Rome at WarRome at War

Warfare and the GodsWarfare and the Gods

The nature of Roman ReligionThe nature of Roman Religion cult ( cult (cultuscultus) – religious action) – religious action

Cultus Cultus was central to Roman religion; not to be confused was central to Roman religion; not to be confused with modern negative overtones with modern negative overtones

cultus –cultus – was the worship (the various practices and rituals was the worship (the various practices and rituals employed in worship); enormous range of practices employed in worship); enormous range of practices

Main forms of practices:Main forms of practices: 1. 1. request for benefitsrequest for benefits from gods, i.e. in prayers, sacrifices and other offeringsfrom gods, i.e. in prayers, sacrifices and other offerings

2. Divinations2. Divinations or interpretation of messages from the or interpretation of messages from the gods (i.e. flight of birds – augury)gods (i.e. flight of birds – augury)

3. rituals3. rituals – such as purifications and initiations which in – such as purifications and initiations which in various ways transformed a person’s situation with various ways transformed a person’s situation with respect to the divinerespect to the divine

EmphasisEmphasis on correct repetitions of on correct repetitions of formulaeformulae

--

The nature of Roman Religion: The nature of Roman Religion: reciprocityreciprocity

Do ut desDo ut des -” I grant you this, so that you will give me that -” I grant you this, so that you will give me that in exchange.”in exchange.”

Quid pro quoQuid pro quo idea - I offer you a benefit and ask for one idea - I offer you a benefit and ask for one in return – sacrifices are made to the gods and their in return – sacrifices are made to the gods and their protection, favour, beneficence is expected (or rather protection, favour, beneficence is expected (or rather hoped for) in returnhoped for) in return

Concept must be understood in the context of a culture Concept must be understood in the context of a culture (Graeco-Roman) where social relationships are based on (Graeco-Roman) where social relationships are based on reciprocal benefits (i.e. patron-client relationship)reciprocal benefits (i.e. patron-client relationship)

Rome:Rome: when benefit ( when benefit (beneficiumbeneficium) given, the person who ) given, the person who receives the benefit owes - receives the benefit owes - gratiagratia - - and can be called and can be called upon to return the benefitupon to return the benefit

When gods did not deliver, Romans believed they were When gods did not deliver, Romans believed they were angry and more public sacrifices were made to appease angry and more public sacrifices were made to appease themthem

Politics and the godsPolitics and the gods

Roman magistrates were considered to be closer to the Roman magistrates were considered to be closer to the gods than ordinary Romansgods than ordinary Romans

It was their duty to communicate with gods by carrying It was their duty to communicate with gods by carrying out sacrifices on behalf of the community to maintain out sacrifices on behalf of the community to maintain the the pax deorum pax deorum

Magistrates and gods cooperated to ensure the well-Magistrates and gods cooperated to ensure the well-being of Rome, success of state dependent on common being of Rome, success of state dependent on common purpose of human and divine leaderspurpose of human and divine leaders

until last century BCE – magistracies were limited to until last century BCE – magistracies were limited to one-year positions – no monopoly on close relationship one-year positions – no monopoly on close relationship of one individual to the godsof one individual to the gods

In imperial period, the emperor had monopoly on most In imperial period, the emperor had monopoly on most important priesthoodsimportant priesthoods

Marcus Aurelius (161-180 CE)Marcus Aurelius (161-180 CE)performing a sacrificeperforming a sacrifice

Roman Religion and WarfareRoman Religion and Warfare

Before Romans commenced any Before Romans commenced any hostilities, they needed to obtain the hostilities, they needed to obtain the favour of the godsfavour of the gods

Certain rituals had to be performed Certain rituals had to be performed Often vows were made to gods by Often vows were made to gods by

generals before a battle/campaign in generals before a battle/campaign in return for victoryreturn for victory

After victory sacrifices had to be made to After victory sacrifices had to be made to the gods; also after defeats to appease the the gods; also after defeats to appease the gods gods

Declaring War:Declaring War:The duty of the The duty of the fetialesfetiales

7272 The seventh division of his sacred institutions was The seventh division of his sacred institutions was devoted to the college of the fdevoted to the college of the fetialesetiales;; these may be called these may be called in Greek in Greek eirênodikaeirênodikaii or "arbiters of peace." They are or "arbiters of peace." They are chosen men, from the best families, and exercise their holy chosen men, from the best families, and exercise their holy office for life; King Numa was also the first who instituted office for life; King Numa was also the first who instituted this holy magistracy among the Romans ……this holy magistracy among the Romans ……

It is their duty to take care that the Romans do not It is their duty to take care that the Romans do not enter upon an unjust war againstenter upon an unjust war against any city in alliance any city in alliance with them, and if others begin the violation of treaties with them, and if others begin the violation of treaties against them, to go as ambassadors and first make formal against them, to go as ambassadors and first make formal demand for justice, and then, if the others refuse to comply demand for justice, and then, if the others refuse to comply with their demands, to sanction war. with their demands, to sanction war. 55 In like manner, if  In like manner, if any people in alliance with the Romans complain of having any people in alliance with the Romans complain of having been injured by them and demand justice, these men are to been injured by them and demand justice, these men are to determine whether they have suffered anything in violation determine whether they have suffered anything in violation of their alliance; of their alliance;

(Dionyssius of Halicarnassus II.72)(Dionyssius of Halicarnassus II.72)

Declaring war continuedDeclaring war continued

Numa had instituted religious Numa had instituted religious observances for times of peace, he observances for times of peace, he would hand down the ceremonies would hand down the ceremonies appropriate to a state of war. In order, appropriate to a state of war. In order, therefore, that wars might be not only therefore, that wars might be not only conducted but also proclaimed with conducted but also proclaimed with some formality, he wrote down the law, some formality, he wrote down the law, as taken from the ancient nation of the as taken from the ancient nation of the Aequioli, under which the Fetials act Aequioli, under which the Fetials act down to this day when seeking redress down to this day when seeking redress for injuries. The procedure is as follows: - for injuries. The procedure is as follows: -

The formulaThe formula The ambassador binds his head in a woollen fillet. When he has The ambassador binds his head in a woollen fillet. When he has

reached the frontiers of the nation from whom satisfaction is reached the frontiers of the nation from whom satisfaction is demanded, he says, "Hear, O Jupiter! Hear, ye confines" - naming demanded, he says, "Hear, O Jupiter! Hear, ye confines" - naming the particular nation whose they are - "Hear, O Justice! I am the the particular nation whose they are - "Hear, O Justice! I am the public herald of the Roman People. Rightly and duly authorised do public herald of the Roman People. Rightly and duly authorised do I come; let confidence be placed in my words." Then he recites the I come; let confidence be placed in my words." Then he recites the terms of the demands, and calls Jupiter to witness: "If I am terms of the demands, and calls Jupiter to witness: "If I am demanding the surrender of those men or those goods, contrary to demanding the surrender of those men or those goods, contrary to justice and religion, suffer me nevermore to enjoy my native justice and religion, suffer me nevermore to enjoy my native land." He repeats these words as he crosses the frontier, he land." He repeats these words as he crosses the frontier, he repeats them to whoever happens to be the first person he meets, repeats them to whoever happens to be the first person he meets, he repeats them as he enters the gates and again on entering the he repeats them as he enters the gates and again on entering the forum, with some slight changes in the wording of the formula. If forum, with some slight changes in the wording of the formula. If what he demands are not surrendered at the expiration of thirty-what he demands are not surrendered at the expiration of thirty-three days - for that is the fixed period of grace - he declares war three days - for that is the fixed period of grace - he declares war in the following terms: "Hear, O Jupiter, and thou Janus Quirinus, in the following terms: "Hear, O Jupiter, and thou Janus Quirinus, and all ye heavenly gods, and ye, gods of earth and of the lower and all ye heavenly gods, and ye, gods of earth and of the lower world, hear me! I call you to witness that this people" - mentioning world, hear me! I call you to witness that this people" - mentioning it by name - "is unjust and does not fulfil its sacred obligations. it by name - "is unjust and does not fulfil its sacred obligations. But about these matters we must consult the elders in our own But about these matters we must consult the elders in our own land in what way we may obtain our rights." land in what way we may obtain our rights."

consulting the senateconsulting the senate

With these words the ambassador returned to Rome With these words the ambassador returned to Rome for consultation. The king forthwith consulted the for consultation. The king forthwith consulted the senate in words to the following effect: "Concerning senate in words to the following effect: "Concerning the matters, suits, and causes, whereof the Pater the matters, suits, and causes, whereof the Pater Patratus of the Roman People and Quirites hath Patratus of the Roman People and Quirites hath complained to the Pater Patratus of the Prisci Latini, complained to the Pater Patratus of the Prisci Latini, and to the people of the Prisci Latini, which matters and to the people of the Prisci Latini, which matters they were bound severally to surrender, discharge, they were bound severally to surrender, discharge, and make good, whereas they have done none of and make good, whereas they have done none of these things - say, what is your opinion?" He whose these things - say, what is your opinion?" He whose opinion was first asked, replied, "I am of opinion that opinion was first asked, replied, "I am of opinion that they ought to be recovered by a just and righteous they ought to be recovered by a just and righteous war, wherefore I give my consent and vote for it." war, wherefore I give my consent and vote for it." Then the others were asked in order, and when the Then the others were asked in order, and when the majority of those present declared themselves of the majority of those present declared themselves of the same opinion, war was agreed upon. same opinion, war was agreed upon.

War commencesWar commences It was customary for the Fetial to carry to the enemies' It was customary for the Fetial to carry to the enemies'

frontiers a blood-smeared spear tipped with iron or burnt at frontiers a blood-smeared spear tipped with iron or burnt at the end, and, in the presence of at least three adults, to the end, and, in the presence of at least three adults, to say, "Inasmuch as the peoples of the Prisci Latini have been say, "Inasmuch as the peoples of the Prisci Latini have been guilty of wrong against the People of Rome and the guilty of wrong against the People of Rome and the Quirites, and inasmuch as the People of Rome and the Quirites, and inasmuch as the People of Rome and the Quirites have ordered that there be war with the Prisci Quirites have ordered that there be war with the Prisci Latini, and the Senate of the People of Rome and the Latini, and the Senate of the People of Rome and the Quirites Quirites have determined and decreed that there shall be have determined and decreed that there shall be war with the Prisci Latini, therefore I and the People of war with the Prisci Latini, therefore I and the People of Rome, declare and make war upon the peoples of the Prisci Rome, declare and make war upon the peoples of the Prisci Latini." With these words he hurled his spear into their Latini." With these words he hurled his spear into their territory. This was the way in which at that time satisfaction territory. This was the way in which at that time satisfaction was demanded from the Latins and war declared, was demanded from the Latins and war declared, and and posterity adopted the custom. posterity adopted the custom.

(Livy 1.32)(Livy 1.32)

devotiodevotioRoman Blood SacrificeRoman Blood Sacrifice

Roman religious ritual included blood sacrifices s in Roman religious ritual included blood sacrifices s in exchange for goodwill of the gods; usually these exchange for goodwill of the gods; usually these would be farm animals; large sacrificial victims such would be farm animals; large sacrificial victims such as bulls, etc., would be sacrificed by the as bulls, etc., would be sacrificed by the community/town/state.community/town/state.

Under exceptional circumstances victims could Under exceptional circumstances victims could include humans - include humans - devotiodevotio

devotiodevotio could be a could be a self-sacrificeself-sacrifice – a vow made by a – a vow made by a commander before a campaign in return for a victory.commander before a campaign in return for a victory.

It could also be captive enemies: Three times in the It could also be captive enemies: Three times in the late Republic 228, 216, 113 BCE, Romans buried two late Republic 228, 216, 113 BCE, Romans buried two Gauls and two Greeks alive in the Forum BoariumGauls and two Greeks alive in the Forum Boarium

Execution of Christian martyrs were also described as Execution of Christian martyrs were also described as sacrificessacrifices

devotiodevotio – a general vows himself – a general vows himself to the gods to the gods

[Livy 8.9]The battle took place near the base of Mount [Livy 8.9]The battle took place near the base of Mount Vesuvius, where the road led to Veseris. Before leading out Vesuvius, where the road led to Veseris. Before leading out their armies to battle the consuls offered sacrifice. The their armies to battle the consuls offered sacrifice. The haruspex,haruspex, whose duty it was to inspect the different whose duty it was to inspect the different organs in the victims, pointed out to Decius a prophetic organs in the victims, pointed out to Decius a prophetic intimation of his death, in all other respects the signs were intimation of his death, in all other respects the signs were favourable. Manlius' sacrifice was entirely satisfactory. "It is favourable. Manlius' sacrifice was entirely satisfactory. "It is well," said Decius, "if my colleague has obtained favourable well," said Decius, "if my colleague has obtained favourable signs.“They moved forward to battle in the formation I have signs.“They moved forward to battle in the formation I have already described, Manlius in command of the right division, already described, Manlius in command of the right division, Decius of the left. At first both armies fought with equal Decius of the left. At first both armies fought with equal strength and equal determination. After a time the Roman strength and equal determination. After a time the Roman hastati on the left, unable to withstand the insistency of the hastati on the left, unable to withstand the insistency of the Latins, retired behind the principes. During the temporary Latins, retired behind the principes. During the temporary confusion created by this movement, Decius exclaimed in a confusion created by this movement, Decius exclaimed in a loud voice to M. Valerius: "Valerius, we need the help of the loud voice to M. Valerius: "Valerius, we need the help of the gods! Let the Pontifex Maximus dictate to me the words in gods! Let the Pontifex Maximus dictate to me the words in which I am to devote myself for the legions." … which I am to devote myself for the legions." …

DevotioDevotio continued continued The Pontifex bade him veil his head in his toga praetexta, The Pontifex bade him veil his head in his toga praetexta,

and rest his hand, covered with the toga, against his chin, and rest his hand, covered with the toga, against his chin, then standing upon a spear to say these words: "Janus, then standing upon a spear to say these words: "Janus, Jupiter, Father Mars, Quirinus, Bellona, Lares, ye Novensiles Jupiter, Father Mars, Quirinus, Bellona, Lares, ye Novensiles and Indigetes, deities to whom belongs the power over us and Indigetes, deities to whom belongs the power over us and over our foes, and ye, too, Divine and over our foes, and ye, too, Divine ManesManes, I pray to you, , I pray to you, I do you reverence, I crave your grace and favour that you I do you reverence, I crave your grace and favour that you will bless the Roman People, the Quirites, with power and will bless the Roman People, the Quirites, with power and victory, and visit the enemies of the Roman People, the victory, and visit the enemies of the Roman People, the Quirites, with fear and dread and death. In like manner as I Quirites, with fear and dread and death. In like manner as I have uttered this prayer so do I now on behalf of the have uttered this prayer so do I now on behalf of the commonwealth of the Quirites, on behalf of the army, the commonwealth of the Quirites, on behalf of the army, the legions, the auxiliaries of the Roman People, the Quirites, legions, the auxiliaries of the Roman People, the Quirites, devote the legions and auxiliaries of the enemy, together devote the legions and auxiliaries of the enemy, together with myself to the Divine Manes and to Earth." After this with myself to the Divine Manes and to Earth." After this prayer he ordered the lictors to go to T. Manlius and at once prayer he ordered the lictors to go to T. Manlius and at once announce to his colleague that he had devoted himself on announce to his colleague that he had devoted himself on behalf of the army. behalf of the army.

Into the midst of the enemyInto the midst of the enemy He then girded himself with the Gabinian cincture, and in He then girded himself with the Gabinian cincture, and in

full armour leaped upon his horse and dashed into the full armour leaped upon his horse and dashed into the middle of the enemy. To those who watched him in both middle of the enemy. To those who watched him in both armies, he appeared something awful and superhuman, as armies, he appeared something awful and superhuman, as though sent from heaven to expiate and appease all the though sent from heaven to expiate and appease all the anger of the gods and to avert destruction from his people anger of the gods and to avert destruction from his people and bring it on their enemies. All the dread and terror which and bring it on their enemies. All the dread and terror which he carried with him threw the front ranks of the Latins into he carried with him threw the front ranks of the Latins into confusion which soon spread throughout the entire army. confusion which soon spread throughout the entire army. This was most evident, for wherever his horse carried him This was most evident, for wherever his horse carried him they were paralysed as though struck by some death-they were paralysed as though struck by some death-dealing star; but when he fell, overwhelmed with darts, the dealing star; but when he fell, overwhelmed with darts, the Latin cohorts, in a state of perfect consternation, fled from Latin cohorts, in a state of perfect consternation, fled from the spot and left a large space clear. the spot and left a large space clear.

(Livy 8.9.1-10 – Samnite War)(Livy 8.9.1-10 – Samnite War)

Roman ambivalence about Roman ambivalence about devotiodevotio

““why was it that, when Romans discovered that a barbarian why was it that, when Romans discovered that a barbarian tribe called the Bletonesii had sacrificed a human being to tribe called the Bletonesii had sacrificed a human being to the gods, they sent for the leaders of the tribe, intending to the gods, they sent for the leaders of the tribe, intending to punish them, but when it became clear that the tribe had punish them, but when it became clear that the tribe had acted in accordance with some native custom, they set the acted in accordance with some native custom, they set the leaders free, though forbade the practice for the future? Yet leaders free, though forbade the practice for the future? Yet the Romans themselves, … had buried alive two men and the Romans themselves, … had buried alive two men and two women ..in the ‘Forum Boarium’, two Greeks and two two women ..in the ‘Forum Boarium’, two Greeks and two Gauls. ..Did they think it impious to sacrifice human being Gauls. ..Did they think it impious to sacrifice human being to the gods, but necessary to sacrifice them to the spirits? to the gods, but necessary to sacrifice them to the spirits? Or did they think that men who did this by tradition and Or did they think that men who did this by tradition and custom did wrong, while they themselves acted according custom did wrong, while they themselves acted according to the instructions of the Sibylline Books? For it is said that to the instructions of the Sibylline Books? For it is said that a young woman, a virgin called Helvia, was struck by a young woman, a virgin called Helvia, was struck by lightning as she rode a horse, and that the horse was found lightning as she rode a horse, and that the horse was found lying stripped of all its trappings, and the woman herself lying stripped of all its trappings, and the woman herself was found stripped too - her tunic pulled up above her was found stripped too - her tunic pulled up above her (continued)(continued)

ambivalenceambivalence continuedcontinued private parts as if on purpose, her shoes, rings and private parts as if on purpose, her shoes, rings and

headdress scattered in different directions, her headdress scattered in different directions, her tongue sticking right out from her mouth. The tongue sticking right out from her mouth. The soothsayers declared that this was a dreadful soothsayers declared that this was a dreadful disgrace fro the virgin priestesses which would disgrace fro the virgin priestesses which would become notorious; and that some outrage would become notorious; and that some outrage would extend to the knights also. Then a barbarian extend to the knights also. Then a barbarian slave ..laid information against three Vestal Virgins, slave ..laid information against three Vestal Virgins, Aemilia, Licinia and Marcia ..that they had all been Aemilia, Licinia and Marcia ..that they had all been corrupted ..for a long period ..sleeping with men. The corrupted ..for a long period ..sleeping with men. The women were convicted and punished, but as it was women were convicted and punished, but as it was such an appalling business, it was decided that the such an appalling business, it was decided that the priests should consult the Sibylline Books. They say priests should consult the Sibylline Books. They say that oracles were discovered, prophesying disaster that oracles were discovered, prophesying disaster and prescribing that two Greeks and two Gauls should and prescribing that two Greeks and two Gauls should be offered to strange foreign spirits, buried alive on be offered to strange foreign spirits, buried alive on the spot (the spot (Plutarch, Plutarch, Roman QuestionsRoman Questions 83). 83).

Votive games (Votive games (muneramunera) held on ) held on the occasion of a military the occasion of a military

triumph triumph Ludi magni votivi Ludi magni votivi games vowed to Jupiter by generals games vowed to Jupiter by generals

before they set out on a military campaign before they set out on a military campaign During games in addition to regular gladiatorial contests, During games in addition to regular gladiatorial contests,

executions of executions of captivicaptivi (captured enemies) and criminals (captured enemies) and criminals took place; the blood of gladiators (who stood outside took place; the blood of gladiators (who stood outside Roman society) criminals and war captives was Roman society) criminals and war captives was considered offerings to the godsconsidered offerings to the gods

Regular Regular ludi votivi ludi votivi put on after 82 B.C. in honour of Sulla, put on after 82 B.C. in honour of Sulla, after 46 B.C. in honour of Julius Caesar = after 46 B.C. in honour of Julius Caesar = ludi Caesaris ludi Caesaris

The The evocatioevocatio – seducing the – seducing the gods to change sidesgods to change sides

““Whether you are a god or a goddess who hold under your Whether you are a god or a goddess who hold under your protection the people and the city of Carthage, and you protection the people and the city of Carthage, and you also, almighty god, who have taken under your protection also, almighty god, who have taken under your protection this city and this people, to you I pray, you I implore, you I this city and this people, to you I pray, you I implore, you I respectfully ask to abandon the city and people of respectfully ask to abandon the city and people of Carthage, to desert their structures, temples, sanctuaries, Carthage, to desert their structures, temples, sanctuaries, and urban area, and to leave them. I ask you to instill in and urban area, and to leave them. I ask you to instill in that people and city fear, terror, and oblivion, and to come that people and city fear, terror, and oblivion, and to come to me and to my people when you have left these. I ask to me and to my people when you have left these. I ask that our structures, temples, sanctuaries, and urban area that our structures, temples, sanctuaries, and urban area may be more acceptable and more agreeable to you, and may be more acceptable and more agreeable to you, and that you may take under your protection me and the people that you may take under your protection me and the people of Rome and my soldiers in such a way that we may know of Rome and my soldiers in such a way that we may know and perceive it. If you will do this, I vow that I will build for and perceive it. If you will do this, I vow that I will build for you temples and celebrate your games.” (Macrobius, you temples and celebrate your games.” (Macrobius, Saturnalia ConversationsSaturnalia Conversations 3.9.7, 8. 3.9.7, 8.

evocatioevocatio

waswas a common practice in which one a common practice in which one or more of the enemy’s gods were or more of the enemy’s gods were evoked to change sides, and in evoked to change sides, and in return Romans would bring the cults return Romans would bring the cults of these deities to Rome and would of these deities to Rome and would build shrines or temples to honour build shrines or temples to honour them. them.

In short, the idea was to offer the In short, the idea was to offer the gods more honours: better houses gods more honours: better houses (temples) and bigger sacrifices.(temples) and bigger sacrifices.

The Roman TriumphThe Roman Triumph

God for a DayGod for a Day

God for a DayGod for a Day Military Triumphs, granted (by the senate) to Military Triumphs, granted (by the senate) to

victorious commander who had killed at least 5000 of victorious commander who had killed at least 5000 of the enemythe enemy

Roman triumph greatest achievement for a Roman Roman triumph greatest achievement for a Roman noblenoble

The general became god for a day – triumphant The general became god for a day – triumphant general dressed up like Jupiter: all in red – cloak and general dressed up like Jupiter: all in red – cloak and crown, face painted red; procession of general, his crown, face painted red; procession of general, his troops, captives, loot through city to centre. troops, captives, loot through city to centre. Temporary reversal of thingsTemporary reversal of things: normally army was : normally army was prohibited from entering Rome prohibited from entering Rome

Some sources claim a slave stood next to general, Some sources claim a slave stood next to general, whispering into his ear: “remember you are a man.”whispering into his ear: “remember you are a man.”

Soldiers were allowed to shout insults and obscenities Soldiers were allowed to shout insults and obscenities at general in order to prevent jealousy of godsat general in order to prevent jealousy of gods

The Roman State and the The Roman State and the GodsGods

Roman magistrates (senators) were closer to the gods than Roman magistrates (senators) were closer to the gods than ordinary Romansordinary Romans

It was their duty to communicate with gods by carrying out It was their duty to communicate with gods by carrying out sacrifices on behalf of the community to maintain the sacrifices on behalf of the community to maintain the pax pax deorum deorum

Magistrates and gods cooperated to ensure the well-being Magistrates and gods cooperated to ensure the well-being of Rome, success of state dependent on common purpose of Rome, success of state dependent on common purpose of human and divine leadersof human and divine leaders

Chief magistrates were also the priests, i.e. Caesar was Chief magistrates were also the priests, i.e. Caesar was pontifex maximuspontifex maximus; Cicero as consul was also an augur, ; Cicero as consul was also an augur, etc.,etc.,

until last century BCE – magistracies were limited to one-until last century BCE – magistracies were limited to one-year positions – no monopoly on close relationship of one year positions – no monopoly on close relationship of one individual to the godsindividual to the gods

In the Imperial period, the emperor had monopoly on most In the Imperial period, the emperor had monopoly on most important priesthoodsimportant priesthoods

Republican Generals and the Republican Generals and the Gods Gods

Great Republican generals managed to extend or repeat offices and Great Republican generals managed to extend or repeat offices and

special commands that gave them power for long periods special commands that gave them power for long periods They now claimed They now claimed long-term association with the godslong-term association with the gods Symbolized by: triumphs, displaying themselves (or had them treated by Symbolized by: triumphs, displaying themselves (or had them treated by

others) others) as favourites of godsas favourites of gods, or even , or even like godslike gods Clear elevation of powerful figures: Scipio Africanus (late 2Clear elevation of powerful figures: Scipio Africanus (late 2ndnd century BCE) century BCE)

is accused of having claimed a close association with Jupiter Optimus is accused of having claimed a close association with Jupiter Optimus MaximusMaximus

Aemilius Paullus after defeating Macedonian king Perseus in 168 BCE was Aemilius Paullus after defeating Macedonian king Perseus in 168 BCE was granted a triumph and granted a triumph and allowed to wear triumphal dress at all Circus allowed to wear triumphal dress at all Circus games; games; same honours given to Pompey in 63 BCE same honours given to Pompey in 63 BCE

Marius (7 times consul, was given triumph for victory over African Marius (7 times consul, was given triumph for victory over African king Jugurtha and over the Germans), entered the Roman senate king Jugurtha and over the Germans), entered the Roman senate in triumphal outfit; offence to senators, but loved by in triumphal outfit; offence to senators, but loved by populuspopulus

Iulius Caesar topped them all – when he was allowed to wear the Iulius Caesar topped them all – when he was allowed to wear the triumphal costume on all public occasion – serious break with traditiontriumphal costume on all public occasion – serious break with tradition

Military Conquest and the GodsMilitary Conquest and the Gods

Rome’s success was also the success of godsRome’s success was also the success of gods Divine allegiance was important for a successful Roman Divine allegiance was important for a successful Roman

politician; in Republican era connection with gods, politician; in Republican era connection with gods, alienation of gods from rivals had to be constantly paraded alienation of gods from rivals had to be constantly paraded

For example: Octavian claimed success with the support For example: Octavian claimed success with the support of Apollo, in his capacity as healing god, against his final of Apollo, in his capacity as healing god, against his final opponent Antony who had likened himself to the god opponent Antony who had likened himself to the god Dionysos (god of wine, fertility)Dionysos (god of wine, fertility)

By the late Republic – Dionysos represented all the By the late Republic – Dionysos represented all the decadence and decadence and luxuria ofluxuria of the eas the eas

Military and political successMilitary and political success brought men into close brought men into close association with gods (triumphant general became god for association with gods (triumphant general became god for a day)a day)

In late Republic, the status of successful politician moved In late Republic, the status of successful politician moved increasingly closer to the status of the divine increasingly closer to the status of the divine

Culmination of trend: Iulius Caesar who was declared a god Culmination of trend: Iulius Caesar who was declared a god after his death after his death

Restored arch of TitusRestored arch of Titus

Victory Arch of TitusVictory Arch of Titus

SENATVSSENATVSPOPVLVSQUE ROMANVSPOPVLVSQUE ROMANVSDIVO TITO DIVI VESPASIANI FDIVO TITO DIVI VESPASIANI FVESPASIANO AUGUSTOVESPASIANO AUGUSTO

“The Senate and people of Rome (dedicate “The Senate and people of Rome (dedicate this) to the deified Titus Vespasian this) to the deified Titus Vespasian Augustus, son of the deified Vespasian.” Augustus, son of the deified Vespasian.” This is the Arch of Titus: a tribute felt to a This is the Arch of Titus: a tribute felt to a man who was a hero, an emperor, and a man who was a hero, an emperor, and a god of Rome god of Rome

Arch of TitusArch of Titus spoils of the First Jewish spoils of the First Jewish

War on their way to be War on their way to be displayed for the displayed for the satisfaction of the Roman satisfaction of the Roman mob. Chosen to represent mob. Chosen to represent the vast wealth brought the vast wealth brought back from Judea are the back from Judea are the most sacred artifacts of most sacred artifacts of the Jewish faith: the seven-the Jewish faith: the seven-branched menorah, the branched menorah, the silver trumpets, and the silver trumpets, and the table of showbread, all table of showbread, all plundered from the plundered from the innermost sanctum of the innermost sanctum of the Jewish temple Jewish temple