS HCSBS
T-S
core
Pre
Post
*p *p < .05 **< .05 **pp < .01 < .01
0.750.75 8.608.6047.1747.17 7.597.5948.2548.25Anti-Social Pre-PostAnti-Social Pre-Post
-2.00-2.007.417.4152.8252.828.348.3449.2749.27Social Comp Pre-PostSocial Comp Pre-Post
HCSBSHCSBS
2.92*2.92*10.4210.4253.0053.009.439.4358.9458.94Anti-Social Pre-PostAnti-Social Pre-Post
-3.86**-3.86**7.407.4049.7549.756.436.4344.0044.00Social Comp Pre-PostSocial Comp Pre-Post
SSBSSSBS
tt SDSD MeanMean SDSD MeanMean
Post TestPost Test Pre TestPre Test
SSBS and HCSBS Mean T Scores, Standard Deviations, and Paired Sample SSBS and HCSBS Mean T Scores, Standard Deviations, and Paired Sample t-t-Tests.Tests.
AcademicsAcademics
Academics Homework Citizenship
2.111.87
2.61
3.05
2.67
3.21
0.00
0.50
1.00
1.50
2.00
2.50
3.00
3.50
Academic Total HomeworkAccountability
Citizenship
Gra
de L
eve
l S
tandard
Pre Intervention
Post Intervention
****p p < .01 ***< .01 ***pp < .001 < .001
-3.63**-3.63** 0.430.433.213.21 0.730.732.612.61 CitizenshipCitizenship
-3.29**-3.29** 0.810.812.672.67 0.630.631.871.87Homework AccountabilityHomework Accountability
-7.62***-7.62***0.620.623.053.050.690.692.112.11Academic TotalAcademic Total
-3.56**-3.56**0.650.653.003.000.790.792.272.27MathMath
-4.03**-4.03**0.940.943.203.201.041.042.332.33SpellingSpelling
-6.55***-6.55***0.640.642.802.800.560.561.771.77Writing ExpressionWriting Expression
-5.98***-5.98***0.700.703.203.200.760.762.102.10Reading ComprehensionReading Comprehension
-6.12***-6.12***0.620.623.073.070.760.762.102.10Reading SkillsReading Skills
tt SDSDPost-meanPost-mean SDSDPre-meanPre-mean
Academic Mean Scores, Standard Deviations, and Paired Sample Academic Mean Scores, Standard Deviations, and Paired Sample t-t-Tests.Tests.
AttendanceAttendance
2.44
8.63
4.19
5.63
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
Absences Tardies
Pre
Post
Comparison: Secondary vs. TertiaryComparison: Secondary vs. Tertiary
SSBS Social Competence Comparison
44.60 45.0049.44
54.40
0.00
10.00
20.00
30.00
40.00
50.00
60.00
Secondary Tertiary
Pre
Post
Comparison: Secondary vs TertiaryComparison: Secondary vs Tertiary
SSBS Anti-Social Behavior Comparison
56.90 58.80
51.6748.00
0.00
10.00
20.00
30.00
40.00
50.00
60.00
Secondary Tertiary
Pre
Post
Recap of Quantitative ResultsRecap of Quantitative Results
• Increased Social Increased Social CompetenceCompetence
• Decreased Anti-social Decreased Anti-social BehaviorBehavior
• Improved AcademicsImproved Academics
• Tertiary vs Secondary Tertiary vs Secondary StudentsStudents
Social Validity SurveysSocial Validity Surveys
• All participantsAll participants
• End of programEnd of program
• Perceived changes in studentPerceived changes in student
• SatisfactionSatisfaction
• SuggestionsSuggestions
Student SurveyStudent Survey
100%100% responded that they responded that they would like to be in the would like to be in the mentoring program againmentoring program again
71%71% noted help with academics noted help with academics as the most important part of as the most important part of having a mentorhaving a mentor
What did you like about What did you like about having a mentor ?having a mentor ?
““A friend”A friend”““She’s nice, knows about me She’s nice, knows about me
and cares”and cares”““Someone to trust”Someone to trust”““We talk, she listens”We talk, she listens”
Teacher SurveyTeacher Survey
100%100% noted positive changes for noted positive changes for those students who were those students who were mentored. mentored.
““I wish more of my students could I wish more of my students could benefit from it”benefit from it”
““Self-confidence has dramatically Self-confidence has dramatically increased this school year”increased this school year”
““I love that Martin truly looked forward to I love that Martin truly looked forward to this time, as was shown by the big this time, as was shown by the big smile on his face each time she smile on his face each time she appeared at our door. This is worth appeared at our door. This is worth more than completing 100 more than completing 100 assignments on time!! “assignments on time!! “
Mentor SurveyMentor Survey
69%69% would like to participate again. would like to participate again.40%40% would like more information on would like more information on
student needs.student needs.36%36% wanted more contact with the wanted more contact with the
teacher.teacher.
““They have touched my life for good”They have touched my life for good”““I like feeling that I can make a I like feeling that I can make a
difference in a child’s life”difference in a child’s life”““It is very rewarding to help a child set It is very rewarding to help a child set
goals and achieve them”goals and achieve them”““I like seeing them become more self I like seeing them become more self
confident”confident”
Parent SurveyParent Survey
83%83% said they would said they would like their child to like their child to participate in the participate in the program again.program again.
““He appears to feel better about He appears to feel better about himself”himself”
““It helps them cope with problems It helps them cope with problems and be better students!” and be better students!”
““We love the program!”We love the program!”
““Boost in self-confidence”Boost in self-confidence”
LimitationsLimitations
• Data from just one schoolData from just one school
• No control groupNo control group
• Small number of participantsSmall number of participants
• Brief interventionBrief intervention
• No measure of relationship strengthNo measure of relationship strength
Common DifficultiesCommon Difficulties
• IssuesIssues– Mentor sporadic or drops outMentor sporadic or drops out– Teacher/academic scheduleTeacher/academic schedule– Students behavior extremeStudents behavior extreme
• How to addressHow to address– TrainingTraining– Monitoring/supervisionMonitoring/supervision– Ongoing supportOngoing support
Future DirectionsFuture Directions
• Addressing limitationsAddressing limitations
• Replicating the evaluation Replicating the evaluation
• Extending the programExtending the program
• Developing and refining mentoring materialsDeveloping and refining mentoring materials
ResourcesResources
Dubois & Karcher, (2005), Dubois & Karcher, (2005), Handbook of Youth Handbook of Youth MentoringMentoring, Sage Publishing , Sage Publishing
www.beamentor.orgwww.beamentor.org
www.mentoring.orgwww.mentoring.org
www.ppv.orgwww.ppv.org
Paul Caldarella Ph.D. Paul Caldarella Ph.D. [email protected][email protected] B. Adams M.Ed. Michael B. Adams M.Ed. [email protected]@nebo.eduShauna B. Valentine B.S.Shauna B. Valentine B.S. [email protected][email protected]. Richard Young Ph.D.K. Richard Young Ph.D. [email protected][email protected]
http://education.byu.edu/pbsi/
236 S 700 EProvo, UT 84606(801) 377-0560Fax (801) [email protected]
