Rules for Writing Better

MANUAL FOR WRITING BETTER

Carlos Sánchez Garrido “Manual for Writing Better”

2

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page

1. SENTENCE LENGTH. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 2. PREFERRING PLAIN WORDS. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 3. DESCRIBING PEOPLE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 4. DESCRIBING OBJECTS. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 5. DESCRIBING PLACES/BUILDINGS. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 6. USING GOOD PUNCTUATION. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12 6. 1 COMMAS. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13 6. 2 SEMI-COLONS. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18 6. 3 COLONS. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21 7. DISTINGUISHING THE COMMA, THE SEMICOLON, AND THE

COLONS. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23

8. CAPITALIZATION. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24 9. FORMAL LETTERS. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26 10. LETTERS OF APPLICATION. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27 11. LETTERS OF COMPLAINT. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28 12. SOME USEFUL PHRASES TO INCLUDE IN LETTERS. . . . . . . . . . 29 13. LINKING WORDS AND PHRASES. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31


3

1. SENTENCE LENGTH

- Over the whole document, make the average sentence length 15 to 20 words, no more than that.

- Not all sentences need to be in this range, there should be plenty of variety. Sometimes, it is better several short sentences than a bigger one full of subordination and coordination.

- Occasional short sentences will highlight an important point effectively, but too many will make your writing dull.

- If you find yourself writing long sentences, there are different ways of clarifying them:

a) SSPPLLIITT AANNDD DDIISSCCOONNNNEECCTT Cut and take out a linker and put some punctuation mark.

Example: I understand that some doctors making night calls have been attacked in recent months on the expectation that they were carrying drugs and their caution when visiting certain areas in the south of the city…

- I understand that some doctors making night calls have been attacked in recent months on the expectation that they were carrying drugs. Their caution when visiting…

- I understand that some doctors, making night calls, have been attacked in

recent months. On the expectation they were thought to be carrying drugs. Their caution when visiting certain areas in the south of the city…

b) SSPPLLIITT AANNDD CCOONNNNEECCTT This means putting in a full stop and restarting the sentence with a connecting word like “however”, “but”, “also”, “yet”, “Further”…

c) SSAAYY LLEESSSS Take out everything that is repeated. Sometimes a sentence is lengthened by needless repetition.

d) UUSSEE AA LLIISSTT Vertical lists break up long sentences into manageable chunks. They are particularly useful when describing a procedure. Something important is if we start the enumeration with one substantive, we will carry on starting with a substantive in the rest too.

Example: The attachment of the warmer assembly system must be checked to ensure that it is adequately lubricated, its securing screws are tight and that the warmer head can be easily repositioned without the support bearing sticking. The attachment of the warmer assembly system must be checked to ensure that: a) it is adequately lubricated, b) its securing screws are tight, c) the warmer head can be easily repositioned without the support bearing sticking.


4

2. PREFERRING PLAIN WORDS

- Use words your readers are likely to understand. - Is there no place for unusual words?

• Sometimes an unusual word is exactly right, expressing just what you want

to say. • In a technical document, there is a place for technical words, which will be

plain enough to technical people. • Generally, therefore, the place for unusual words is in literature and

journalism.

3. DESCRIBING PEOPLE

A descriptive essay about a person should consist of:

a) An introduction in which you give general information about the person, saying when, where and how you first met them.

Note: Aspectos generales de la persona que vamos a describir. Cuándo la conocimos.

b) A main body in which you describe their physical appearance, personal qualities and hobbies/interests. You start a new paragraph for each topic.

Note: Descripción física y rasgos personales – hobbies – de esa persona que vamos a describir. Intereses y aficiones.

c) A conclusion in which you write your comments and/or feelings about the person.

Note: Comentarios y sentimientos sobre esa persona.

When describing someone you know well or see often (i.e. a friend, a neighbour, etc), you should use “present tenses”. When describing someone who is no longer alive, or someone you knew a long time ago and you do not see any more, you should use “past tenses”.

Descriptions of people can be found in articles, letters, narratives, etc. The writing style you use depends on the situation and the intended reader. For example, if you are writing an article for a magazine, you should use semi-formal style and a polite, respectful tone.

INTRODUCTION (Paragraph 1)

Name of the person

when, where and how you first met

him/her

MAIN BODY (Paragraph 2)

Physical appearance (Facial features & Clothes)

(Paragraph 3)

Personal qualities and justification(s)/examples

(Paragraph 4)

Hobbies/interests

CONCLUSION (Paragraph 5)

Comments &

feelings about the person


5

When you describe someone’s “Physical appearance” you start with the general features (i.e. height, build, age) and move on to the more specific ones, such as hair, eyes, nose, etc. You can also add a description of the clothes the person likes to wear.

EExxaammppllee: Laura is a tall, slim woman in her early twenties. She has got red hair,

green eyes and freckles. She usually wears smart suits. When you describe someone’s “Personal qualities” you should support your

description with examples and/or justifications. EExxaammppllee: Wayne is very shy. For example, he finds it difficult to make new friends. You can also describe someone’s personality through their mannerisms by: a) Referring to the way they speak.

EExxaammppllee:: He speaks in a soft voice as if he were whispering.

b) Describing the gestures they use. EExxaammppllee: She constantly uses her hands when she speaks.

c) Mentioning a particular habit they have. EExxaammppllee: Jason always bites his nails when he is nervous.

Note: When you mention someone’s negative qualities you should use mild language (seems to, can be rather…). For example:

Paul is lazy Paul can be rather lazy at times

VOCABULARY FOR DESCRIBING PEOPLE

“Fantastic sense of humour”, “sailing, painting”, “good-looking”, “immature”, “great sense of style”, “scuba diving”, “outgoing”, “olive skin” (color cetrino – se te queda cuando pierdes el moreno), “curly dark hair”, “casual clothes”, “friendly”, “wavy hair” (pelo ondulado), “pale complexion”, “rude”, “lazy”, “pointed nose”, “shoulder-length hair” (pelo por los hombros), “tall”, “slim”, “of medium height”, “generous”, “popular”, “skiing”, “bossy” (mandón), “attractive”, “plump”, “dimples” (hoyuelos de la cara), “tanned” (bronceado), “Scar” (cicatriz).

• Knowledge: “intellectual”, “genius”, “whiz-kid” (lince, prodigio), “higly gifted” (superdotado), “egghead” (empollón), “a (computer) buff” (aficionado a los ordenadores), “bookworm” (ratón de biblioteca).

• Humour: “Comic”, “a laugh”, “buffoon”, “clown”, “joker”, “a giggle” (un risita).

• Experts: “connoisseur” (entendido), “artist”, “gourmet”, “guru”, “expert”, “educated” (culto, educado), “learned” (doctor, erudito, sabio).


6

• Politics: “activist”, “chauvinist” (patriotero, machista), “nationalist”, “revolutionary”, “liberal”, “socialist”, “conservative”, “democrat”, “conservative with a small C” (con la boca chica).

• Personality: “invidualist”, “worrier” (se preocupa mucho), “devious” (taimada, artero), “gracious” (gentil, cortés), “polite”, “M. C. P.” (male chauvinist pig: machista), “feminist”, “boor” (zafio, grosero), “loutish” (patán), “uncouth” (burdo, ordinario, zafio), “a real gentleman/lady”.

• Types: “flirt”, “womanizer” (mujeriego, donjuán), “wolf” (mujeriego, donjuán – colloq.), “Casanova”, “clock-watcher” (que mira el reloj mucho), “tramp” (vagabundo, fulana – AmE –), “down and out” (sin blanca, - to be down and out = estar en la miseria), “hippie”, “bully” (matón de colegio), “slave driver” (negrero).

• Negative Words: “gossip” (chismoso, cotilla), “nitwit” (bobo), “coward” (cobarde), “loudmouth” (gritón, escandaloso), “blockhead” (burro, zopenco), “chicken” (miedoso), “windbag” (cotorra, charlatan), “thick” (grueso, espeso), “wallflower” (alhelí), “bore”, “stupid”, “sissy” (mariquita, afeminado), “indiscreet”, “idiot”, “hypochondriac”, “snob”, “hypocrite”, “drunkard” (borracho, beodo), “smart alec/aleck (BrE)” (sabelotodo, sabihondo), “charlatan”, “glutton” (-noun- glotón), “egoist”, “quack” (curandero, charlatan), “lecher” (libidinoso), “prima donna” (diva), “liar”, “sex-maniac”, “creep” (adulador, pelota, asqueroso), “do-gooder” (hacedor, de buenas obras), “grumbler” (gruñón), “drip” (soso), “go-getter” (consigue lo que se propone), “whinger” (quejica), “twit” (imbecile – BrE), “show-off” (fanfaron, fantasma), “pain in the neck/ass” (latazo).

• Facial features: - EEyyeess: blue, brown, green, dark, grey… - CCoommpplleexxiioonn:: light, fair, pale, tanned… - NNoossee:: long, narrow (estrecha), flat (chata), wide (ancha), hooked (de gancho), upturned (respingona)… - EEyyeebbrroowwss:: thick, thin… - GGllaasssseess:: heavy, frames (montura), metal frames, large round… - MMoouussttaacchhee:: bushy (poblado, espeso), thin, small… - EEaarrss:: large, small, pointed / sticking-out (puntiagudas), pierced (agujereada)… - MMoouutthh:: tight-lipped (boca de piñón), large lips… - HHaaiirr:: short, curly, long, straight, straggly (alborotado), dirty, styled, blond, brown, black, grey, auburn (castaño rojizo, caoba)… - OOtthheerr FFeeaattuurreess:: beard, sideburns (patillas), freckles, mole (lunar), unshaven, scar…


7

( http://www.castimonia.com/tt/563 )


8

PERSONALITY TRAITS

• “Outgoing” (extrovertido) ⇔ “shy” (tímido) / “timid” / “reserved” • “Selfish” (egoista) ⇔ “generous” • “Humble” ⇔ “proud” (orgulloso) / “haughty” (altivo, altanero) / “arrogant” • “Conceited” (presumido) / “stuck-up” (engreído, presumido) / “snobbish” • “Hard-working” (trabajador) ⇔ “lazy” (perezoso) • “Nice” / “pleasant” (agradable, simpático) / “kind” ⇔ “disagreeable” /

“unpleasant” (desagradable) • “Talkative” ⇔ “parsimonious” (mezquino) / “moderate” • “Polite”(educado) ⇔ “impolite” (maleducado) / “rude” • “Helpful” (servicial, amable) / “obliging” (atento, servicial) • “Stubborn” (terco, testarudo) / “opinionated” (dogmático, aferrado a sus ideas)

⇔ “tolerant” / “compromising” (comprometido) • “Affectionate” (cariñoso, afectuoso) / “loving” ⇔ “cold” / “dry” • “Intelligent” ⇔ “slow-witted” (torpe) / “dim” (lerdo) / “dumb” (mudo, tonto) • “Submissive” (sumiso) / “docile” ⇔ “rebellious” (rebelled, revoltoso) • “Responsible” ⇔ “irresponsible” • “Self-confident” / “self-assured” (seguro de sí mismo) ⇔ “insecure” (inseguro) • “Prejudiced” (prejuiciado, lleno de prejuicios) • “Racist” / “sexist” / “MCP” (male chauvinist pig)

PROFESSIONS

“Anchorman” (presentador TV, última persona de un equipo en las carreras de

relevos), “Anchorwoman” (presentadora TV), “Journalist” (periodista), “Doctor”, “Nurse”, “Lawyer” (abogado), “Judge”, “Chemist” (farmaceútico), “Architect”, “Engineer” (ingeniero), “Social worker” (trabajador social), “Civil servant” (funcionario), “Politician”, “Mayor” (alcalde), “Mayoress” (alcaldesa), “Farmer”, “Shepherd” (pastor), “Fireman” (bombero), “Dustman” (basurero), “Garbage man” (basurero), “Plumber” (fontanero), “Electrician” (electricista), “Baker” (panadero), “Butcher” (carnicero), “Bricklayer” (albañil), “Mason” (albañil, mampostero), “Construction worker”, “Mechanic”, “Blacksmith” (herrero), “Salesperson” (vendedor, dependiente), “Banker” (banquero), “Priest” (sacerdote, cura), “Priestess” (sacerdotisa), “Nun” (monja, religiosa), “Monk” (monje), “Hairdresser” (peluquero), “Cook” (cocinero), “Waiter” (camarero), “Waitress” (camarera), “Steward” (auxiliary de vuelo, camarero), “Stewardess” (azafata), “Air hostess” (azafata), “Actor”, “Actress”, “Public relations”, “Painter”, “Writer”, “Soldier”, “Doorman” (portero), “Janitor” (conserje, portero).

NOTE: HAVE A LOOK ON PAGE 31, LINKING WORDS AND PHRASES.


9

4. DESCRIBING OBJECTS1

Descriptions of objects can be found in “leaflets” (folletos – de tríptico), “brochure” (folleto), “catalogues”, “advertisements” or “parts of letters”, “stories”, “reports” or “articles”.

When you describe an object, you should give an accurate or detailed picture of it. Your description should include information about size, weight (i.e. tiny, big, heavy, long, etc), shape (i.e. circular, oval, etc), pattern or decoration (i.e. plain, ckecked, etc), colour (i.e. brown, multi-coloured, etc), origin (i.e. African, Japanese, etc) and material (i.e. leather, plastic, nylon, etc), as well as any information concerning special features (i.e. lock, stickers, etc).

To describe objects you should use a variety of adjectives. Always list opinion adjectives (i.e. beautiful, inexpensive, unusual, etc) first, followed by fact adjectives. These are normally listed in the following order: size/weight, age, shape, pattern, colour, origin or material (i.e. large, rectangular, silver, etc).

Determ. + Opinión + Dimensión + Edad + Forma + Color + Origen + Diseño + Material + Propósito + Objeto

Avoid using all of them one after the other, as this will make your description sound

unnatural, for example: “It’s a lovely, heavy, old, oval mirror with a carved wooden frame…” vs. “It’s a lovely, heavy, old mirror. It’s oval, with a carved frame made of wood”.

VOCABULARY FOR DESCRIBING OBJECTS

“Fabulous”, “plastic”, “long”, “elegant”, “straps” (cinta o banda, asa de bolso), “round”, “green”, “Chinese”, “striped” (a rayas), “heavy”, “20th century”, “crystal”, “light”, “paper”, “extraordinary”, “rectangular”, “ancient”, “purple”, “Irish”, “square”, “carved” (tallado), “stickers” (pieza que se adhiere a algo), “modern”, “red”, “Indian”, “polka-dot” (hecho de punto), “handmade”, “tiny” (ligero – tamaño), “Venetian”, “beautiful”, “ceramic”, “old-fashioned”, “wooden”, “carved”, “hand-woven” (tejido a mano), “fantastic”, “multi-coloured”, “late 19th century”, “oak” (roble), “brand-new” (flamante, totalmente nuevo), “zip” (cremallera) …

5. DESCRIBING PLACES/BULDINGS

A descriptive composition about a place or building should consist of: a) An introduction in which you give the name and location of the place or building

and/or the reason for choosing it. b) A main body in which you describe the main aspects of the place or buildings in

detail – for example, when you describe a place you should describe what you can see and do there; when you describe a building you should describe its exterior and interior, as well as give historical facts about it.

c) A conclusion which includes your comments/feelings and/or a recommendation.

Descriptions of places or buildings can be found in tourist magazines, travel brochures, stories, letters, etc. The style you use depends on the situation and the

1 In this part is essential to have a look to the notes of “Adjectives order”.


10

intended reader. For example, in an article for a magazine you should use semi-formal style and a polite, respectful tone. You normally use “Present tenses” to describe a place or a building. You use “Past tenses” to write about the historical facts.

Some useful sentences to describe places are:

- The most fascinating/lively/interesting/etc part of the city is … - The town centre has … - The most famous attraction is … - The nightlife in … is exciting, with … - There is plenty of … - The town is well-known for its …

To give the reader a more vivid picture of the place or building you are describing,

you can refer to the senses (i.e. sight, hearing, smell, taste and touch). EExxaammpplleess::

- Visitors can dine watching the moon rise over the mountains (sight). - You can hear the sound of church bells ringing (hearing). - I remember the Far East with its aromas of exotic herbs and spices (smell). - Enjoy a cup of freshly-ground2 Italian coffee (taste). - Relax in the soothing warm waters3 of the Roman Baths (touch).

When you write about a building, the main body of the essay should include:

a) A paragraph on historical facts about the building (when/why it was built, etc) using ““PPaasstt tteennsseess””.

b) A separate paragraph on the exterior (what it is made of, appearance, grounds/gardens, etc) using ““PPrreesseenntt tteennsseess””.

c) A paragraph on the interior (rooms, furniture, pictures, etc) using ““PPrreesseenntt tteennsseess””.

To give factual and/or historical information about the exterior and interior of a

building you can also use the passive or prepositional phrases (i.e. all around, to the left, etc).

2 Freshly-ground = Recién molido. 3 Soothing warm waters = Aguas medicinales templadas.

INTRODUCTION (Paragraph 1)

Name, location

and/or reason for choosing it

MAIN BODY (Paragraph 2 – 4*)

Main aspects in detail

(Place: things to see/do, shopping, nightlife, restaurants, etc.

Building: historical facts, exterior, interior)

CONCLUSION (Final Paragraph)

Comments/feelings

and/or recommendations. The number of main body paragraphs may vary depending on the

rubric.


11

EExxaammpplleess::

- The palace iiss ssuurrrroouunnddeedd by high walls. - TToo tthhee lleefftt of the entrance there is a marble statue.

EExxaammppllee ooff aa ddeessccrriippttiioonn ooff aa ppllaaccee::

An Ideal Seaside Resort by Sally Fulton

Introduction

Brighton is a large town on the south-east coast of England. Located only an hour from London, it is a charming seaside resort and the perfect destination for a peaceful weekend.

Main Body

Brighton has several tourist attractions which are worth visiting. Among these is the Royal Pavilion, a beautiful Indian-style palace which was built in the early nineteenth century. Brighton’s most famous attraction is the lively Palace Pier, with its fantastic funfair and amusement arcades. Both young and old can have fun while admiring the spectacular view of Brighton’s seafront.

There are plenty of places to go shopping in Brighton. The town centre has a large modern shopping centre. There are also narrow lanes4 full of lovely antique shops that are always bustling5 with tourists.

The nightlife in Brighton is exciting. There are a lot of music and dance clubs which are extremely popular with younger people. The area is also well-known for its fashionable restaurants, which offer a variety of international cuisines.

Conclusion

Brighton is a town that has something to offer everyone. Whether you want to spend your time shopping and seeing the sights, or simply relaxing and enjoying the fresh sea air, Brighton is the ideal choice for a few days away from the city.

VOCABULARY OF TERMS & EXPRESSIONS

“Museum”, “boutique”, “nightclub”, “ancient theatre”, “open-air market”,

“zoo”, “café” (also cafe), “bazaar”, “temple”, “art gallery”, “restaurant”, “music hall”, “palace”, “botanical gardens”, “fair”, “theatre”, “souvenir shop”, “monument”, “statue”, “antique shop”, “shopping centre”, “amusement arcade” (sala de juegos recreativos), “multi-screen cinema”, “funfair”, “amusement park”…

“Red-brick walls” (ladrillo), “tiled floor” (suelo embaldosado), “colourful rug” (alfombra), “well-kept garden”, “tall chimneys”, “staircase”, “bookshelves”, “wooden coffee table”, “little pond” (estanque pequeño), “large windows”, “leather sofas”, “unusual lamps”, “flowerbeds6 full of beautiful flowers”, “modern paintings”, “gloomy” (lóbrego, tenebroso), “grand” (magnífico, espléndido) …

Some adjectives and its antonyms:

“Charming” (encantador, precioso) “Unattractive” (poco atractivo) “Peaceful” (pacific, tranquilo) “Hectic” (ajetreadi, agitado)

“Beautiful” (hermoso) “Plain” (feo)

4 Lanes = Callejones. 5 Bustling = Sitio bullicioso. 6 Flowerbed = Parterre (Jardín o parte de él / Macizo o cuadro de flores de un jardín).


12

“Famous” (famoso) “Unknown” (desconocido) “Modern” (moderno) “Old-fashioned” (anticuado, pasado de moda)

“Narrow” (estrecho) “Wide” (amplio) “Exciting” (emocionante, apasionante) “Boring” (aburrido)

“Popular” (popular) “Unpopular” (poco popular, que gusta poco)

NOTE: HAVE A LOOK ON PAGE 32, LINKING WORDS AND PHRASES.

6. USING GOOD PUNCTUATION A good command of punctuation helps you to say more, say it more interestingly

and be understood at first reading. Punctuation is an essential part of the tool-kit – as important as choosing the right words. The main purpose of punctuation should be to help the reader understand the construction of a sentence. A lesser purpose is to act as a substitute for the devices we all use in speech, such as pausing and altering pitch. You might want to read a sentence aloud to help you decide how to punctuate it.

Full Stop (.) The main aim of a full stop is to show where a sentence ends. For this

reason, full stops should be the most common mark on the page. There is no need to use full stops in people’s names or in abbreviations or acronyms, for example: EEUU, BBC, US, J C Bennet…

Note: El punto separa unidades conceptuales (oraciones = Sujeto, Verbo y Complementos).

Comma (,) Single commas act as separators between parts of a sentence. Commas

are helpful in separating listed items and in creating special effects, such as suspense.

Note: Siempre se pone coma al enumerar más de dos cosas y antes de “and”. Si se decide poner coma delante de “and”, siempre habrá que hacerlo. Example: A goose, a duck, and a sparrow drank from that pond.

Colons (:) Colons have three main purposes:

1) To introduce a vertical list or a running-text list.

EExxaammppllee:: She has several positive characteristics: charm, dignity, and stickability7.

2) To act as a ‘why-because’ marker which leads the reader from one idea to its consequence or logical continuation.

EExxaammppllee:: There is one big problem with tennis on radio: you can’t see it.

7 Stickability = Fiabilidad (Alguien de quien te puedes fiar porque cumple su palabra).


13

3) To separate two sharply contrasting and parallel statements. EExxaammppllee:: During Wimbledon, television is like someone with a reserved ticket:

radio is the enthusiast who has queued all night to get in.

A weaker contrast might be signified by a semicolon (;). There is some overlap in meaning between the two marks.

In all these uses, the colon will usually follow a statement that could be a complete sentence. After the colon the sentence will usually continue with a lower-case letter.

1. COMMAS (,)

Commas to set off8 nouns of address

Sometimes in a sentence we name the person we are speaking to, or addressing. EExxaammpplleess::

- Mother, the food here is good but not as good as yours. - Don’t forget to bring the can opener, Irene. - Your son, Mrs. Jacobs, is a troublemaker.

Whenever names are used in this way – as “nouns of address” – they are fenced off9

from the rest of the sentence by commas. Only one comma is used when the name comes at the beginning or at the end of the sentence. But two commas are needed when the name comes somewhere in the middle.

Commas used for this purpose make for easier reading. EExxaammpplleess::

PUZZLING CLEAR AT A GLANCE

Marvin the mailman is here.

Marvin, the mailman is here.

Try to remember Harry to take the garbage out.

Try to remember, Harry, to take the garbage out.

Tell us how the state of Virginia got its name Elizabeth.

Tell us how the state of Virginia got its name, Elizabeth.

Occasionally words other than actual names are used in addressing a person. For

example, a grandfather might address his grandson by his name, or he might use expressions like these:

Now just you listen to me, young man. What you need, my boy, is a good sound spanking10.

8 Set off = Enfatizar, dar realce, realzar, resaltar. 9 Fence off = Separar con una cerca. 10 Sound spanking = Varios azotes.


14

Such expressions should be set off from the rest of the sentence by commas, just as a person’s name would be.

Commas to set off appositives Often, after mentioning a particular person or thing in a sentence, we add a few

words by way of explanation. EExxaammpplleess::

- Ed Hill, the boy in the red shirt, is a mathematical genius. - The villain in the play was Sylvester, the boss’ nephew. - Virgilia, a tiny town in the southern part of the state, is nothing but a

crossroads and a high grain11. An appositive is a noun (usually with modifiers) that comes right after another noun

to explain it. Apposition is an explanation. Appositives are set off from the rest of the sentence by commas, to help the reader see immediately what is meant.

EExxaammpplleess::

WITHOUT COMMAS WITH COMMAS

Nick our basset hound howls12 whenever the baby cries.

Nick, our basset hound, howls whenever

the baby cries.

Without the commas to help him, a reader might think Nick was a boy or a man – the person spoken to. But with the commas, he knows in a split second that Nick is not a person, but a hound.

Commas to set off parenthetical13 words

In writing, you sometimes detour14 away from the main part of a sentence to make a

side remark or a “by the way” comment. EExxaammpplleess::

- The rent, by the way, must be paid in advance. - Robert, it seemed, had left the tickets at home. - His picture, don’t forget, was posted in every post office in the West.

To mark detours like these clearly for a reader, you need two commas. The first one

acts as a slow-down signal15, and the second one lets the reader know that he is back to the main idea again.

11 High grain = Granero elevado. 12 Howl = Aullar. 13 Parenthetical = Secundario. 14 Detour = Desviarse. 15 Slow-down signal = Señal de disminución.


15

Such side remarks and comments, called parenthetical words, do not always come in the middle of a sentence. Sometimes they come at the beginning, and sometimes at the end.

EExxaammpplleess::

- As a matter of fact, Pete is afraid of snakes. - No one is perfect, after all.

But wherever they come in a sentence, parenthetical words are set off by a comma

or commas. Single words (hhoowweevveerr, nnaattuurraallllyy, bbeessiiddeess, for example) may be used

parenthetically. When they are, they are fenced off from the rest of the sentence by commas.

EExxaammpplleess::

- The thief, however, could find nothing worth stealing. - Their cottage, remember, is small. - Bert’s poem, moreover, made sense.

Words like yyeess, nnoo, wweellll, and oohh, when used parenthetically at the beginning of a

sentence, should also be set off. EExxaammpplleess::

- Yes, Pecos Bill did grow up thinking that he was a coyote. - Well, he thought he was a coyote because he howled like a coyote and has

fleas.

Commas between items in a series Even without any commas, a sentence like the following is not too hard for you to

figure out: Bob’s car has a scratch on the windshield16 a bump on the right front fender17 no

paint on the hood18 and a broken headlight19. But look how much easier the sentence seems with commas: Bob’s car has a scratch on the windshield, a bump on the right front fender, no

paint on the hood, and a broken headlight. Here is a rule made up for the reader’s comfort:

Rule: Use commas between the items in a series of three or more, to keep the items separate from each other.

16 Windshield = Parabrisas. 17 Front fender = Parachoques delantero. 18 Hood = Capó. 19 Headlight = Faro.


16

If there are three items in the series, use two commas. If there are four items in the

series, use three commas. And if there are five items in the series, use four commas. Everything said previously means that the number of commas to use, then, is the number of items in the series, minus one.

When all the items in the series are joined by “and” or “or”, you do not need to use any commas. The conjunctions alone will serve to keep the items apart.

EExxaammpplleess::

- The boys and Grandma and the dog all climbed into the back seat. - “Do you think you might have left it in your locker or on the bus or at

Sharon’s house?” asked Bill.

Commas in compound sentences

There were a lot of misspelled words, and the front-page photograph was upside down. This comma is used for the reader’s sake20. It keeps him from running together

words that do not belong together. It keeps him from having to go back to the first word and start the sentence again.

EExxaammpplleess::

EASY TO MISREAD CLEAR AT FIRST READING

I lent a dime to Ed and Al gave me a dollar.

I lent a dime to Ed, and Al gave me a

dollar.

He’ll eat almost anything but liver21 and onions make him sick.

He’ll eat almost anything, but liver and onions make him sick.

In all the writing that you do, keep your reader in mind. Use a comma before the

conjunction (and, but, or) that joins the parts of a compound sentence.

Commas with addresses and dates An address in your mother’s address book might be written like this:

Mrs. Norman Wheeler 52 Palmwood Lane Miami Beach Florida 33149

Because each part of the address has been put on separate line, no one would be

puzzled, even for a moment, in reading it.

20 Reader’s sake = Por el bien del lector. 21 Liver = Hígado.


17

When you write an address as part of a sentence, you can get this same unmistakable clarity by using commas.

EExxaammpplleess:: WITHOUT COMMAS: Send your money to Mrs. Norman Wheeler 52 Palmwood

Lane Miami Beach Florida 33149. [Not so clear] WITH COMMAS: Send your money to Mrs. Norman Wheeler, 52 Palmwood Lane,

Miami Beach, Florida 33149. [Clear at a glance] The same thing is also true in writing dates. Commas help to separate the parts, for

example: We bought the car on Wednesday, March 8, 1968. Whenever you write a sentence containing an address or a date of two or more parts,

put a comma after each of the parts. Unless the address or date comes at the end of the sentence, the number of commas should be the same as the number of parts.

EExxaammpplleess::

- They have lived in Albany, California, since 1965. [2 parts, 2 commas.] - On Friday, June 13, 1957, an important person was born. [3 parts, 3

commas.]

Commas for clearness Some student writers seem to think that if one comma is good, then two must be

better and three or more, even better than that. So they pepper their paragraphs with commas, turning out sentences that look like this:

At the drugstore, Friday afternoon, Linda and Joanne

got into a discussion, about who should pay for the ice-cream cones. Linda said, it was her turn to pay. But, Joanne insisted that Linda had paid the time before. So, they argued, and argued, and in the end, stopped speaking to each other, for a week.

None of the ten commas in the paragraph are necessary. Not only are they

unnecessary, but they are undesirable. They give the paragraph a choppy and a broken-up effect. They interrupt the smooth flow of ideas and slow a reader down. Reading such a paragraph is something like driving along a street that has a traffic signal at every corner.

A good way to avoid this fault in your own writing is not to use a comma unless you can give a definite reason for doing so. If, for example, a sentence you write is compound or contains a noun of address, an appositive, a parenthetical expression, a series, or an address or date, you would use commas – following the six rules you have studied so far. There will be times, however, when you will strongly feel that a comma is needed in a sentence, even though none of the six rules applied. Take these sentences, for example:

- To Mary Martin was the handsomest boy alive.


18

- The second time he tried skiing seemed much easier. - After that dinner dinner meetings were abolished.

Without commas to help them, most readers would misread the sentences the first

time through and would have to go back and try again. To prevent misreading in sentences like these, we have another important rule:

Rule: Use commas to keep the meaning clear wherever words that do not belong together seem to “grab”.

EExxaammpplleess::

- To Mary, Martin was the handsomest boy alive. [The comma makes it immediately clear that two people are meant – Mary and Martin.]

- The second time he tried, skiing seemed much easier. [To keep the reader from running together the first six words: The second time he tried skiing…]

- After that dinner, dinner meetings were abolished. [To keep the reader from stumbling over22 the second dinner.]

2. SEMI-COLONS (;)

a) Use a semicolon between main clauses not joined by “and”, “but”, or

another coordinating conjunction.

EExxaammppllee:: The side-effects23 are not minor; some leave the patient quite ill.

b) Use a semicolon between main clauses related by “however”, “thus”, or another conjunctive adverb24.

EExxaammppllee:: The Labour Department lawyers will be here in a month; therefore, the grievance committee should meet as soon as possible.

The position of the semicolon between main clauses never changes, but the conjunctive adverb may move around within a clause. The adverb is usually set off with a comma or commas.

EExxaammppllee:: Blue jeans have become fashionable all over the world; however, the American originators still wear more jeans than anyone else. Commas are optional with “thus”, “then”, and some other one-syllable conjunctive adverbs; and commas are usually omitted when “therefore”, “instead”, and a few other adverbs fall inside or at the ends of clauses.

22 Stumble over = Tropezar con. 23 Side-effects = Efectos secundarios. 24 Conjunctive adverbs include “consequently”, “hence”, “however”, “indeed”, “instead”, “nonetheless”, “otherwise”, “still”, “then”, “therefore”, “thus”, and “now”. When a conjunctive adverb relates two main clauses, the clauses should be separated by a semicolon. More information on page 23.


19

EExxaammpplleess::

- Springfield’s population makes an average American town; thus pollsters25 often flock there for samples.

- Being average does not earn anonymity; it earns fame instead.

c) Use a semicolon to separate main clauses if they are long and complex or if they contain commas, even when a coordinating conjunction joins them. You would normally use a comma with a coordinating conjunction such as “and” or “but” between main clauses. But placing semicolons between clauses punctuated with commas or between long and grammatically complicated clauses makes a sentence easier to read.

EExxaammppllee:: By a conscious effort of the mind, we can stand aloof from actions and their consequences; and all things, good and bad, go by us like a torrent.

- Henry David Thoreau Many writers prefer to use a semicolon instead of a comma between main clauses joined by the coordinating conjunctions “so” and “yet”, even when the clauses are not complicated or internally punctuated.

EExxaammpplleess::

- The day was rainy and blustery26; so the food vendors kept their fruits and vegetables indoors.

- It seemed an unlikely day for shopping; yet buyers flocked27 to the market for fresh, inexpensive produce28.

d) Use semicolons to separate items in a series if they are long or contain

commas – if they are internally punctuated. The semicolons help the reader identify the items.

EExxaammppllee:: The custody case involved Amy Dalton, the child; Ellen and Mark Dalton, the parents; and Ruth and Hal Blum, the grandparents.

USE THE SEMICOLON ONLY WHERE IT IS REQUIRED: Semicolons do not separate unequal sentence elements and should not be overused.

Some points to bear in mind:

a) Delete or replace any semicolon that separates a subordinate clause or a phrase from a main clause. The semicolon does not separate subordinate clauses and main clauses, or phrases and main clauses.

25 Pollsters = Encuestadores. 26 Blustery = Con mucho viento. 27 Flock = Acudir (en masa). 28 Produce = Productos (alimenticios).


20

EExxaammppllee::

- According to African authorities; only about 35,000 Pygmies exist

today. [FAULTY] - According to African authorities only about 35,000 Pygmies exist

today. [REVISED]

b) Delete or replace any semicolon that introduces a series or explanation. Colons (:) and dashes (-), not semicolons, introduce series, explanations, and so forth29.

EExxaammppllee::

- Teachers have heard all sorts of reasons why students do poorly; psychological problems, family illness, too much work, too little time. [FAULTY]

- Teachers have heard all sorts of reasons why students do poorly: psychological problems, family illness, too much work, too little time. [REVISED]

- Teachers have heard all sorts of reasons why students do poorly – psychological problems, family illness, too much work, too little time. [REVISED]

c) Use the semicolon sparingly30. Too many semicolons, even when they are

required by rule, often indicate repetitive sentence structure.

EExxaammppllee:: SEMICOLON OVERUSED The Make-a-Wish Foundation helps sick children; it grants the wishes of children who are terminally ill. The foundation learns of a child’s wish; the information usually comes from parents, friends, or hospital staff; the wish may be for a special toy, perhaps, or a visit to Disneyland. The foundation grants some wishes with its own funds; for other wishes it appeals to those who have what the child desires. REVISED The Make-a-Wish Foundation helps sick children; it grants the wishes of children who are terminally ill. From parents, friends, or hospital staff, the foundation learns of a child’s wish for a special toy, perhaps, or a visit to Disneyland. It grants some wishes with its own funds; for other wishes it appeals to those who have what the child desires.

29 And so forth = [and (so on and) so forth] etcetera, etcetera. 30 Sparingly = Ocasionalmente, en su justa medida.


21

3. COLONS (:)

The colon is mainly a mark of introduction. It signals that the words following will explain or amplify. The colon also has several conventional uses, such as in expressions of time.

In its main use as an introducer, a colon is always preceded by a complete main clause – one containing a subject and a predicate and not starting with a subordinating word. A colon may or may not be followed by a main clause. This is one way the colon differs from the semicolon. The colon is often interchangeable with the dash, though the dash is more informal and more abrupt.

Some rules to take into account:

a) Use a colon to introduce a concluding explanation, series, appositive, or long or formal quotation.

- EXPLANATION EExxaammppllee:: Soul food is a varied cuisine: it includes spicy gumbos31, black-eyed peas32 and collard greens33. Sometimes a concluding explanation is preceded by “the following” or “as follows” and a colon. EExxaammppllee:: A more precise definition might be the following: ingredients, cooking methods, and dishes originating in Africa, brought to the New World by black slaves, and modified or supplemented in the Caribbean and the American South.

- SERIES

EExxaammppllee:: At least three soul food dishes are familiar to most Americans: fried chicken, barbecued spareribs34, and sweet potatoes.

- APPOSITIVE

EExxaammppllee:: Soul food has one disadvantage: fat35. ““NNaammeellyy””, ““TThhaatt iiss””, and other expressions that introduce appositives follow the colon.

31 Gumbos = Sopa de quingombó (planta herbácea africana), mariscos o carne (pollo) y verduras. 32 Black-eyed pea = [Black-eyed vean (BrE)] Judía carilla. 33 Collard green = Col rizada. 34 Sparerib = Costilla (con poca carne). 35 Fat = Grasa.


22

EExxaammppllee:: Soul food has one disadvantage: namely36, fat.

- LONG OR FORMAL QUOTATION EExxaammppllee:: One soul food chef has a solution: “Soul food doesn’t have to be greasy to taste good … Instead of using ham hocks to flavour beans, I use smoked turkey wings. The soulful, smoky taste remains, but without all the fat of pork.”

Note: Depending on your preference, a complete sentence after the colon may begin with a capital letter or a small letter. Just be consistent throughout an essay.

b) Use a colon to separate titles and subtitles, the subdivisions of time, and the parts of biblical citations. EExxaammpplleess::

- TITLES AND SUBTITLES

Charles Dickens: An Introduction to His Novels. Eros and Civilization: A Philosophical Inquiry into Freud.

- TIME

12:26 P.M.

- BIBLICAL CITATIONS

Isaiah 28:1-6

c) Use the colon only where it is required. Use the colon at the end of a main

clause. Avoid using it between a verb and complement, verb and object, or preposition and object. Furthermore, do not use it after “such as”. EExxaammppllee:: Two entertaining movies directed by Steven Spielberg are: E.T. and Raiders of the Lost Ark. [FAULTY] Two entertaining movies directed by Steven Spielberg are E.T. and Raiders of the Lost Ark. [REVISED]

36 Namely = A saber (frml), concretamente.


23

7. DISTINGUISHING THE COMMA, THE SEMICOLON, AND THE COLON

The “comma” chiefly separates both equal and unequal sentence elements.

- It separates main clauses when they are linked by a coordinating conjunction. EExxaammppllee:: She is happy, because she has won the lottery.

- It separates subordinate information that is part of or attached to a main

clause, such as a non-restrictive modifier or an introductory element. EExxaammppllee:: Although the airline campaign failed, many advertising agencies including some clever ones, copied its underlying message.

The “semicolon” chiefly separates equal and balanced sentence elements.

- It separates complementary main clauses that are not linked by a coordinating conjunction37. EExxaammppllee:: The airline campaign had highlighted only half the story; the other half was buried in the copy.

- It separates complementary main clauses that are related by a conjunctive

adverb38. EExxaammppllee:: The campaign should not have stressed the pilots’ insecurity; instead, the campaign should have stressed the improved performance resulting from that insecurity.

The “colon” chiefly separates unequal sentence elements.

- It separates a main clause from a following “explanation” or “summary” which may or may not be a main clause. EExxaammppllee:: Many successful advertising campaigns have used this message: the anxious seller is harder working and smarter than the competitor.

37 Coordinating Conjunctions: “and”, “but”, “for”, “nor”, “or”, “so”, and “yet”. 38 Conjunctive Adverbs: “accordingly”, “furthermore”, “moreover”, “similarly”, “also”, “hence”, “namely”, “still”, “anyway”, “however”, “nevertheless”, “then”, “besides”, “incidentally”, “next”, “thereafter”, “certainly”, “indeed”, “nonetheless”, “therefore”, “consequently”, “instead”, “now”, “thus”, “finally”, “likewise”, “otherwise”, “undoubtedly”, “further”, “meanwhile”.


24

8. CAPITALIZATION

School subjects

Do not capitalize the names of subjects you study in school unless they are the names of languages (English, Latin, Spanish, German…).

EExxaammppllee:: In the morning, we have spelling, geography, English, and gym.

Directions When words like south, east, northwest, and so on, are used to tell in what direction

to go or in what direction something is located, they are not capitalized. EExxaammppllee:: To get to the stadium, go west on Central Avenue for six blocks and then

turn north on Adams Street. These words are capitalized, however, when they are used to mean geographical

regions of the country or of the world. EExxaammppllee:: Jack lived out West until he was nine years old.

Seasons Strange as it may seem, the names of the seasons are not capitalized. The words

“winter”, “spring”, “summer”, “fall”, and “autumn” should be written with a small letter.

EExxaammppllee:: Next winter I am going to take skiing lessons.

Family relationships A noun that is used to show a family relationship (like mother, aunt, uncle,

grandpa…) is not usually capitalized when it is preceded by a word like “a” or “the” or “this” or by a possessive form (like my, your, her, Tom’s…).

EExxaammppllee:: Lori gets her sense of humour from her father.

Note: Jim gets his good looks from Mother. [Here Mother is capitalized because it is not preceded by a word like “a” or “his”]

A noun showing family relationship is also capitalized if it is used with a person’s

name as a part of a proper noun. EExxaammppllee:: I like visiting Aunt Harriet and Uncle Steve. A noun showing family relationship is also capitalized if it is used alone as the name

of the person spoken to. EExxaammppllee:: The Holly said, “How can you think that’s funny, Mother?”


25

Personal titles

We often use nouns like “captain”, “general”, “mayor”, “judge”, “professor”,

“governor”, and “senator” to show a person’s rank or office or work. Such nouns are capitalized if they are used with a person’s name as a part of a proper noun.

EExxaammppllee:: The reporter had several questions to ask Mayor Holden. They are also capitalized if used alone as the name of the person spoken to. EExxaammppllee:: “Is that a promise, Mayor?” he asked. In other cases, these title-showing nouns are not capitalized. EExxaammppllee:: Everyone expected that the mayor would be at the banquet.

Proper adjectives The italicized39 adjectives in the following sentences are called proper adjectives,

because each is formed from a proper noun. EExxaammpplleess::

- All Shakespearian plays have large casts. [Formed from proper noun William Shakespeare]

- Helga carried the Swedish flag. [From proper noun Sweden] A proper adjective is always capitalized. But the noun that follows it is not

capitalized, unless it is a proper noun. EExxaammpplleess::

- There is an exhibit of Peruvian art at the library. - We spent the afternoon colouring Easter eggs.

Similarly, the name that identifies the brand or maker of a product is capitalized, but

not the name of the product itself. EExxaammpplleess::

- He gave us a sample of Colgate toothpaste. - They made their getaway in a blue Ford sedam.

A handy reference

From time to time during the school year, questions about capitalization are bound

to crop up40. In general, we capitalize the names of:

39 Italicized = En cursiva. 40 Crop up = Aflorar, surgir (colloq).


26

- PEOPLE: Helen Hayes, John P. O’toole, Dr. Soter… - ANIMALS: Smokey Bear, Flipper, Winnie-the-Pooh, Dobbin… - GEOGRAPHICAL PLACES: Europe, Nicaragua, Vermont, Central Park… - TRIBES, NATIONALITIES, LANGUAGES: Ojibway, a Dane, Japanese… - GOVERNMENT BODIES, AGENCIES: Congress, US Patent Office… - POLITICAL PARTIES AND MEMBERS: The Republican Party, a

Democrat, Socialists… - ORGANIZATIONS: National Geographic Society, ONU… - RELIGIONS, CHURCHES: Buddhism, the Fourth Presbyterian Church, a

Catholic… - SACRED FIGURES AND BOOKS: God, the Holy Spirit, the Bible, the New

Testament, the Torah, the Koran… - INSTITUTIONS: Taft Elementary School, Children’s Memorial Hospital,

Newberry Library… - BUILDINGS, STRUCTURES: Pittsburgh Civic Arena, Blackstone Theater,

Golden Gate Bridge… - BUSINESS FIRMS: Avon Products, Inc., Nunn-Bush Shoe Company… - BRAND NAMES: Rice Krispies, Ideal dog food, a Boeing 707… - HISTORICAL EVENTS, PERIODS: World War II, the Middle Ages… - HISTORICAL DOCUMENTS: the Treaty of Ghent, the Stamp Act… - MONTHS, DAYS, HOLIDAYS: March, Friday, Christmas… - SPECIAL EVENTS: the World Series, the Olympics… - PUBLICATIONS: Detroit Free Press, the Ladies’ Home Journal, El País… - SHIPS, TRAINS: the N.S. Savannah, the Broadway Limited… - TITLES: A Long Way Down, “To the Starts and Beyond”…

9. FORMAL LETTERS Formal letters are normally sent to people in an official position or people you don’t

know well (i.e. Director of Studies, Personnel Manager41, etc). They are written in a formal style with a polite, impersonal tone.

You can write a formal letter to apply for a job/course, make a complaint, give/request official information, etc.

A formal letter should consist of:

a) A formal “greeting” (i.e. Dear Sir/Madam – when you do not know the person’s name; Dear Ms42 Green – when you know the person’s name).

b) An “introduction” in which you write your opening remarks and mention your reason(s) for writing (i.e. I am writing to apply for the position of…).

c) A “main body” in which you write about the main subject(s) of the letter in detail, starting a new paragraph for each topic.

d) A “conclusion” in which you write your closing remarks (i.e. I look forward to hearing from you as soon as possible…).

41 Personnel Manager = Jefe de personal. 42 When we refer to a person we have to put: “Mr” (Señor), “Miss” (señorita), “Ms” (mujer que no quiere desvelar su estado civil), and “Mrs” (señora – casada).


27

e) A formal “ending” (i.e. Yours faithfully – when you do not know the

person’s name; Yours sincerely – when you know the person’s name; + your full name).

INTRODUCTION ---------------------------------------------------

NOTE

• Si al principio pones: Dear Sir/ Madam (no sabes el nombre del destinatario)

• Al final pones: Yours faithfully.

• Si al principio pones: Dear Mr González (sabes el nombre del destinatario).

• Al final pones: Yours sincerely.

Paragraph 1 Opening remarks/reason(s) for writing MAIN BODY ---------------------------------------------------Paragraph 2 – 3 – 4 * Development of subject(s) CONCLUSION ---------------------------------------------------Final Paragraph Closing remarks * The number of main body paragraphs may vary, depending on the rubric.

Do not forget to include in that formal letter the “Addresser” (remitente) and the

“Addressee” (destinatario). 10. LETTERS OF APPLICATION When you write a letter applying for a job or a course, you should include the

following information:

a) In the “opening remarks/reason(s)” for writing the name of the job/course, where and when you saw it advertised (i.e. …the position of manager advertised in yesterday’s Herald).

b) In the “main body” paragraphs (2 – 3 – 4):

- Age, present job and/or studies (i.e. I am a nineteen years-old university student).

- Qualifications (i.e. I have a BA in French).


28

- Experience (i.e. I have been working as a waiter for the last two years).

- Skills and personal qualities which are suitable for the job/course (i.e. I am a good and careful driver. I consider myself to be mature and responsible).

c) In the “closing remarks” you can add any other important information, for

example, when you are available for interviewing, where and when you can be contacted, references you can send, a remark that you hope your application will be considered, etc (i.e. I will be available for interviewing in September / I enclose references from my last two employers / I look forward to hearing from you).

You must usually use:

- The “Present Simple” to describe skills/personal qualities (i.e. I am a patient and reliable person).

- The “Past Simple” to talk about past experiences (i.e. I left school in 1994. I worked for General Motors for four years).

- The “Present Perfect” to talk about recent work/studies (i.e. I have been working for LTYU for two years / I have recently finished secondary school).

11. LETTERS OF COMPLAINT

In a formal letter making a complaint, you may use a mild43 tone, for complaints

about minor problems, or a strong tone, for complaints about more serious matters, especially when you are extremely upset44 or annoyed. However, the language you use should never be rude or insulting.

A letter of complaint should consist of:

a) In the “opening remarks”, you should state your complaint, including details of what has happened and where/when the incident took place. EExxaammpplleess:: (Mild tone)

- I am writing in connection with … / to complain about … the terrible behaviour/attitude/rudeness of …

- I am writing to draw your attention to … which … (Strong tone)

- I am writing to express my strong dissatisfaction at …

43 Mild = Pacífico. 44 UPset = Trastorno / upSET = Disgustado, alterado, ofendido, desilusionado, alterar, disgustar, volcar, derramar, trastornar, perturbar.


29

- I wish to bring to your attention a problem which arose due to your staff/inefficiency …

- I wish to express my dissatisfaction/unhappiness with the product/treatment I received from … on …

b) In the “main body” paragraphs, you present each of the specific points you

are complaining about. You start a new paragraph for each point and justify these points by giving examples/reasons. EExxaammppllee:: Although you advertise “top quality”, I felt that the product I purchased was well below the standard I expected.

c) In the “closing remarks”, you should explain what you expect to happen, for example, to be given a refund/replacement/apology/etc. EExxaammpplleess:: (Mild tone)

- I hope you will replace … - I feel/believe that I am entitled to a replacement/refund … - I hope that this matter can be resolved/dealt with promptly.

(Strong tone)

- I insist on/I demand a full refund/an immediate replacement/etc or I shall be forced to take legal action/the matter further.

- I hope that I will not be forced to take further action.

12. SOME USEFUL PHRASES TO INCLUDE IN LETTERS This is a list of useful phrases for future references. Furthermore, we can find in this

list, examples for every part of the letter, and also for every type of letter (application, complaint, formal letter…)

EExxaammpplleess::

With reference to your advertisement… I’m writing to apply for the position…

I am writing to express my dissatisfaction… I look forward to hearing from you as soon as possible.

I must insist on a full refund (total devolución)… Would you like me to…?

You will be pleased to hear that… I am afraid that…

Please, find enclosed… Please, do not hesitate to ask…

Further to… (Lejos de…) Could you possibly…? Please, contact us…


30

Starting

We are writing to advise you of… We are writing to confirm…

Starting a reference

Thank you for your letter of January 23rd. With reference to our telephone conversation today, … With reference to your fax of June 5th, …

Giving good news

I am delighted to tell you that… (Me agrada decirle…) You will be pleased to hear that…

Giving bad news

We regret to inform you that… Unfortunately, … I am afraid that…

Making a request

We could be grateful if you could… I would appreciate it if you could… Could you possibly…? Please, …

Offering help

If you wish, we would be happy to… Would you like me to…?

Apologizing

I am sorry about the delay in replying. I would like to apologize for… We are sorry for any inconvenience caused.

Enclosing documents

I am enclosing… Please, find enclosed…

Closing remarks (formal ending)

If you have any further questions, … If we can help in any way, please contact us again. Thank you for your help (Informal). Please, do not hesitate to ask…

Referring to future contact

I look forward to meeting you next week. Looking forward to receiving your comments in due course.


31

EExxaammppllee ooff aa lleetttteerr ooff ccoommppllaaiinntt::

Dear Sir/Madam, I am writing to express my strong dissatisfaction at the disgraceful

treatment I received at the Walford branch of Stimpson’s Electronics yesterday afternoon.

Firstly, the product I was given was not the model I had asked for. The new X-401 calculator was demonstrated to me by the sales assistant, and I agreed to buy it. However, on unpacking my purchase, I saw that I had been given the smaller X-201 model instead.

Furthermore, this calculator was much cheaper than the model I requested and paid for. It didn’t have many of the features I needed and was much more basic than the one I was shown to begin with.

To make matters worse, I was deeply offended by the behaviour of the sales assistant when I went back to the shop to complain. He was not only impolite, but also unhelpful. He refused to contact the manager when I asked to speak to him about the incident.

As you can imagine, I am extremely upset. I must insist on a full refund, in addition to a written apology from the local manager, or else I shall be forced to take further action. I expect to hear from you as soon as possible.

Yours faithfully, (signature) Caroline Adams.

13. LINKING WORDS AND PHRASES

To make your piece of writing more interesting, you can use a variety of linking

words and phrases to join sentences or ideas together. EExxaammpplleess::

− [A] Joyce has got red hair. She’s got freckles. − [A] Joyce has got red hair aanndd freckles. − [B] David is a tall man. He is in his late forties. − [B] David is a tall man who is in his forties. − [C] Bridget is an attractive woman. She’s got shoulder-length hair. − [C] Bridget is an attractive woman with shoulder-length hair. − [D] She is tall. She is thin. − [D] She is both tall and thin.

You can join descriptions of similar personal qualities by using “in addition”,

“also”, “and”, “moreover”, etc. EExxaammpplleess::

− [A] She is cheerful. She is always smiling. She always behaves politely.

Introduction

Main Body

Conclusion


32

− [A] She is cheerful and is always smiling. Moreover, she always behaves politely.

You can join descriptions of contrasting qualities by using “but”, “on the other

hand”, “however”, “nevertheless”, etc. EExxaammpplleess::

− [A] He is clever and always does well at school. He can be bossy at times. − [A] He is clever and always does well at school. However, he can be bossy

at times. To join short sentences you can use various linking structures, for example:

− [A] You should visit the old part of the city. It is full of ancient temples. − [A] You should visit the old part of the city, which is full of ancient temples. − [B] Young children will enjoy the local funfair. They can go on exciting rides

and eat tasty toffee-apples there. − [B] Young children will enjoy the local funfair, where they can go on

exciting rides and eat tasty toffee-apples there. − [C] Charlie’s Lobster House is one of the most popular restaurants in the

area. It has delicious lobster dishes. − [C] With its delicious lobster dishes, Charlie’s Lobster House is one of the

most popular restaurants in the area. − [D] Ranega Airport is on the east coast of the island. It is one of the most

modern airports in the country. − [D] Situated on the east coast of the island, Ranega Airport is one of the

most modern airports in the country.


33

LINKERS LIST

CAUSE AND EFFECT ADD REASONS AND INFORMATION

Neutral & Frequent

So / So that (así, tan, así que, para que) Then (entonces, luego, después) Because of this (a causa de esto) Make something happen… Bringing on (provocando, potenciando) Causing (causando) Affecting (afectando) Producing (produciendo)

More formal

As a result (of this) (como resultado de esto) As a consequence (como consecuencia) Consequently (por consiguiente) Accordingly (en consecuencia, por lo tanto) For this reason (por este motivo) Therefore (Por lo tanto, luego) Thereby (de ese modo, así)

Regardless (of) (a pesar de) Also (también) Then too (luego también) Besides (además –adv- / además de, aparte de - prep) Too (también) Again (de nuevo) Once again (una vez más) Add to this… What's more (lo que es más) As well (también) [= in addition] On top (of this/that) In my opinion (en mi opinion) Furthermore (además) Moreover (además) In addition (to) (además -de-) Additionally (además, aún más) Bear in mind (tener presente) Take into account… (tomar en consideración…) As we mentioned before… (como mencionamos antes…) According to (según) Suffice it to say… In light of the fact that… (a la luz del hecho…) All along (desde el primer momento)

While speaking

I’d like to comment on that… Sorry, but . . . Can / May I add something? Can / May I ask a question? Excuse me for interrupting, but… Can I add here that… I’d like to say something if I may.

RETURNING TO TOPIC CONJUNCTIONS

Anyway (de todas modos, por lo menos) As I was saying (como iba diciendo) In any case (en cualquier caso, de cualquier

modo, de todas maneras/formas) To get back to what I was saying (volviendo

a lo que estaba diciendo) Where was I?

Neutral & Frequent

And (y) Neither (tampoco) Or (o, ni) Yet (sin embargo) But (pero) For (a, para –prep- / pues, puesto que –conj-) So (así, así que, de manera que) [as…so= así como] Nor (tampoco)


34

SUMMARIZING COMPARING

Neutral & Frequent

All in all (en general) That is (para explicarlo más claramente) In other words (en otras palabras) To sum it up (para resumir) As a conclusion

Less frequent

In short (en pocas palabras) By and large (por lo general, en general)

Neutral & Frequent

Also (también) In the same way (de la misma forma) By comparison (en comparación) By far (con mucho, de lejos) Likewise (asimismo, de la misma manera) So too (también) [I should think so too! - ¡era lo menos que

podía hacer!] As (como) The same thing (lo mismo) Even more (aún más)

More formal

In a similar manner (de una forma similar) Similarly (igualmente, asimismo, del mismo modo)

PURPOSE SHOWING CERTAINTY

Neutral & Frequent

In order to (para) In order for (para) In order that (para que + subjunctive) So that (de modo que, para que)

Neutral & Frequent

At least (al menos, por lo menos, como mínimo) Even so (aún así) Even then (aún así) Surely (seguramente, desde luego, por supuesto) Certainly (desde luego) No doubt (sin duda) Conceivably (cabe la posibilidad, evidentemente) Perhaps (quizá(s), tal vez) Probably (probablemente + subjunctive) All along (desde el primer momento)

More formal

At the same time (a la misma vez) After all (después de todo) Apparently (al parecer, según parece, por lo visto) Possibly (posiblemente, evidentemente) [= conceivably] Undoubtedly (indudablemente, sin duda) Conclusively (de manera concluyente, concluyentemente) Doubtless (sin duda, indudablemente) Evidently (claramente, según parece, obviamente) Presumably (es de suponer) The truth be told (para decir la verdad)


35

EXPLAINING REASONS LOGICAL ARGUMENT

Neutral & Frequent

Certainly (desde luego, por supuesto) Actually (en realidad) Really (realmente, verdaderamente) For example (por ejemplo) In fact (en realidad, de hecho) As a matter of fact (en realidad) For that matter (en realidad, de hecho) That is to say (es decir) Of course (claro, naturalmente) Because (porque) Since (desde –entonces-) Basically speaking (basicamente hablando)

More formal

For instance (por ejemplo) Indeed (es más, de verdad, en efecto) Admittedly (hay que reconocer)

Neutral & Frequent

Not only ... but also (no solo … sino también…) The more ... the better (cuanto más… major…) Whether ... or (ya sea … o …) Either ... or (o … o …) For instance (por ejemplo) This ... that (esto … eso…) Neither ... nor (ni … ni …) For example (por ejemplo) Here ... there (aquí … y allí …) In particular (en particular, en especial) Since ... then (desde … entonces …) If ... then (si … entonces …) These ... those (estos … aquellos …)

More formal

To illustrate (para demostrar)

CONDITIONS CHRONOLOGICAL ORDER

Neutral & Frequent

If (si) Although (aunque) Even if (incluso si + subjunctive) In spite of (a pesar) Otherwise (si no, por lo demás, aparte de eso) Though (aunque) Even though (aún cuando, a pesar de que) Unless (aunque) Depending on (dependiendo de…) At the same time (a la misma vez…) In this case (en este caso)

More formal

Under such circumstances

(bajo tales circunstancias) Provided that (siempre que + subjunctive) As long as (mientras) This (that) being so (siendo esto/eso así…) In this event (en este evento) Nevertheless (sin embargo, no obstante) In these circumstances

(en estas circunstancias) Nonetheless (sin embargo, no obstante) Despite (a pesar de)

Neutral & Frequent

Later (después, más tarde) In the meantime (mientras tanto, entretanto) Finally (finalmente) When / While / Already (cuando / mientras / ya) Then (entonces, después, luego) Long before (mucho antes) After that (despúes de eso) Earlier (antes) Meanwhile (mientras tanto) Before that (después de eso) At last (por fin, al fin) Afterwards (después) [Long Afterwards = mucho después] First, second... (primero, segundo…) Now (ahora) [Right Now = ahora mismo] Shortly () [Shortly Afterwards = poco después] Right Then (en ese preciso momento) By that time (para entonces) Until / Till (hasta)

More formal

Previously (antes) Subsequently (posteriormente) At length (finalmente, por fin, detenidamente) Simultaneously (al mismo tiempo, a la vez) Concurrently (simultáneamente) Formerly (antes, anteriormente) First and foremost (ante todo) Last, but not least (por último, pero no por eso menos importante) Beforehand (antes, de antemano, con anticipación)


36

CONCESSION CONTRAST

Neutral & Frequent

All the same (en todo caso) Obviously (obviamente, como es lógico) Of course (naturalmente, desde luego) At any rate (por lo menos) In any case (de cualquier manera) Anyway (de todos modos/formas) However (sin embargo) Still (aún así de todos modos) It goes without saying that

More formal

To be sure, … (para estar seguro, …) Granted (no te lo discuto, de acuerdo) Admittedly (hay que reconocer) It is true that (es verda que …) After all (después de todo) Nevertheless (sin embargo, no obstante) In spite of [prep] (a pesar de)

Neutral & Frequent

Instead [adv] (en cambio) Instead of [prep] (en vez de, en lugar de) Anyhow (de cualquier manera) [= Anyway] Rather than (antes que) But (pero) On the one hand (por una parte) On the other hand (por otra parte) Still (aún así, de todos modos) However (sin embargo) In spite of that [prep] (a pesar de eso) Otherwise (si no, por lo demás, a parte de eso)

More formal

Conversely (a la inversa) Despite [prep] (a pesar de) On the contrary (por el contrario) Yet (sin embargo) [= But / Nevertheless]

INTRODUCING A TOPIC FREQUENCY AND TIME

As for (en cuanto a, respecto a) With respect to (con respecto a) In every respect (en todo sentido) Concerning (sobre, acerca de, con respecto a ) As regards (en cuanto a, en lo que se refiere a, en

lo que atañe a) With regard to (con respecto a, con relación a, en

relación con) Say, … (cambiando de tema, …) By the way (a propósito, por cierto, por el

contrario)

From time to time (de vez en cuando) Every now and then (de tanto en tanto, cada vez en

cuando) More often than not (la mayoría del tiempo)

OTHER

Both (ambos, tanto … como …)

Documents

Rules for Writing Better