Running head: MIGRATION FROM ZIMBABWE TO THE … · MIGRATION FROM ZIMBABWE TO THE US AND NHRD ... HRD have been expanded as the field of HRD is explored ... and other factors to

Running head: MIGRATION FROM ZIMBABWE TO THE US AND NHRD 1

Exploring Migration from Zimbabwe to the United States and Implications for Zimbabwe’s

National Human Resource Development

Charlene Mutamba

Julia Storberg-Walker

North Carolina State University

Doctoral Submission

Keywords: national human resource development, migration, brain drain

Copyright © 2014 Charlene Mutamba & Julia Storberg-Walker

MIGRATION FROM ZIMBABWE TO THE US AND NHRD 2

Despite heavy investments in education by Zimbabwean policy makers, Zimbabwean

nationals continue to leave their home country for work or personal reasons. According to the

International Organization on Migration (2009) between 2000 and 2005, net migration rate was -

11.2. United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) 2009

statistics show that Zimbabwe’s literacy rate of 91.4% is largely due to the increase in

investments in education made between 1980 and 2000. The investments in developing human

capital are not producing a return, however, to the country of Zimbabwe. For example, between

1990 and 2010, Zimbabwe, like other countries in the region, experienced and continues to

experience increases in the movement of workers out of the country (citation). This growing

concern is part of a phenomenon known as “brain drain” (Beine, Docquier & Rapoport, 2001).

Migration of highly trained individuals leaves many nations short of the skills necessary to

succeed in a global economy (El-Khawas, 2004).

Purpose Statement

The purpose of this exploratory study was to understand the work experiences of

migrants from Zimbabwe to the United States. Understanding these experiences is one strategy

towards identifying specific National Human Resource Development (NHRD) policies and

practices that may help to stem the brain drain. The case study was conducted by exploring the

career experiences of migrants from Zimbabwe working in the US.

Research Question

The research question guiding this study was: What are the work experiences of

Zimbabwe nationals in the United States?


Context and Background

Since 1996, Zimbabwe has experienced an increase in outflow migration to countries

such as South Africa, New Zealand, the United Kingdom, and the US. Despite this increase in

migration, no other HRD scholars have focused on this aspect of NHRD. Some previous studies

on migration have been in developmental economics (El-Khawas, 2004; Liebig, 2003; Beine,

Docquier & Rapoport, 2008) while others broadly approached brain drain from Zimbabwe

(Tevera & Crush, 2003; Muchenje, 2003; Gwaradzimba & Shumba, 2010). Others scholars have

focused on human capital loss in the medical field (Pang, Lansang, & Haines, 2002; Troy,

Wyness, & McAuliffe, 2007; Hagopian, Thompson, Fordyce, Johnson, & Hart, 2004), but with a

focus on doctors only (Chikanda, 2006) and nurses only (Chikanda, 2005).

In addition, most research has focused on migration to European Union (EU) member

countries, Australia and New Zealand (Oberoi, & Lin, 2006).) Other studies conducted by the

WB focus on economic consequences of brain drain (Docquier, Lohest & Marfouk, 2007;

Bhargava, & Docquier, 2008). To date, no HRD scholars have researched migration from

Zimbabwe to the US and its impact on NHRD; hence, according to Merriam (2002), there is a

sense of urgency which this qualitative research fulfills.

This study is important because there is a need to understand how to help Zimbabwe keep

trained workers from migrating out of the country. NHRD scholars can help Zimbabwe policy

makers create structures and develop incentives to attract and retain high level skills and help

nations to both compete and collaborate within the global labor market. After understanding

more about the experiences of Zimbabwean migrants in the US, this paper will explore the

negative and positive implications of migration. Although the phenomenon of brain drain is not

new, the implications for Zimbabwe continue to be experienced.


To begin this study, it is important to explore the following underlying definitions of

HRD and NHRD that were used in this study.

Human Resource Development (HRD)

To date there is no consensus on the definition of HRD; however, according to McLean

and McLean (2001), most definitions of HRD are focused on activities related to

learning/behavioral change, performance improvement and changing attitudes and organizational

culture. McLean and McLean’s (2001) definition of HRD encompasses the different contexts of

HRD in a global environment whereby:

Human resource development is any process or activity that, either initially or over the

long term, has the potential to develop adults’ work-based knowledge, expertise,

productivity and satisfaction, whether for personal or group/team gain, or for the benefit

of an organization, community, nation or, ultimately, the whole of humanity (p. 322).

Wilson (2012) defines HRD as, “the processes for increasing the cognitive, affective and

behavioral capacities of all people and organizations in a society” (p.9). These definitions of

HRD have been expanded as the field of HRD is explored in different contexts.

National Human Resource Development (NHRD)

In the past, NHRD was defined around vocational education and training and

occasionally by country level manpower planning and human capital development (Wilson,

2012). NHRD was evaluated using macro indicators, such as: the Human Development Index

(HDI), analytic reports and academic articles. Now, according to Wilson (2012), sources of

NHRD include: personal learning, universities, colleges and schools, informal learning, work

based learning, voluntary and community groups, health education, employment training and

continuing education. Ardchvili, Zavyalova and Minina (2012) describe NHRD as encompassing


education and training issues, which include: basic education, industrial training, productivity

and equity in labor forces and workplaces, creation of comparable labor market data, lifelong

learning and management development.

The concept of NHRD has expanded from the definition of HRD. According to Swanson

and Holton (2001), there is a need for HRD in developing nations to address the challenges of

developing their human resources as a national asset and source of sustainable development and

competitiveness. In addressing these concerns, McLean, Bartlett and Cho (2003) add education,

health, safety, and other factors to their definition of NHRD thereby further expanding the scope

of HRD beyond the organization. They believe that issues of national policy require a broader

scope.

In the 2004 special issue of Advances in Human Resource Development, several authors

tackled the concept of NHRD from diverse lenses. Lutta-Mukhebi (2004) approaches NHRD

from the understanding that Kenya’s national HRD is synonymous with education to eradicate

“ignorance, disease, and poverty” (p. 327). Johnson, Bartlett, Cunningham, Lynham, and Von

Der Marwitz (2010) define NHRD through their experience in South Africa, specifically within

the context of the impact of HIV on national human resources. The use of context specific

definitions of NHRD provides a basis for a clearer understanding of the impact of migration on

Zimbabwe specifically.

In addition, Lynham and Cunningham (2004) define NHRD as, “A process or processes

of organized capability and competence based learning experiences undertaken within a

specified period of time to bring about individual and organizational growth and performance

improvement, and to enhance national economic, cultural and social development” (p.319).

There are currently five emerging models for NHRD according to Cho and McLean (2004): (a)


centralized NHRD, (b) transitional NHRD, (c) government initiated NHRD, (d) decentralized/

free market NHRD and (e) small nation NHRD. Zimbabwe may not fit entirely in one category

or the other but would fall between government initiated and transitional NHRD.

The varying contexts of NHRD have created a need for different definitions. Hasler,

Thompson and Schuler (2006) describe NHRD in Brazil as a systematic development of human

skills, capabilities and knowledge for the purpose of performance improvement in the

organization, community and nation. Zimbabwe’s NHRD utilizes some of the components of

NHRD in general; however, there are country specific aspects of NHRD that must be considered

as well.

A broader definition of NHRD is championed by McLean (2006 as cited in Tynaliev

(2009) as,

An undertaking at the top level of government and throughout the country’s society that

coordinates all activities related to human development (HD) to create greater efficiency,

effectiveness, competitiveness, satisfaction, productivity, knowledge, spirituality and

well-being of its residents. It includes education, health, safety, training, economic

development, culture, science and technology and factors influencing HD (p.3).

In addition, Metcalfe and Rees (2005) define NHRD as, “the development of a national

policy of skills development and is normally devised by governmental administration

departments. HRD initiatives can be regionally oriented within a nation state or incorporate

partnerships with other governments” (p. 457). These broader definitions of NHRD focus on

governmental policy and other aspects of human development that contribute to the general well

being of the worker.


Literature Review

There are several theories about the movement of people but this study will draw on

theories of migration that explain NHRD issues that affect Zimbabwe. This section will cover

human capital theory, family migration theory, network migration theory, migrant self-selection,

and new economics of migration as they inform NHRD policy and practice. The use of these

theories is to understand how the participant experiences, as understood through the data

analysis, are either confirming or contradicting the expected outcomes the theories suggest. Due

to space limitations, only a brief overview of the relevant theories is presented in this paper.

Human Capital Theory

The human capital theory is used to explain how education or training raises the

productivity of workers by imparting useful knowledge and skills, hence raising workers’ future

income by increasing their lifetime earnings (Becker, 1964). The theory is used to justify the

assertion that increase in education and training of the workforce will result in economic growth.

In this study the human capital theory will be used to show how Zimbabweans who have

acquired more education and training but leave the country can affect its future economic

growth. The research questions in this study can be answered by also using the definition of

human capital provided by Fitz-Enz (2000 as cited in Nafukho, Hairston & Brooks, 2004) in

which,

Human capital encompasses the traits one brings to the job: intelligence, fulfilling work

energy, a generally positive attitude, reliability and commitment. One’s ability to learn: aptitude,

imagination, creativity and what is often called ‘street smarts’ savvy (how to get things done) (p.

548).

In a study on brain drain in Zimbabwe, 29% of the respondents listed career advancement

as the main reason for their departure (Chetsanga et al, 1998). This means that almost a third of


those who migrated felt their education and training was being underutilized in Zimbabwe. In a

study conducted by the Scientific and Industrial Research and Development Center, most of the

respondents who left Zimbabwe held bachelor’s or polytechnic degrees, 20 percent of those who

left held masters degrees, while five percent held Ph.D. degrees (Chetsanga et al., 1998).

Sjastaad’s (1962) human capital theory" of migration is used to explain the movement of

people as an investment activity. The government of Zimbabwe may therefore influence the

migration decision by improving the overall attractiveness of their country as a place to live, as

locations with a high standard of living are likely to have strong advantages in the competition

for highly skilled labor (Liebig, 2003).

By focusing on the migration decision of the individual, the human capital theory

acknowledges the importance of subjective factors that have been largely neglected in the

literature. Sometimes migrants are attracted by high-standard training, research and educational

facilities in the new country because they are important in developing human capital (Liebig,

2003). As education and training increases human capital, the future host country’s ability to provide

easier access may be an important factor in migration.

In understanding the importance of human capital to NHRD, Paprock (2006) says,

Human capital focuses on the economic behavior of individuals, especially the way their

accumulation of knowledge and skills enables them to increase their productivity and

their earnings and in so doing, to increase the productivity and wealth of the societies

they live in. (p. 17).

Family Migration Theory

Family migration theory expands the traditional model of migration by making the

assumption that the family, rather than the individual, makes the decision to move to another


country. This approach has been developed by Mincer (1978). He used the concept of family ties

to explain migration propensities of families, concluding that family ties deter migration,

especially when the family must consider a working spouse. In the study by the Scientific and

Industrial Research Center in Zimbabwe, 13.8% of the respondents indicated they migrated because

of marriage (Chetsanga et al, 1998).

When the family is the decision-making unit, the income of each family member is

included in making a decision to migrate. If both spouses are motivated by job opportunities,

there could then be a tendency to migrate to large, diversified labor markets that offer good

employment prospectives for women (Mincer, 1978). Therefore migration becomes a family

decision and not just a single career decision. This is important when applied to NHRD as

governments and decision makers must incorporate the needs of the family in creating workforce

policy.

New Economics of Migration

Proponents of the new theories of migration believe wage difference and individual decision

making are too simplistic in explaining the movement of people. Migration is to be analyzed as a

decision dependent on various factors, such as family decisions. As a result, the unit of analysis in

the new economics of migration is the family and household and not the individual migrant

(Massey et al., 1993 as cited in Melisovich, 2009).

Secondly, migration does not aim at maximizing income, but rather at diversifying risk.

Families send some of their members abroad to diversify income risk, a strategy that is

particularly important in less developed countries where no insurance markets or retirement

plans exist. In understanding the migration of Zimbabwe nationals to the US it is important that

those involved in NHRD place some emphasis on how the family as a unit is affected by


government policy.

Network Migration Theory

Network migration theory involves kinship, friendship, community and ethnic ties.

Migration networks are considered a kind of social capital, defined as a form of capital that exists

in the relations between people (Coleman, 1988). For Zimbabwe nationals network links lower

the costs associated with migration.

Migration networks lower the cost of migrating by providing the migrant with

information about: the potential host country and its labor market and earnings opportunities,

provide assistance during the settlement process, in times of financial trouble and are important as

information asymmetries, e.g. to obtain entry and work permits (Faist, 1997). For example, 75

percent of PhD degree holders from Zimbabwe now living in a different country decided to migrate

because they found jobs through personal connections (Chetsanga et al., 1998).

According to Tevara and Crush (2003), networks abroad generally tended to influence the

consideration given to leaving Zimbabwe. Generally, the respondents with networks in the chosen

destination had the greatest likelihood of leaving the country. About 70 percent of those who have

considered migration know of at least one migrant in the desired country of destination (Tevara at

al., 2003). In general, network migration lowers the risk to Zimbabweans moving to a different

country.

Migrant Self-Selection

The migration of workers from Zimbabwe to the US may be explained through migration

self selection. Self-selection theory provides hypotheses about the relative attractiveness of

prospective host countries for certain classes of migrants - beyond traditional unemployment and

wage differences.


Positively self-selected migrants are those who enjoy above-average earnings in the

source and in the host country. Positive self-selection results in a greater migration propensity of

highly skilled workers. Chiswick (1999, 2000),who based his argument on a human capital

model, believes that migrants tend to be positively self-selected due to the presence of out-of-

pocket costs to migration. These direct migration costs have lower opportunity costs for the

highly skilled that tend to have more disposable income and will be likely to recoup the cost of

moving.

Neo-classical Macroeconomic Migration Theory

Wang and Holton (2005), describe neoclassical economics as the study of the allocation

of scarce resources among alternative ends. The application of this theory helps to explain the

net difference in expected wages which contributes to most to the decision by skilled workers to

migrate. By applying this theory, one assumes that flows will completely end in the absence of

wage and unemployment rate differentials, as only employment opportunities induce migration.

If this theory is applied in this context we see that high skilled workers from Zimbabwe who are

living and working in the US were mostly driven by the increase in wages. By using this theory

several factors are explained in the aggregate demand for and supply of potential labor migrants.

These include the size and growth of the population and the active work force, unemployment

rates, (net) wages and the working time (Liebig, 2003).

Theoretical Framework

The purpose of this study can be analyzed through the family migration theory, network

migration theory and human capital theory.


Method

A qualitative case study approach was used to analyze the experiences of migrants who

moved to the US. This study included a purposively chosen sample of migrants who left

Zimbabwe to live in the US.

Semi-structured interviews in English were conducted in the fall of 2013 with two

participants. Interviews were conducted individually face to face in order to record nonverbal

cues. Each interview lasted about one hour. The interviews were analyzed to answer the research

questions using open and a priori coding from information obtained in the literature.

The decision to use a case study is based on the review of literature and research methods

used to study this phenomenon. Yin (2009) says, “case study research involves the study of a

case within a real life contemporary context or setting. According to Creswell, “ Case study

research is a qualitative approach in which the investigator explores a real life, contemporary

bounded system (a case) or multiple bounded systems (cases) over time through detailed, in-

depth data collection involving multiple sources of information and reports” (p. 97).

Migration

Human Capital Theory

Network Migration

Theory Family

Migration Theory


This case study follows Merriam’s (1998) recommendation that case study methodology

be used when the researcher attempts to get an understanding of an issue or a phenomenon from

the perspective of those involved in the situation. Using quantitative methods would have

impeded my ability to analyze the individual career experiences of migrants and to allow their

voices to be heard by policy makers who affect NHRD. Participants were protected by member

checking by allowing the participants to read the transcript to ensure their views are accurately

represented.

Participant Selection

According to Merriam’s (2002) standard for good qualitative research the participants

were purposively recruited. These participants were provided with the informed consent form

and a copy of the Institutional Review Board (IRB) application and approval documents.

Participants then scheduled at a date and place of their choosing. Participants were labeled Jane

and John.

Data Collection

Multiple sources of data were explored to help inform this study and in adherence to the

standard by Yin (2003) that findings and conclusions will be more convincing if several sources

of information are used. Semi-structured interviews were useful in allowing me the flexibility to

probe for clarity or for the participants to elaborate on how their experiences answer the research

questions.

Data Analysis

Data analysis was conducted through different phases. First, upon completion of

interviews, the recording and interview notes were transcribed into a word document and then

analyzed through open coding. According to Creswell (2013), “open coding is coding the data


for its major categories of information” and categories are, “units of information composed of

events, happenings and instances” (p.86). The third stage comprised using a priori codes derived

from literature related to the theoretical framework to analyze emerging themes.

Participants

Jane received additional education in the US in accounting and management and

currently works in business and finance. John received a PhD degree in chemistry. The

participant currently works in scientific research.

Results

From the interview analysis many categories emerged during open coding which were

narrowed into five categories. Initial open coding revealed 45 codes. These were eventually

narrowed to nine categories: family, economy, education in Zimbabwe, career opportunities in

Zimbabwe and the US, infrastructure in Zimbabwe, human rights, foreign investment, rule of

law and politics.

A priori codes

. The a priori codes from migration literature included: career and education (wages,

poor working and career conditions, educational systems, career opportunities) (Tevara & Crush,

2003), local infrastructure and resources, local politics and governance (Chetsanga, 1998),

economy (local and foreign investment) (Wang and Holton, 2005) and family (Mincer, 1978) as

other issues that participants felt where important to understanding the impact of migration on

NHRD.

Career and Education

The most expressed reasons for migration was career and educational opportunities.

Participants discussed poor career and education opportunities both in Zimbabwe and the US, the


education systems and how wages affected their career experiences. This confirms one of the

main reasons why workers with more human capital are more likely to migrate as described in

the human capital theory of migration proposed by Sjastaad (1962). The findings on career and

education can be grouped into poor career opportunities, educational opportunities and wage

issues.

Poor career opportunities. However, the career opportunities in the US ‘do not always

meet the migrants’ expectations. Jane experienced challenges early in her career as the

opportunities were not as many as she had perceived while in Zimbabwe. Jane perceives that she

would have had better career prospects in Zimbabwe because her peers with the same level of

education and experience have better career opportunities. In addition, Jane echoes that even

though career opportunities were the number one reason for migrating, her peer network in

Zimbabwe has achieved more.

Educational Opportunities. Based on her experiences Jane discusses how the choice to

study something business related without specific certification requirements has impeded her

career. John describes how the experience of migration influenced his career choice which

would be beneficial in understanding how workers with more human capital affect NHRD. He

says,

When migrant Zimbabweans came here I think the thing that ended up influencing their

career decisions more than what they wanted to do was what was available to them and

by that I mean if there was a University offering scholarships in let’s say Biology then

Zimbabweans who would have wanted to do Actuary Science for example would have

taken the Biology because of the resources being offered.

John believes,


…..one, investment in primary, secondary and tertiary education. If the government says

we are going to invest in our people and in our infrastructure and actually start doing

that…. you need investment in human resources more than anything else.

Wages. Even though wages are somewhat important according to the literature (Dovlo,

2003, Jane was the only one who discussed how it would influence her decision to return. She

believes if workers continue to be paid in US dollars it would create stability in the labor market.

In addition she believes the Zimbabwe government must encourage multinationals to invest and

create more jobs that would give workers more choice in the labor market.

Economic Issues

Economic issues are often listed as an important reason for migration. Jane remembered

that when leaving Zimbabwe the economy was beginning to deteriorate and most of her family

that left around that time also left for economic reasons. One of the issues that affects the

economy is direct foreign investment. Both participants believed this was crucial to NHRD. John

offered some recommendations that may be relevant to NHRD policy makers,

I would also want to see private public interaction where academic institutions actually

send their students into private enterprise. But the private entities do not exist because the

government does not enable an environment in which they could exist. Set up an

environment that is conducive for private enterprise research and development and even

foreign biotech companies to come into the country. The locals are in no position to start

these biotech companies and foreigners to come in with local partnerships and that

becomes private and the government themselves invest and you have interaction between

private and public and that makes sense.


Political and governance issues

As cited in migration literature (Dovlo, 2003) politics was an important factor in

migration and NHRD. Jane would return to Zimbabwe if,

The government can start by creating a political atmosphere that isn’t the way that things

were in the early 2000s. The biggest thing is the rampant corruption, the greed, and

lawlessness that exist. People don’t respect contracts; don’t respect rules because how do

you create a level playing field.

John adds, “Other things like a government that respects human rights, that respects

intellectual development that wants to see itself do better.” John offers a concrete suggestion

based on how countries like China and India have dealt with migration as a national policy issues

and says,

So what the government would have to do is look at their institutions because they now

actually have quite a few institutions and say we want to build our chemistry department

so here is this grant money for the next 10 years. Here is an updated lab that we have

equipped to the best of our ability so please come back and we will give you this

guaranteed tenured position at the University of Zimbabwe of the National University of

Science and Technology. Come, teach our kids, you are going to be tenured for the next

years and come and do research. That’s what the governments of China and India are

doing. Most of them want to stay here but the government of India says if you come we

will give you an academic position and not only just an academic position we are going

to give you money for graduate students in your lab and post-doctoral students in your

lab so it’s almost an economic or financial incentive for you to come back.

Local infrastructure


Another important theme to explore is local infrastructure and resources that affects

migration. Jane believes a more stable economy, better infrastructure like reliable water and

electricity, quality road network, functional supply chain for retail store and well-funded schools

have also contributed to the decision to migrate. Most migrants are concerned with how

infrastructure would affect their quality of life and their career in general.

Family and Other Issues

Other issues that participants discussed were family consideration in migrating and the

decision to return to Zimbabwe. John mentions that his decision to return to Zimbabwe will be

affected by his spouse as described in family migration theory.

Conclusion

The purpose of this study was fulfilled through a qualitative design. The analysis of data

revealed the following categories that help to answer the research question: career and education,

local infrastructure and resources, local politics and governance, economics and other issues.

Participant’s responses confirm migration theories that explain the movement

Statistics from the Migration Policy Institute show that traditionally migrants from sub-

Saharan Africa have more years of schooling than Americans. The two participants used in this

study confirm this assertion as they both have 18 or more years of schooling which increases

their human capital substantially which greatly affects their decision to return to Zimbabwe.

The literature reviewed and the findings from this research are persuasive enough to

recommend a closer examination of the effect of migration on NHRD in Zimbabwe and other

countries in sub-Saharan Africa. This study found that overall the career experiences of migrants

from Zimbabwe to the US show that more education improved their career opportunities but also

made them less likely to return to Zimbabwe. The participants are generally concerned about bad


governance and infrastructure, educational and career opportunities and the economy in general

in Zimbabwe.

Based on these findings, the study suggests that migration from Zimbabwe to the US

negatively impacts NHRD in Zimbabwe. This conclusion is consistent with the conclusions of

previous work by Chetsanga (1998) which points out that movement of highly skilled individuals

must be approached by the Zimbabwe government as a human resource policy issue.

Implications

This is a challenge to other HRD researchers to explore the impact of migration on

NHRD, international human resource development (IHRD) and global human resource

development (GHRD). It is important for researchers to explore the links between migration and

HRD in an increasingly global world where migration is more common. Understanding the

impact of the movement of workers across borders could also expand HRD’s scope within the

context of a knowledge economy.

The call to expand the definition of NHRD by McLean (2004) necessitates that HRD

researchers explore the interconnected global labor market and how movement of skilled

workers affects the specific national and overall global economy.

More theories and research on NHRD are important because developed countries must

continue to adequately prepare their citizens for the global labor market by increasing funding

and opportunities for workers to train for new skills. Reports indicate that current workers will

have to change eight to ten jobs in their lifetime and that half the skills workers possess will

become obsolete in a few years (Global Education and skills Forum, 2013). With the rapid

changes in the global economic and labor market it is important for nations to decide whether


their NHRD will be based on free market economics or allow government involvement in skills

development.

It is imperative for more theory and research on how underdeveloped countries can create

NHRD policy and strategy that will allow them to compete economically. According to the WB

(2012) investments in human resources on a national scale beginning with basic education,

vocational education, higher education and skills training in order to compete and collaborate

globally. Most economies of underdeveloped countries are focused on agriculture. However,

these nations must diversify their labor market by providing skills training in various industries.

NHRD in underdeveloped countries must incorporate education, health and safety as described

by McLean, Bartlett and Cho (2003). Combining education, health and safety will strengthen the

workforce holistically.

In addition, the HRD literature on sub-Saharan Africa is scarce and on Zimbabwe is

almost non-existent. It is important for more scholars to explore NHRD in sub-Saharan Africa as

globalization causes policy and practice to be intertwined with each problem going beyond the

boundaries of one nation.

Understanding migration from Zimbabwe to the US informs economic and social policy.

Study findings suggest national policy makers in Zimbabwe would benefit from strategies that

would attract workers with high skills whether they are Zimbabwe nationals or other migrants. In

this global economy it is important for Zimbabwe to consider attracting workers beyond its

traditional citizenry. In order for this to occur, the Zimbabwe government must openly welcome

back workers who possess a lot of human capital, improve governance by tackling corruption,

greed and lawlessness, promote entrepreneurship and a business environment that welcomes


foreign investment. Other local issues they must address include infrastructure which is

sometimes not directly associated with HRD but creates the environment in which HRD thrives.

Implications for practice include the need for NHRD policy to address how migration can

benefit a sub-Saharan African country like Zimbabwe and others in the region affected by loss of

human capital. In addition there is a concerted effort to lure high skilled workers who possess a

significant amount of human capital back to sub-Saharan Africa in general. This is driven by the

need to attract and retain high skilled workers by helping countries to compete and collaborate in

the global labor market.


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Running head: MIGRATION FROM ZIMBABWE TO THE … · MIGRATION FROM ZIMBABWE TO THE US AND NHRD ... HRD have been expanded as the field of HRD is explored ... and other factors to