Roebroeks & Gamble (1999) - THE MIDDLE PALAEOLITHIC OCCUPATION OF EUROPE

8/7/2019 Roebroeks & Gamble (1999) - THE MIDDLE PALAEOLITHIC OCCUPATION OF EUROPE

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THEMIDDLE

PALAEOLITHICOCCUPAT ION OF EUROPEedited byW il Roebroeks andClive Gamble

U N IVERSITY OF L E I D E N 1999


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Clive GambleWil Roebroeks 1 The Middle Palaeolithic: a point of inflection

Su l , n \u - l i . I M - only hccn able to fol low th e t r a i l of Palaeoli thic man .extrac t ing w h a t i n f o r m a t i o n w e cou ld f ro m the imp lemen ts droppeda lo n g the way ; now . . .we enter a clearing, where we mak e ac i | i i amt . i iuew i t h t he man h ims e l f , w i t n e s s h i s l e a s t s a r o u n d h is h ea r t h , an dco n templa te the last ceremoni es w hich a t ten d ed h im to the grave"( S o l l a s I ' M I : I . V ) T h e M id d le Pa laeo l i th i c ) .

1 . I n t r o d u c t i o nAr ch aeo l o g i s t s ge n e r a l ly l i k e to t h i n k in threes; Th om son ' sthree ages of stone, bron/.e and iron ( 1 8 3 6 ) , M o r g a n ' sothniea l periods savagery, barbarism and c i v i l i s a t i on ( 1 8 7 7 ) .C hi lde ' s t h r e e r e vo lu t io n s N e o l i t h i c , u r b a n a n d i n du s t r i a l(1935) and even Flannery 's three c o m b a t a n t s the Scept ica lG ra du a te Student, the Real Mesoameriean Archaeologist andth e Great Synthesiser ( 1976). Then of course there are themyriad divisions o f periods and cu l tu res in to ea r ly , middleand late phases , f or i n s t ance Lu b b ock ( 18 6 5 ) a n d Westropp 's( 1 8 7 2 ) I 'alaeo-, Meso- and Neo- l i th ic stages, or more recentlyt h e < < i < i t i ' i n a Idgico-onaUtic w h i c h divides the Pa laeo l i th ic i n t oth e bio- funct iona l , th e b io -morpho te chn i ca l and thebio-p o te n t i a l periods (C'arbonell e l al . I995a: V a qu e ro 1992).Three smacks of a job we l l done. Three a lso appea ls to ah i g h e r a u tho r i ty . Th e anthropologist Ernest Gellner ( 1986 :7 8 ) w h i m s i c a l l y l abe l led t h i s th e doc t r i n e of Tr in i t a r i an i sm,w h i c h sta tes tha t mankind passes t h rou g h t h ree an d onlythree fun dam enta l s tages in i t s de ve lopme n t . It is to beI > i v I erred t o t hose w ho , m i s gu i de d ly i n h i s op in ion , f a vou rfive. G r a h a m e C la rk ' s f i v e t e c h n o l o g i c a l m odes ( 1961 ) w o u l din ou r op in ion be a good Pa l a e o l i t h i c example of tw o-too-many, since technology is more than j u s t stone tools howe ve rw e l l these survive.Th e w a y w e approach th e w h o l e s w e e p of h u m a n sociald eve l o p men t therefore colours t h e w ay w e organise U sinternal invest iga t ion . B u t h o w e v e r r ight three may feel i t isa n o the r matter entirely, as Gellner observed, i f the threestages have been correctly ident i f ied .2. 'ThePalaeo l i th ic o c c u p a t i o n o f Europe'Palaeo l i th ic archaeologists w i l l i n s t a n t l y recognise f a m i l i a rterritory. Th e Lower , Midd le and Upper Palaeo l i th ic and theEar ly , Middle and Late Stone Ag e t o g e t h e r w i t h t h e Lower ,M i d d l e an d Upper Pleistocene a re essen t ia l bu i ld in g b locks

to understand th e period. Th e p u l l i n g p o w e r of t r i n i t a r i a n i s m\ \ a s ob viou s w he n w e p l a n n e d th e three w o r k s h o p s i n th eEur o p ean Sc ie n ce E ou n da t i on n e t w o r k 'The Pa l a e o l i t h i coccupation of Europe ' . But our decision from th e outse t w asto e x a m i n e i ssues w i t h i n each o f th e three per iods ra ther thanto discuss t r a n s i t i on s .Our f irst workshop a t Tautavel in 1993 (Roehroeks an dV an K o l f s c h o t e n 1995) de a l t w i t h th e L o w e r P a l a e o l i t h i c andtook as its theme the ea r l ie s t colon isa t ion o f Europe . Thesecond, which f o rms th e basis of t h i s vo lu me , w as he ld ascar later in Arras . ' Th e focus w a s t h e M idd l e Pa l a e o l i t h i cand con ce n t r a t e d on biotopes and s e t t l e m e n t pa t te rns .Our a im w as to e s t a b l i sh th e environmental to lerance ofhomin in e s du r in g t he period and to examine the var iab lepat tern of se t t lement , both loca l and reg iona l across th ec on t i n e n t . The th i rd workshop he ld in October 1995 atPavlov examined th e pericxl from 30,000-20,000 years ag oi n th e U ppe r P a l a e o l i t h i c ( Mu s s i and Roebroeks 1996: M u s s ic/ til., in press) . Th e i s su e s w e r e cu l t u r a l innovat ion, thedis t r ibu t ion of popu l a t ion and the i mp ac t , if any. o f ad e te r io ra t i n g c l i m a t e on societ ies .W e a lso re turned to ma n y of the qu e s t ion s r a i sed at thefirst tw o ESF meetings a t a jo in t m e e t i n g , sponsored by theR m i s c h - G e r m a n i s c h e s / e n t r . i l m u s o u m M a m / and t h eEu rope a n Sc ie n ce f o u n d a t i o n , h e ld a t Sch loss M o n r e p o s .N e u w i o d . Th e conference examined the ro le of ea r ly h um an si n th e a c c u m u l a t i o n of Eu rope a n Lowe r and M i d d l eP a l a e o l i t h i c bone assemblages ( G a u d / i n s k i an d Turner 1996;( i a u d / i n s k i and Turner, in press) . Gaud/ inski ' s pape r in t h i svolume reports on some of those d i s cus s i o ns3. Forget modern hum ans for a momen tTh e great interest in th e or i g in s of modern h u m a n s( f o r e x a m p l e M e l l a r s a n d S t r i n ge r 1989; Tr in ka u s 1989;M e l l a r s 1990; A n ke n < / nl.. 1993) h as relied heavily onP a l a e o l i t h i c da ta f rom Europe . Th i s i m p o r t a n t debatecon ce rn in g c o n t i n u i t y or rep lacement a m o n g regionalp o p u l a t i o n s pola r ised opin ions about th e respect ivec a pa b i l i t i e s - p h y s i c a l and c u l t u r a l - of archa ic ani l modernh u m a n s Indeed we can see now tha t by focus ing so stronglyon the appear ance and de f in i t ion o f modern humans ourapprecia t ion of the L o w e r and Middle Palaeolithic w as


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T H E M I D D L E P A L A E O L ITH IC OCCUPATION O F E U RO P Eentirely coloured by the interest in characte r is ing th e event,and the process, summarised in such phrases as " the humanrevolution".Ou r in ten t ion in the ESF n e twork wa s to step back f romthis great question and re -examine th e three periods on the i row n merits and for other issues. Once th e teleology thatmodern humans w i l l arrive in Europe is removed, and thecompara t ive judgement tha t th e Upper Pa laeol i th ic w i l lalw ays look more comp le x t ha n wha t we n t before is alsosuspended, then w e c an begin to dea l w i th other issues tha tmi g h t , at a later stage, re - in form th e ma in debate. This w asou r strategy in the Tautavel workshop. Th e conten t ious' f ac ts ' concern ing ea r l iest dates a n d t he hu ma n ma n u f a c tu reof disputed artefacts served to raise more in te res t ing i ssuesconcerning th e colonising abil it ies and environmenta lto lerances o f M iddle Pleistocene hom inines (Gamble I995a ;D enne l l and Roebroeks 1996) by con t r a s t i n g th e b e ha v iou ra li m p l i c a t i on s of accepting either a short or long chronologyfor Europe. However, subsequent discoveries seem to havereturned th e d i scu ss ion to a n a t ion a l and regional auction f orthe oldest European (Roberts et til. 1994; Carbone l l et < i l .1995b; Ro e 1995; Beimde/ , de Castro et al. 1997; Pit ts an dRoberts 1997; Gibert et al. 1998) even though th e maker ofone of these early collections at Venta Micena is nowidenti fied by some as a horse rather than a hominine(Moy -So l an d K h l e r 1997; P a l m q v i s t 1997).Of course w e have no thi ng aga inst re l iab le new data an dwelcome c la r i f ica t ion of chronologica l pa t te rns . Where w eare disappointed is that the use to w hic h such da ta a re pu trepresen ts a poor return on the effort required to obtain themi f they represent not hi ng more than a t imetab le ( for exampleBon i f a y an d Vandermeersch 1991). Th e same cou ld happenw i t h th e Middle Pa laeol i th ic i f the only reason f or col lect ingdata is to compare it e i ther f avourab ly a g a in s t th e Lowe r orun - f avo ur ab l y w i t h th e Upper Pa laeol i th ic . All tha t wou lddemonstra te i s t he f u n da m e n t a l f a l l a cy o f t r ini tar ianism -w h e r e th e inev i tab i l i ty of human progress i s th e sole lessonthat archaeology, and pa r t i cu l a r l y th e Palaeol i th ic , cani l l u m in a te . Tha t may be the reason w hy t r i n i t a r i a n i s m h asappealed so m u c h to anthropologists, historians, sociologistsand archaeologists. Three steps to the present, three steps tomodern humans, keeps th e process s i m p l e and the progresspa lpab le .4. How many Palaeol i thic periods?B u t for the Palaeo l i th ic a rchaeologist there is one smal lproblem in this s imple scheme of t h i n g s ; does th e M i d d l ePalaeol i t h i c actu a l ly ex ist? With out a middle s tage to theappearance of mode rn hu ma n s th e inevi tabi l i ty ofevolu t ionary progress co l lapses . We w ould be governed lessby th e c lass i f i ca tory st ructures we inhe r i t and use and rathermore by the issues we wanted to investigate .

For e xa mp le , one of us ( G a mb le 1986: t ab le 4.8)previously favoured a tw o stage Palaeolithic based ontechnology , Ear l ier and Upper , d ivided in to four chronolc a l periods. Here ou r in te rest wa s i n t a ck l i n g t he me s su cspace and subsistence demography and style, society an dse t t lement . We now see t h i s d i f fe ren t ly ( G a mb le , in presThe t r ipa r t i te d ivision , Lower , Middle and Upper makes good deal of ana ly t i ca l sense w h e n it comes to t r ac ing as ing le issue. Palaeol i th ic societies, and is easily supporteby the rich, well-dated ar te fac tua l evidence that is nowavailable.S imi la r sh i f t s in opinion about either two or three stagh as typi f i ed the c lassi f ica t ion o f the Pa laeol i th ic . Indeed,hi s tory of the te rm Middle Pa laeol i th ic is very in te res t init also tells u s something about t h e w a y this period - w hi s somehow 'be tw ix t and be tween ' a s we l l a s ' take it or it ' - h as been addressed. A s M u s s i ( t h i s vo lu m e ) commeseems to be a di f f i cu l t period just because i t is in the miO u r own , by no me a n s e x ha u s t i ve , su rvey of the l i te ra tushows Anglo American archaeologists adopted it m u c hearlier than their co ntin enta l colleagues. Sollas ( 1 9 1 1 )devoted an entire chapter to the period in th e f irst ed i t ionAncient hunters. Th e Middle Pa laeol i th ic is the t ime wheth e p lace of the ha n da xe is taken by the Levallois f lake.contrast Osborn, in Men o f the o ld \tone d i > c ( 1 9 1 5 ) , wassupporter of a two per iod Pa laeol i th ic , L o w e r and UpperPerhaps su ch a magis ter i a l conclusion swayed Sol las bein th e second edition o f Ancient hintten ( 1 9 2 4 ) h e droppth e M idd le Pa l a e o l it h i c as both a c h a p t e r t i t l e and as aper iod .2 But on both s ide s of the Atlan t i c f i r s t Ma ca l i s t e( 1 9 2 1 ) and then MacCurdy (1924) fo l lowed h is 1 9 1 1 leatheir textbooks and stressed th e importance of caves andNeander tha l s to r the Midd le Palaeo l i th ic period.I n Europe th e term became en vogue f rom around 19onwards , and is associa ted w i th the increasing in f l uenc eFrancois Bordes .1 There w e r e earlier but i n f o rm a l uses oterm. For instance G. and A. de Mo r t i l l e t in l^ e Prhistowri te about"L e M o u s t c r i c n ou part ie moyenne du p a l o l i t h i q u e "w h i c h began"avec la degeneration du eoup de po in g et sa dispar i t ion progre( 1 9 ( X ) : 2 3 4 ) .

The first formal and e xp l i c i t proposal that w e haveuncovered comes from th e German archaeo log is t F ' . Wiew h o considered the old divis ion i n to tw o periods supersH e proposed tha t a "Mit t le res P a l a o l i t h i k u m " shou ld b ein se r ted between the L o w e r and the Upper Palaeolithic(Wiegers 1920: 89). However , even in Germany th is d ivit h o u g h occasionally used (Schuster 1928: 48-50) , did nobecome very popu la r ( c f . Andre 1939: 142) .


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( I I V I : G A M B L E A N D W i l . R O E B R O E K S - A POINT OF INFLECTIONThree decades la ter Bordes provided a f o rma l def in i t ion inIn s i mpor t an t p aper on the r ami f y i ng cha r ac t er of indust r iesin western Europe (Bo rdes 1950) . He men t i ons t ypo log i ca land t echno log i ca l d i f f e re n ce s bet ween L o w e r and Mi dd lePalaeoli th ic indust r ies and goes out of his way to show that

M i dd le Pa laeo l i t h i c i ndus t r i es - i .e. those w i t h L eva l lo i s -are all post Rissian 4 . To do so he even develops an i n g e n i o u sscenario to discredi t th e S a a l i a n age of the German siteM arkkleeberg , w i th it s abundant Levallois elements.G r a h m a n n , w h o exh aus t i ve ly s t ud i ed th e Markk leebergsite ( 1 9 5 5 ) . was the f i rst person to use the t erm MiddlePalaeoli th ic i n a way w h i c h goes beyond typology andt echno logy to resemble, in m a n y w a y s, th e 'modern ' usageof th e t erm. In his Urt;e\clu


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TH E M I D D 1 . I PAI .AI .OI ITHIC ( X T U P A T I O N O F H U R O P Hmarked by OIS 4 and the onset of severe Ple n i g l a c i a lcondi t ions. This is a l so the beg i nn i ng of the Late Midd lePalaeo l i th ic w h o s e start da te h as recently received greatersign i f icance wi th th e volc anic w inter model (Am brose 1998).The largest P leisto cen e volc anic eruption occurred at Toba,i n Su ma t ra , a t 71 K yr bp and may have af fected regionala r cha i c popu la t ions in Southeast Asia , South China andIndia . The erup t ion in f lu enc ed g loba l c l i mate by exacerba t ingth e sh i f t to glacial conditions. Taken together these eventsm i g h t have produced a b o t t l e n e ck e f f e c t f or A f r i ca np o p u l a t i o ns ol H o mo w / / w m S K / W / J S s u r v i v i n g in the largestareas of tropical rfugia . It is noticeable that th e e xpa n s ionou t of Af r ica o f modern humans a t 100 K y r c u r r e n tl y doesno t reach much fu r ther than the Middle East. It is thee xpa n s ion post-Toba at about 5 0 K y r w h i c h m i g h t be m u c hmore s i g n i f i c a n t for re -co lon ising pa r ts o f th e Old Worldand exp anding in to te rr itor ies previously u n i n ha b i t e d byhomin in e s .Europe escaped Toba's t h i c k ash de pos i ts w h i c h coveredparts of Asia but not the impact of this volcanic event ongloba l c l imate . R f u g i a in southern and MediterraneanEu rope become impor t a n t b e twe e n 70 and 50 K yr bp . S i n c ethese r f u g i a are in l imestone reg ions the p laces w herematerial survives no w cha n ge s d ra ma t i ca l l y . Eve n so it isapparen t th a t the contexts f rom w hi ch w e ret r ieve thearchaeology of these Neandertha l r fug ia o f ten representonly very short pu lses o f sedimenta t ion , and thus on ly s tandfor short periods of Pleistocene time, most of w h i c h isrepresented by sedimenta ry hia tuses ra ther than by gradua lsedimenta t ion as p r e v i ou s ly supposed ( L a v i l l e e t til. 1 9 X 0 ) .This is e x e m p l i f i e d by Turq ' s paper ( t h i s v o l u m e ) ; inp a r t i c u l a r the new in te rpre ta t ion of the prof i le of La M i c o q u eand the sequence a t the low er abr i o f Le M oust ie r . Ra th erthan represen t ing gradua l sedimenta t ion over qu i te longperiods of t ime, the sediment b ui ld- up is seen at both sitesas ta s t . i n t e rmi t t e n t and episodic. This of course h asi m p l i c a t i o n s for our view of the a rchaeology o f such si tesand the in fe rences t h i s a l l ows c on ce rn in g mobi l i ty an dsettlement (see below).Th e La te M idd l e Pa l a e o l i t h i c , o f t e n sy n on y mou s w i t h th eMou s te r i a n , s t i l l has the Lc v u l lo i s and al l of Bordes ' f i vetribes (1968: 98), some of w h i c h can be f o u n d in theprevious 200,000 years. B u t added to t h i s are nove l aspec tsat the site an d regional level . At the site level w e f ind buria ls ,as at Le Moust ie r , La Chapel le-aux-Saints , and La Ferrass iei n France (Smirnov 1991; Def leur 1993) and less c e r t a i n ly atSaint-Csaire (Vandermeersch 1993) and Al tamura in I ta ly(V e n t u r a 1993) a l though comple te ske le tons arc present.There are a lso w e l l -const ructed f i re places as at V i la s Ru i v a si n Portuga l (Vega Toscano et ai, t h i s vo l u me ) . At a regionallevel there is grea te r movement of raw mater ia ls over longerd i s t a n ce s ( Fb lo t -A u gu s t i n s , t h i s v o l u m e ) . There is a lso f irst

t ime occupa t ion on the Russian p la i n e x te n d in g as f a r a s t h eUrals (Praslov, pers. comm. 1994). Absolu te d a t i n g is s t i l ltr icky for this period but a recent ca l ib ra t ion curve suggeststha t th e major i ty of our i n fo r m a t i on probab ly fa l ls in thein te rs tad ia ls tha t p u n c t u a t e d th e period between 60-40 K yr( V a n Andel 1998).6. BiotopesOne of the purposes of the Arras meet ing w as to e xp lo re th egeographica l l i m i t s of M idd le Pa laeol i th ic forag ing and itsenv i r o nmen t a l con s t r a in t s . The ' b e g in n in g ' o f t he Ea r l yM i d d l e Palaeol i th ic roughly coincides w i t h the f i rs tu n a m b i g u o u s presence in western Eurasia of a biotope thath a s become k n o w n a s t h e M a m m o t h - s t e p p e ( G u t h r i e 1984,1990). T h i s w as a hig hly product ive hab i ta t w hich supportea ve ry d iver se g ra / i n g com mu n i ty w i t h the ma m moth a s i t scharac ter i s t i c species. Th e m a m m o t h s teppe st re tched f romCantabria to Alaska .According to Van K o l f s c h o t e n (1990) th e f a u n a f rom th eGerman site Ariendorf 8 w h i c h i n c l u d e s l ) i < nnionyx,Lemmus lemmus, Mammuthus, Coelodonta untie/uitatis an d'IRangifer tarandus (Turner 1990, 1991 ) is one of the firstco ld stage f a u n a s in Europe w i th a composi t ion i n d i ca t i ve fa m a m m o t h - st e p p e e n v i r o n m e n t ( c f . K a h l k c 1994). Th eAriendorf I f a u n a t i es in w e l l w i th t he f i rs t appear ance ofMammuthu\ i>riinif>eiiiii\ d u r i n g OIS 8 and the contempora-n e ou s i m m i g r a t i on of ( 'oc lodonla unlu/mtcitn i n to w e s t e r npar ts of Eu ra s i a . Th i s t imin g p roba b ly r e p re sen t s th e ear l i esextension of the ma mm oth s t eppe t h i s far to the west ( c f .a l so Roebroeks and Van Ko l f sc hoten 1995: 309. note X) .The key property of the m a m m o t h s teppe , as e x p l a i n e d byG u t h r i e at the workshop , w as th e ' p la id ' s t ructure of thevege ta t ion w hic h supp orted both th e me ga f a u n a a n d largeherds of mixe d u n g u l a t e s . U s in g a w ide a rray of da ta , Jaube( t h i s volume) characte r ises th e resu l t as a g eo c l i ma t i cmosaic . This s t ructure resu l ted in e n v i ron me n ta l r e s i l i e n ce tshort-term f l u c t u a t io n s in c l i m a t e . In pa r t i c u l a r th e a n ima lp o p u l a t i o ns , w hi l e su b je c t to cycles of p o p u l a t i o n e x p a n s i oand decline, were able to w e a the r pe r t u rb a tion s by a d j u s t i n gth e comb in a t ion of gra / e rs and browsers , s ing le and m u l t i p ls toma ch ru min a n t s , odd and even toed u n g u l a t e s , as w e l l ass ta ture and si/e of taxa in the Mammuthusl Coelodontacommu n i ty . These changes ref lect varied selective f ac torssuch as snow cover, precip i ta t ion , length of season, herblayer, rodent numbers, temperature and w in d s t re n g th .W i t h i n th e m o n o l i t h i c concep t of the ma mmoth s t e ppe wcan u n cove r a good deal of varia t ion re la t ing to a model o fset t l ement ebb and f l ow . Th i s can be t ransla ted in to phases or fugia and expansion . Contract ion o f p o p u l a t i o n i n to r f u gm u s t ha ve been a f ea ture of the glacia l c l imates in OIS 4, 6and 8 . Howe ve r, w h i l e interstadial con d i t ion s p re va i le d inthese stages a n d du r i n g the tw o very d i f f e r e n t in te rg lac ia ls .


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( I I V I ( i A M B I . K AN D W1L. R O H B R O F . K S - A POINT OF INI I ICTION

OIS 7 and 5e , pop u l a t ion most probab ly expanded intoprevious ly abandonned territory. In t h i s regard Turq ' s r e f u g ehypothesis developed fo r the A q u i t a i n e basin ( t h i s vo lu me )makes tw o importan t predict ions to r f u r t he r e xa m in a t ion ;cold periods shou ld see an increase in both th e n u mb e r ofsi tes am i very rich assemblages. This represents an i m p o r t a n tstart in t u r n i n g archaeological data into long-termde mogra ph i c est imates . W h a t w e need are more a c c u r a t ees t imates of the a m p l i t u d e and d u r a t i o n of c l i m a t i cosc i l la t i on s w i t h in these ra ther monol i th ic co ld a nd w a r mdeep-sea stages .M u s s i ( t h i s v o lu m e ) al so uses th e r i ch I t a l i a n pa laeonto logi -ea l record, dated OIS 5 to OIS 3. to provide an assessment ofh o m i n i n e ecology. From h er sample of 11 9 sites. ]17r w i t hl i t h i c s , sh e f ou n d t ha t more ca rn ivo re s w e re i n v a r i a b l yma tche d by more h u m a n presence . This supports earliers tu d ie s by M i r a c l e ( 1991 ) and Gamble ( I995b) whe reincreased carnivore presence is i n d i c a t i v eof resource richareas . Late Middle Pa laeol i th ic hominincs preferred to be inth e t h i c k of the action. They w e r e not re lega ted to m a r g i n a l/ o n e s but comp eted w ith other social carnivores andomnivores for the opt imum habi ta ts .B ut i f ebb and Ho w describes N e a n de r t ha l o ccu pa t ionpatterns at a regional an d cont inen ta l scale (Gamble 1986)then th e l i mi t s need to be explored . Exact ly wha t th eenvironmenta l l imi t s o f M idd l e Pa l a e o li t h i c homin in cs w e r eis debated, and in pa r t i cu l a r t he i r abi l i ty to cope w i t h c l i m a x -i n t e rg l a c i a l f o re st e d e n v i ron me n t s ( G a mble 1986; Roebroeksel til. 1992). This debate h as more p rodu c t i ve ly t u rn ed in toi | i i e s t i o n i n g th e n a tu re o f ou r e n v i r on m e n t a l reconstruct ions(Van Andel an d T/edak i s 1996). How, f or example , d o w et u rn th e various da ta from p o l l en , sma l l ma m ma l s e tc . i n toa r ch aeo l o g i c a l l y u s e f u l da t a on th e s t r u c t u r e a n d p rodu c t i v i tyof former environments 'The prob lem is h ig hl igh ted by the tw o M iddle Pa laeol i th icinterglacials; OIS 7, which probably correlates w i t h an m tra -S aa l i an warm-tempera te phase and the H e m i a n , OIS 5e . thel a s i i n t e r g l a c i a l . These ha ve been described as a low- and ah igh - se a level in te rg la c ia l respectively, both on the basis ofoxygen isotope da ta (Shackle- ton 1987) and p a l yno l o g i c a lda t a , w i t h Ahies presen t nor th o f the Alps d u r i n g i n l e r g l a c i a l sw i t h a marine ingression in the coastal areas of WesternEurope (see Roebroeks e l nl . 1992 for a discussion of thedifferences and their archaeological vis ibi l i ty ; Z a g w i j n1992).OIS 7 has been subdivided into three major sub-stagesw i t h su hs t a ge 7b representing a short ice age l a s t ing 15 K yran d comme n c in g at 230 Kyr bp ( A n dre ws 1983) . The end ofOIS 7b is dated by the single g r a i n 4 ( )A r / 3 9A r t e ch n iqu e a n dhas been applied to the Ariendorf 8 site in the east Eife lvolcanic f ie ld . The techn ique has da ted the Ht tenberg ( H )tephra to 215 4 Kyr bp ( V a n de n Bogaard cl < i l . 1989).

Thi s t e ph ra is f o u n d i n th e t r a n s i t i on b e twe e n a loess and apalaeosol indica t ing a t r ans i t ion f rom cool to t emperatecondit ions . Th e f u l l OIS 7 lasted f rom 242 - 194 Ky r a n df u r t h e r sub - s t ag es are indicated w h i c h mirror th e fivefoldpa t te rn in OIS 5 ( Ba ss in o t el til. 1994).A s s i gn i n g a r cha e o log i ca l si tes to these three sub-stages i sproving di f f i cu l t . Most sues ar e simply ' in te rg lacia l incha ra c t e r ' w i t h tloral an d f a u n a l remains very reminiscen t ofear l i e r travertine sites in Germany such as B i l / m g s l e b e n( M a n i a 1995) . B u t w h a t is s u rp r i s in g is t h a i f or su ch ani sotopica l ly ' w e a k ' in te rg lacia l ( S h ack l e t o n 1987) th e f a u n a land f loral evidence is e i t he r e qu iva l e n t to. or grea te r t h a n ,tempera tures and to le rances in both th e present and the lastin terg lac ia l w h i c h have a very ' s t rong ' isotopic s i gn a tu re .For example , a t the l akeside si te o f Neumar k - No r d i neas tern Germany th e vegetation w as d o mi na t ed by oa k .h a / e l , ho rn b e a m. y e w . l i me , box and ho l ly . Pond tortoise( / - . ' H I V s t > i ' h i f n l i i ri < > ) . regarded as a good i n d i ca to r of f u l li n t e rg l a c i a l con d i t ion s ( Ma ma ct I. 1990; Mania 1991 ). isa lso presen t w h i c h i s in reason w h y most Q u a t e r n a r ysc ien t i s t s would prefer to see t h i s su e as OIS 5e ( V a n d e n -berghe e t al . 1993) . B u t pond tortoise has a lso heen found ata n o the r OIS 7 locale . M a a s t r i c h t B e l v e d er e ( V a n K o l f s c h o te nand Roebroeks 1985) . I t i t s eggs are to ha t ch it requ ires amean J u l y t e mpe ra tu re of I 7 - I 8 C , combined w i th aco ns i d e r ab l e a m o u n t of s u n s h i n e w i t h f ew d a m p , cloudy orrainy days. These t e m p r a t u r e s a re i n exc es s ot t o d a y ' s( S t u a r t 1982) . The t r aser imes a t S t u t t g a r t - B a d Ca n n s t a l l( R e i f f l ' ) S ( i ) a l so con t a in t h i s l a x o n a long w i t h l eaves a n df r u i t s ol bo x (Him/-, \ < - / H / T H / - r ; i s ) an d o t h e r oa k m i x e dforest e l e m e n t s . These tree t a x a are also present in the l o w e rt r aver t ine at Ehr in gsdo r f ( S t e in e r and W a ge n b re th 1971 ).R e m a i n s of macaque monkeys (Maciicn sp.) , i n d i ca t i ve offorested con di t ions have been fo und in the oce a n i ci n t e rg l a c i a l s OIS 1 1 and OIS 9 in northern sites such asB i l / m g s l e b e n a n d S w a n s c o m b e . B u t t h i s spe c i e s i s alsofo und in the more co n t in e n t a l i n t e rg l a c i a l of O1S 7 a t H u n a s .a collapsed cave in B avaria , w here an upp er molar ofMacacti ct.fltm'niimi occu rs in leve ls abo ve a s t a l a g m i t et loor w i t h a Thorium/Uranium da te o f 2 6 0 K y r (Carls t - i ail l > 8 8 : Groiss < / w / . 1995) . Curran t (1989) l i s t s m a c a q u e i nE n g l i s h f a u n a s w h i ch m a y b e o f s imi l a r a ge to Hunas . ' 'H i g h resolution evidence from the Greenland Ice ("orep ro j e c t ( G R I P 1993) has enab led a de ta i l e d su b d i v i s i on ofthe 10 Kyr o f O1S 5e in the Summit ice-core, ( ' l u n a t e inGr een l and d u r i n g th e l a st in te rg lacia l w as characte r ised by aseries ol severe cold periods , w hi ch began extremely rap id lyan d lasted from decades to ce n tu r i e s . For its last 2 Ky r t heHemian was in te rrup ted by .1 series of osc i l l a t i on s a pp a re n t lyre f lec t ing r e ve r s a l s to a m i d - g l a c i a l l i k e c l i m a t e . I m p o r t a n t l y .Da n sga a rd ft til. ( 1993) suggest t h a t apart f rom th eH oloc ene . i n s t a b i l i t y h a s d o m i n a t e d t h e N o r t h A t l a n t i c


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8 TU K M ID D L L P A L A E O L ITH IC O C C UP ATIO N O F h U R O P hc l ima te over the last 2 3 ( ) , ( X K ) years, i.e. d u r i n g t he Midd l ePalaeo l i th ic .W h a t a ll t h i s t e l l s us is tha t in te rg lacia l c l imates f luctua tedw i t h rap id internal sh i f t s of tempera ture . These cha n ge shappened w i t h i n th e l i fe t ime of indiv idua ls . One event at theend of OIS 5 e l lasted only an estimated 70 years but saw theoxygen isotope va l u e s p l u n ge to m i d- g l a c i a l l e v el s ( G R I P1993: 206). Ho min ine adaptation to severa l m i l l e n n i a ofconstant cl imate, se a level and presumably p l a n t cover islooking less a n d less l i k e l y as a scenar io for the period 300-60 K yr bp .7Therefore the two f ac tors wh ich characterised M i d d l ePa laeol i th ic biotopes were resil ience and in s tabi l i ty . Someindication of the i r impact on Neanderthal societies can beseen in a north south transect provided by the papers in th isvolume. In the north. Roebroeks and Tuf f reau f or France andSvoboda for the C/ech R e pu b l i c r e con s t ru c t o ccu pa t ion asm a i n ly in te rstadia l or tempera te in character. M oreover w hatw as f avoured were th e mosaic conditions that increasedecological productivity. In the Czech R e p u b l i c t h i s w a sassisted by topographic d iversi ty as suggested e lsewhere inEurope and the U kra in e by Sof fe r (1989: 724, 1994)C on t in u in g th e transect to the south are the papers byJauber t an d Turq f or A qu i t a in e . He re Sof fer ' s model is we l lsupported by the densi ty of f ind spots. In t e re s t i n g ly th epreserved deposits come f rom caves, abns and avens. The i rsurv iva l emphasises that occupation took place in coolerconditions. The n u mb e r of in te rg lacia l occu pa t ions is verysmal l by compa r i son . In our opin ion th is emphasises th ere fuge s t a t u s of t h i s oceanic moderated corner of Europe .Th e t h i rd leg of the transect is Iber ia (Vega Toscano e t al.)and I t a l y ( M u s s i ) . Here th e biotopes also formed rfugia , f orplan ts and an imals , d u r i n g northern and Alp ine g la cia t ion s(Tzedakis 1993; Tzedakis an d Bennett 1995). In Iberia th erecovery of open sites as w e l l as caves and abris ispar t icu la r ly s t r ik ing w h e n compared to southern France .I n Italy, as M u s s i h as argued previously ( 1995 ) . th etopographic d iversi ty of the p e n i n s u l a encouraged resil iencein th e occupation of hom in in e popu l a t ion s by impos in g amosaic of poss ib i l i t i e s .7. Settlement patternsAt Arras th e reconstruction of biotopes raised, as expected,more ques t i o ns t ha n answ ers . We suspect tha t th is i s pa r t lydue to the l a ck of precision in reconstruct ions bu t a lso toth e concepts w hic h a rchaeologists b r ing to the a n a ly s i s ofhom i n i n e / e n v i r on m e n t i n t e ra c t ion . Th e domin a n t v i ew is verym u c h one of externa l se lect ion w here at best (and u s u a l l y notbefore th e U ppe r Pa la e o l i t h i c ) hom in in e s p l a y ed a gameaga inst the environm ent . This is most s t ron gl y seen in theattempts to analyse settlement patterns and landscape use interms of decisions based on reproduct ive success l i nked to

f eeding st ra teg ies (Be l l inger 1991) . Th e results strike us ascu r iou s ly data f ree since th e models f rom evolu t ionaryecology are so strong lha l lesling them w i t h th e t a p h o n o m i -ca l ly- r idd led samples o f prehistor ic hu n ters and ga th erersa lmost seems super f luous. Al te rna l ive ly , and M ussi ( i h i sv o l u m e ) takes one of these approaches to l ask , th e decisionsar e reduced lo such basic subsistence needs in order to addret a phon omic i s su e s ( S t i n e r 1994) t h a t of ten a l l w e seem tolearn is thai people a te . w h i ch is hardly very revealing abouth e ho min in e con d i t ion . E spe c i a l l y w he n , as Mu ss i po in t sout, th e choices by pioneer ing a rchaeologists about wha tbones to keep u n i n l e n l i o n a l l y produced a d i sma l pic lure ofNeandertha l d ie ta ry success f or Ih e archaeozoologis t s of ih e1990VRather than games-against -nalure w e w o u l d suggest achange in focus and view the environment in a m u t u a lre la l ionship to the h o m i n i n e s w e study . Such an approachs t ems f rom th e work of J.J. Gibson and in par t icu la r h is lastbook Th e ecological approach lo V I M I I I / pen-eplion (1979) .Ins tead of t rea t ing th e h o m i n i n e and Ihe e n v i r o n m e n t asseparale, Gibson asks us to a ckn ow le dge wha t ou r visua lsense tel ls u s; tha t the one does not e x i st w i t hou t th e other .Ins tead they ex is t in a mutua l re la t ionship act ing o n an dac l ing with each other. In perceptua l te rms th e an imallouches and is surrounded by i ts environ men t . We a re incon ta c t w i t h our environment because t h a t is how we see i t ,as occ l u sa l edges and su r f a ce s . Q u i t e s imp ly , ou ru n de rs t a n d in g of the world is based on w h a t w e see . w ha tw e c an become i n vo lve d w i t h . For example , Gibson is notinterested in the l a ws of p h y s i c s w h i c h tell us in goodcartesian fashion tha t mat le r eannol be deslroyed, on ly it sstate altered. An e x a m p l e is someone e a t i n g an apple . Inperceptua l te rms tha t app le ha s disappeared . What w as apers i s ten t su r f a ce h as van ishe d (Reed 1988: 285). We do noneed lo e xp l a in il s disappearance since il ha ppe n e d beforeou r eyes.Such e l is ion does not mean t h a i w e need to abandon th eques l for decision ru les ( M i t h e n 1990) but ra ther t ha t th ePa l a eo l il h i c h omin in e is no longer j us l p l a y i n g c a l c h - u p loadapl to a changing c l imate . Ra lher Ihey changed with r a t hethan because of such shi f t s . This ra lher di f fe ren t view ofecological processes also suggests t ha t th e percept ion ofe n v i ron me n t s by h o m i n i n e s w as probably more importantl h an the i r cog ni t ive apprecia l ion of i h cm. W h a l is appea l ingf or Palaeol i th ic a rchaeologists about th is approach is tha tperception is anolhcr of Ihose in te l lc c lua l anchors ( B i n f o r d1983) w h i c h a l l o w us to make strong inferences about th epast based on u n i fo r m i l a r i a n a ssu mp l ion s . Th e h o m i n i n emode of perception, as Gibson pointed out, is a mb u l a to ry .W e ar e bipeda l w i t h f o rwa rd f a c in g eyes and a head tha t casw ive l to cha n ge th e optical array. This i s how we see Ih ewor ld and how a l l Eu ropean ho min ines have seen Ihe w or ld


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( . I V I - : C A M B 1 . I ' A N D W i l . R O l i B R O K K S A POINT OF INFI .HCTONT o w a l k be tw een Ihe rock she l le rs l' th e Dordogne or aroundthe excava t ions of Ma a s t r i ch t -Be lvd re is to perceive anenvironment in the same way as any Middle Pa laeol i th ich o m i n i n e . As Reed puts it , observers have a path not a pointof view. Because these pa ths in te rsect th e e n v i ron me n t of onea n i m a l becomes th e environment of all an imals (Reed 1988:297) .Of course any landscape w i l l have changed, especia l lyover 250,000 years. But the process of direct percept ion ,whereby w e pick up the a f fordances, or use values , th el a n dsca pe possesses, has not . Direc t percept ion is on e ofGi bson ' s most importan t bu t controversial ideas. Basical lyh e argued t h a t th e i n f o rm a t io n con t a in e d in an a n ima l ' senvironment , be they either 'natural ' or ' cu l tu ra l ' i tems, doesnot need a prior m e n t a l model for t he i r meaning to bedecoded. W e do not need a m e n t a l p l a n to gu ide ou r actionsbecause percept ion is a process of ac t ion dete rmin ed by ourmobi l i ty . W e perceive th e wor ld as we go about our da i lyl ives of l i v in g in it . Therefore,"the structures and m e a n i n g s t h a t we f ind in the wor ld ar e alremlythere in l l ie in format ion that w e extract in the act of perception;their source lies in the objects we per ceive , they are not added onby the perceiver. Therefore pe rce iv in g is , ipso fact, k n o w i n g "( I n g o l d 1992: 46).B y contrast a cogni t ive approach to the past can make nosu ch u n i f o rm i t a r i a n a ssu mp t ion and is d i f f i c u l t to test( M i t h e n 1997) .In th e same w ay Ingold h as dra wn a t t e n t ion to thetaskscape where people a t tend to each other as they g o a b ou tt h e i r da i l y rou t i n e s ( In go ld 1993). Here th e e m p h a s i s is onsound, an aspect of perception not covered by Gibson.The sou n ds o f f l i n t kn a pp in g , ch i l d re n p l a y in g a n d a n ima l sc a l l i n g are al l par t of the aud ible r h y t h m s w h i c h es tab l i sh th etaskscape and w hic h resu l t f rom act ion and mov ement .Rolen 's discussion ( t h i s vo lu me ) o f M idd l e Pa l a e o l i t h i cset t l ement ev idenc e provides another example o f such m u t u a li nvo l vemen t between an organ ism and i ts environment .Rat h e r t h a n looking for del ibera te , planned structures thatmeet our cr i te r ia of a r c h i t e c t u r e or camp-sites he insteadproposes t ha t w h a t p a t t e r n i n g w e d o f ind in caves and opensites is best interpreted as centrifugal living structuren w h e r espat ia l pa t te rn in g resu l ted f rom mo ving m ater ia ls ou tw ards inth e context o f ca rry ing ou r tasks. H e concludes t ha t suchM i d d l e Pa laeo l i th ic s t ructures w ere never really f in ishedbecause they were never p lann ed . Ra th er they chang edcon t in u ou s ly due to repeated use and the mutu a l in te rp laybetween the i n d i v i du a l s a n d the ir environment . Th e pa t te rnsprovided t he i r ow n a f fordances f or subsequent act ion . In t h a iregard they are d i f f e re n t to the notion of primate nestscreated as i n d iv id u a l sleeping or resting places because thoseM i d d l e Palaeol i th ic act ions were social a s w e l l a s t e chn i c a l .

Th i s in tu rn suggests t h a t de sc r i p t ion s of N e a n de r t ha l s as' tool assisted h o m i n i d s ' ( B i n f o r d 1989) may be conceptua l lyl im i t i n g fo r our u n de rs t a n d in g of t he i r spa t ia l da t a . However ,th e in te rmed ia ry characte r o f these ce n t r i f u g a l l i v in gst ructures remains . They ha ve more comp l i ca t e d l i f e historiest h an a c h i m p ' s bed but yet do not carry tha t symbol ic senseof ' home ' , w i t h it s con n o ta t ion o f d w e l l i ng , t h a t d i s t i n g u i s h e sour use of p lace an d space from th e nest of a bird or the h iveof a bee ( I n g o l d 1992) .Beyond th e level of the site , ambulatory perception and them u t u a l e n v i r o n m e n t su gge s t s a model of s e t t l e me n t loca t ionand landscape u se w h i c h is l inked to an imal t racks andh o m i n i n e paths. Here for example is a route out of the debateconcerning th e occupat ion of i n t e rg l a c i a l forests, review edabove, as w e l l as a way round th e pi t f a l l of ' c ommon sense 'approac h es to Palaeol i th ic land use as discussed byRoebroeks an d Tuf f reau ( t h i s vo lu me ) . W he n th e debatebegan about the h a b i t a t to le rances o f archaic homin in e s( ( i a m b i c 1984) the model of landscape use was s t i l l on ebased on Ih e princip les o f s i te c a t c h m e n t a n a lys i s ( V i t a -F in z iand H i g g s 1970: Ba i l e y and Oavidson 1983) . Time andd i s l a n c e provided a pr ism (Car ls te in 1982) through w hic hpa l aeoc m i r o nmen t s around sites could be invest iga ted ,t yp i c a l l y as a sel of concentric resource /ones . W h i l e t h e s ee xp lo i t a t i on territories w e r e i n t e rn a l l y assessed in terms ofthe /.onation of food resources , the model necessarilystressed Ih e cent ra l f u n c t i o n s of s i te s ( h u t se e Sturdy 1975) .Thi s had the resu l t o f m ak ing the pa t te rn o f l a n d u se seeml i k e tha t of a g r i c u l t u r i s t s w i t h it s opt imising approach toc o n t i n u o u s parce ls o f l and .However , among foragers these m u t u a l e n v i ron m e n t s a renot sur face -a rea terri tories, as t r a d i t io n a l l y conceived, bu trather paths between locales (Ingold 1986: 152: Gamble1998). Tenure in such societies "is not of sur face -a rea , but ofsites and pa t hs w i t h i n a l andscape" ( I n go ld 1986: 153) .Leroi-Gourhan foreshadowed t h i s a rgu me n t in / , < ' geste e tla parole, ( f i r s t pu b l i she d i n 1966). w i th a discussionc om parab le to Gibson 's ambula tory percept ion ,"W e perceive th e surrounding world i n two w a y s , a dynamic on ewhereby we t ravel through space to take cognisance of it and us t a t i c one t h a t enables us . w h i le remai n i ng i mmobi le , t o r econs t i t u t ec i r c l es around ourselves extending to the l i m i t s o f t h e u n k n o w n . T h efirst offers an image of the world l i nked to an it inerary: the secondi n t eg r a t es the image w i t h i n t h e t wo opposing surfaces of sky andearth meet i ng at the horizon" (Leroi-Gourhan 1993: 325-6).As the result h e concluded t ha t , "the nomad hunter-gathererv i s u a l i s e d the surface of a territory by crossing it: the set t ledt a n n e r constructed th e wor ld in concentric ci rc les around agranary" (ihid.: 3 27 ) .From t h i s perspect ive th e occu pa t ion , or not. of the inter-g lacia l forests can be re -examined . Th e question h as less to


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10 TH E M ID D L E P A L A E O L ITH IC OCCUPATION OF E U R l i ' ldo w ith overa l l prey dens i ty , aggregat ion and mobi l i ty ,c r uc i a l to assessing how h o m m i n e s played the game ag a i ns it h e env i ronm en t ( J o c h im 1976 ) , t h a n w i t h t he f r e q u e n c y w i t hw h i c h their tracks crossed th e pa th s o f h o m i n i n e s .En vi ron me n ta l reconstructions do not need to s p e c i f yprecise ly th e type o f forest h u t r a t h e r th e l eng th o f ' th e pa t hand the affordances it encounters. As Roehroeks and Tuf f reau( t h i s v o l u m e ) c o n c l u de "these open corridors th roughforested areas must have acted as a k i n d of h i g h w a y f orPleistocene hu nter-g atherers". The rest of the forest re ma in su n v i s i t e d and u n i n h a b i t e d . Th e pa th is th e terr i tory ( B a h u c h e t1992) and w i l l be abandoned, l eng then ed, shortened orredirec ted depending on the f requenc y of" the t ra c ks w h ic hcross it . Ne i th e r does th e l ack of trees matter. Seeing a w i d e rv i s t a does not a f fec t the way mobile peoples move across alandscape. They stil l c ons t ruc t an i t inerary (Brody 1981)because of ambula tory percept ion . They w i l l a lw ays do soirrespec t ive of such c ogn it ive measures as p l a n n i n g depthand memory

The papers in th i s volume present abundant evidence tosupport a pa th ra ther than a ca tchment model . In p a r t i c u l a rthe overview provided by Fb lo t -A u gu s t i n s and the reg ion . i lsyntheses of Turq, Jauber t and Svoboda point to the p o te n t i a lw i t h their s tudies of raw mater ia l t rans fe rs . W h e n a l l i e d w i t hother seminal work by Genes te ( I 9 8 8 a . b) . Floss (1994) andRoebroeks et dl. ( 1988), we can m ove rap id ly aw ay fromsu ch ' common sense ' models of Pa laeol i th ic land use asc a t c h m en t a n a ly s is M u ss i ' s f i n a l c o m m e n t ( t h i s v o l u m e ) t h a tth e M iddle P a l aeo l i th i c h om in in es w e re m ore w o l f ' t h an ap ei n t h e i r use of shel ter is borne out by range s i /e sreconstructed f rom raw materia l t rans fer da ta (Gamble andSteele 1997). Wi t h i n such la rge ranges we now expec t wel l -t rodden h ig hw ays (Roebroeks and Tuf f reau . th i s v o l u m e ) .L ake ( pe rs . c o m m . 1994) h as used a c om pu te r baseds im u l a t io n approach to e x a m i n e h ow in format ion is ac qu i redand used in such habi ta ts . H is results emphasise th eimpor t a n ce o f ' t h e soc ia l context f or sh a r ing know ledge abou ti t ineraries constructed by i n d iv i du a l hom i n i n e s .At the Arras w orkshop the p roblem of M iddle Pa laeol i th ics e t t l e m e n t w as presented by Roebroeks as a d ic h o tom ybetw een w a lk in g s tom ac h s and t a l k i n g heads . In the formert he e mpha s i s i s on pro te ins , exp lo i t a t ion and l andsc apesf i l l e d w i t h resources. Wi t h th e lat ter th e ac c en t c h anges tome a n in g , r i tual landscapes and the g iv in g env i ronm en t (B i rd -Da vid 1991). W e bel ieve t ha t a move to path models a l l o w sus to c a p i t a l i s e on the m any exc e l l en t s tud ie s w h ic h h avefo cused u n t i l now on the w a l k i n g stomachs part of thedic h o tom y ( eg . Gaud / in sk i , t h i s v o l u m e ) . In pa r t i c u l a r t h i ss h i f t in e m p h a s i s al low s us to see the m u t u a l re la t ionsh ipbe tw een h o m i n i n e s an d t h e i r env i r o nmen t s as dis c us sedabove. We there f ore move from a car tes ian separa t ion of them i n d from the w orld to a more i n c lu s i v e v i e w o f h u m a n

action as in, of and w i t h the world ra ther than separate fromi t (Gamble 1998) . Th e prospect is for a more i n te re s t ing se lo f M i d d l e Palaeol i t h i c h o m i n i n e s t ha n w e prev ious ly h avefrom our detailed reconstructions.8. The M i d d l e Palaeo l i th ic a n d t h e qual i t i es of

primeness and protect ionWe now i l lus t ra te th i s approac h w i t h tw o q u a l i t i e s w h i c h ,from our reading of ' these papers, charac terise the MiddlePalaeol i th ic . These are priiiit'iii'ss and pmteciinn. S u c hq u a l i t i e s are expressed t h r o u g h s k i l l s w h ic h l eave res idues .B ut first w e have to be reminded about ou r scales of a n a l y sand resolut ion .At Arras w e discussed how t o make use of the dif ferentchronologica l envelopes in w h i c h ou r data comes . F orexample , in the Late Middle Palaeol i t h i c of Iberia (VegaToscano e l al., t h i s vo lu me ) . A q u i t a i n e and I ta ly there areco mp ar a t i ve l y f ew wel l -preserved ac t iv i t i es w h i c h can bemeasured in the m i n u t e s it took to p e r fo r m them. Instead it the northern region in our transect w hic h due to sedimenta-tion in open sites preserves such f ine -gra ined , prec ise ly t imeevents; f or e x a m p l e f l i n t k n a p p i n g at W al le r th e im (Cona rdand Adler 1997) and Maas tr ich t-Belvdre (Roehroeks andTu f f r e a u , I h i s v o l u m e ) or aurochs butchery a t N e u ma rk -N or( M a n i a c t (il. 1990). Th e l i n k be tw een th e data wh ich tookm i n u t e s and the eviden ce w hic h represents an accumulatedt hou sa n d years is provided by the scatters. A s Svoboda ( t h i sv o l u m e ) po in t s ou t those travertine sites of Centra l andeastern Europe ar e very use fu l f or m aking th e bridge w i t h i n asingle deposi tiona l en vironmen t . Such variation between regioi n Europe has to be borne in m i n d w h e n assessing h o m i n i nc a pa b i l i t i e s j u s t as the di f fe ren t env i r o nmen t a l se lec t ionpressures opera t ing between th e regions of Palaeol i th icEurope (see above) resulted in di f fe ren t adapta t ions .B ut w h a t h av e w e lea rn t from these varied samples aboutM i d d l e Palaeol i th ic capabi l i t ies , w h a t w e prefer to ca l l s k i l lra ther than adapt ive strategies? S k i l l s have to be lea rn t an dpractised. They provide indiv id ua l s w i th a means of creatingan iden t i ty t h rough pe r fo rm anc e and repe t i t ion . F or presentpurposes w e d i s t i n g u i s h tw o s k i l l s , generic, or t r ans f e rab le ,and specific w h i c h are re levant to this discussion.Generic s k i l l s can be employed in very di f ferente n v i r on m e n t a l set t ings . E x a m p l e s w o u l d i n c l u d e search ingfor food, co-operating in its acq uisiti on and sha rin g theresults . The m a n u f a c t u r e and use of stone tools wa sem bedded in suc h g ene r ic ski l ls in the form of a soc ia lt e c h no logy (Gam ble , in press ) . Creat ing an d f o l l o w i n g p a t hi n th e l a n d s c a p e w o u l d be ano th e r s k i l l t h a t w as d e p e n d e n tupon know ledge and the t ransmiss ion of in fo rmation v iasoc ia l networks . Var ia t ion in sca le is expected but as weha ve seen ( Fb lot-Au gu s t ins ; Svoboda, th i s vo l um e) c an a l sbe e x p l a i n e d in terms o f ecology.


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1 1 l I l\ I C1AMBI .K AN D W I I . R O E B R O K K S A POINT OF IN H .H C TIO NB y contrast , spe c i f i c s k i l l s arc histor ica l ly developed a tpa r t i c u l a r places and in dis t inc t ive con te x t s . These are w a y sof ' do in g t h in g s w h i ch ar e very local in pe r fo rm anc e ,ap p l i c a t i o n and t ransmission . Such speci f ic sk i l l s may becrea ted many t imes in di f f e ren t places; th e M i d d l ePalaeo l i th ic blades , discussed above, w o u l d be one such

example . These speci f ic sk i l l s are w h a t makes th ee thn og ra ph i c record such a c u l t u r a l kaleidoscope or theworld o f the last g l a c i a l ma x imu m so po ly phon ou s ( G a mb leand Sof fe r 1990) . Th e papers in th is volume ident i fy speci f ics k i l l s in the La te Midd l e P a l a e o l i t h i c of Hurope, p a r t i c u l a r l yin th e discussion of se t t lement by Jaubert . Vega Toscanocl til. an d M u s s i . Spe c i f i c ski l ls , but employing di f fe ren tfo rms of per formance and t ransmission , a re a fea ture o f theUpper Pa laeol i th ic . They are less apparent in the EarlyM i d d l e Palaeol i th ic (Roebroeks and T uf f r eau . th is volume)an d apparen t ly absent in the L o w e r Palaeol i th ic , w h e r e at ransec t over a huge ecologica l gradien t f rom Olduva i toS w a n s c o m b e reveals very l i t t le tha t can be c lassi f ied in t h i sw a y ( G a m b l e 1997) .Th e papers in t h i s vo l u me a l l ow us to elaborate on theseskil ls . Firstly, there is a q u a l i t y in the Middle Pa laeol i th ic ofpr im enes s w hic h expresses aspects o f the generic s k i l l swhich t he se homin in e s t rans fer red w i t h i n Europe . Primenesscan be seen i n th e c h o i c e an d selection of a n i m a l s and rawmater ia l s ; an apprecia t ion o f resources t ha i now involvesrepeated methods of a cqu i s i t i on ( G a u d / i n s k i . t h i s volume)an d dis t r ibu t ion (Feb l o t - Aug us t i n s . t h i s vo l u me ) t h rou ghou tth e cont inen t . These data al low us to recognise such gener ics k i l l s . They make it possible to infer the q u a l i t y of pr imenessw h i c h is the a f fordance . or use va lue , of the homin in e s 'env i r o nmen t w hic h they direct ly perce ived . W e would a lsocite the l i n k between Leva l lo is and the t ranspor t of toolsa r o und th e l a n dsca pe as a n o the r e xa mp le of a generic s k i l lwhere primeness is being stressed. In his s t u dy of rawmaterials in A qu i t a in e , Geneste (1989: S3 ) shows t ha t th emost mobi le e lements o f any mo us t e r i an technology , asjudged by the use of d i s t a n t raw mater ia ls , involve Leva l lo ise lements . Whi le the wider importance o f Leva l lo is has of tenbeen seen as i n d i ca t i ve of l i n gu i s t i c c a pa b i l i t i e s , based ona s s u m p t i o n s abou t the pre -p lanned in ten t ions o f the knapp ers( N ob le and Davidson 1996: 20 0 -1 ) , it now seems moref r u i t f u l to e x a m i n e th e t e c h n i q u e in te rms of t h e s k i l l si n d i v i du a l s learnt as they trod their ha b i t u a l pa ths . The l i n kb e twe e n t e chn o logy and resources is wel l made . Th e cho i ceo f p r ime aged an i ma l s , of ten t aken in large numbers or onmany occasions i s w e l l made by G a u d / i n s k i ( t h i s v o l u m e )and i l lust ra ted by J aube r t ' s discussion o f loca les such asL a Borde w h e r e 93% of the bones are a u rochs w i t h an M N Iof 40. The age prof i le p oin ts to a selection of p r ime ageda n i m a l s b e twe e n 2 to 6 years old. Primeness cou ld fu r ther beby se \ and cond i t ion .

Protection is the other qua l i ty w e identi fy. It is t ho rou gh lye x a m i n e d by Mussi who contrasts concepts o f home andmobi l i ty now tethered to the needs of the Neanderthals'y o u n g . Such speci f ic s k i l l s a l l i ed to locales di f fe ren t i a ted th elocal regions created by homin in e s as they trod their pathsWhi le these p laces remain undec ora ted . some of t h e m weremarked in distinc tive w ays. In the Late Mid dle Palaeol ithict he c rea t ion of place and the em bodim en t of th is qua l i ty canbe t r a ce d t h rou gh th e buria ls . In con t r a s t to the U p p e rP a l a e o l i t h i c the burials of the Late Middle Palaeolithic are al lfo und in caves and abris. No open air graves w i t h e l a b o ra t es t ruc tures and grave goods h a v e ye t been f o u n d before3 0 K yr bp and none w i th Middl e Pa la eol i th ic associa tions.The lack of overt symbolling is a d i s t i n c t i v e fea ture of theMiddle Pa laeol i th ic . What symbols ex isted w e r e embodiedra ther t ha n e x t e rn a l i se d . Th i s p a t t e rn r e f l e c t s th e i m p o r t a n c eto M idd le Pa l a e o li t h i c homin in e s of in t imate and e f fect ivene tw orks wh ere the resources u sed to crea te and reproducesuch societies a re e m o t i o n a l an i l ma te r ia l ra ther thansymbol ic (Gamble 1998) . Ho w ever , as they w e r e a lmos tce r t a i n l y e qu ipp e d w i t h l a n gu a ge to express an d crea tethese i n t i m a t e and e f f e c t i ve n e t w o r k s , w e mu st expec th i g h l y va r i e d pe r son a l h i s to r i e s a n d ide n t i t y a mon g th estones, bones a n d a ppa re n t l y l imi t e d s p a t i a l pa t t e rn in gw h i c h w e i n ve s t i g a t e . Ju s t b e ca u se t he re are no h u t s , art ort r ip le bur ia ls does nol mean tha t they w e r e w i t h o u t a socia ll i f e or t ha t i t was not complex . Protect ion is merely asu mma ry o f t h e s k i l l s w h i c h w e need to be reminded abo u tand w h i c h w e need to devise w a y s of i n v e s t i g a t i n g . O nesu ch e xa mp le is provided by R o l e n ' s model ( t h i s vo lu me )o f ' c e n t r i f u g a l l i v in g s t ru c tu re s w h i c h j u d g e s t h e e v i d e n c eon i t s ow n te r ms ra th er than imp osing a set o f cr i te r iaw h i c h , a s w e poin ted out at the b e g i n n i n g of t h i sin t roduct ion , make the Middle Pa l aeol i th i c noth ing more thana y a rds t i ck f or m e a s u r i n g th e a r r i v a l an d sophistication ofmode rn hu ma n s .On the contra ry , these speci f ic sk i l l s may w e l l po in t to anin te rna l d y n a m i s m in t he M idd l e Pa l a e o l i t h i c t ha t is c u r r e n t lyonly accorded to the Upper Pa laeol i th ic . This is ref lected inthe historical development of these societies, not necessar i lyf rom ou t s ide i n f l u e n c e s and c on t a c t s , .is suggested f or Arcy-sur-Cure ( H u b l i n cl til. 1996) a l t h o u g h th e s e w e r eu n dou b te d ly i mp o r t an t , but from within a s Ko l e n su gge s t s .As Fari/y noted at t h i s i m por t a n t site there are majord i f f e r e n c e s between th e m o u s t e r i a n a n d ch t e l p e r r o n i anlevels ."The changes seem to re la i e rallier to .1 di l ' l e rent q u a l i t y of l i t e ,i n w i n c h th e i mmedi a t e su r round i ngs of t he h u m a n g r ou p s t h eh a b i t a t i o n / o n e w as perceived in a t o t a l l y di f ferent way.Analogous c ha n g e s can h e seen i n the charac ter o f the l i t h i ci n d us t r i e s , i n w i n c h th e f o r m s of th e tools appear to have a n e w .e x c l u s i v e s i g n i f i c a n c e " ( l - . i n / v IWO: 325).


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12 TH K M ID D L E P A L A E O L ITH IC O C C U P A TIO N ( ) ! l i U R O I ' LHer lead in recognis ing the Middle Pa laeol i th ic as a point ofinf lection in hominine preh is tory now needs to he pursued.W h e r e t h i s i n f l e c t io n l u l l s , at the beginning of the lateMidd le Palaeol i th ic ra ther than a t the Middle /UpperPalaeol i th ic t rans i t ion , or even th e fuzzy boundary of theL ow er /M idd le P a l aeo l it h i c , is not so i m p o r t a n t as re c ogn i s ingth e task we are now setting ourselves to i nves t i ga te th eMiddle Palaeolithic on i ts own terms. Trini tar ianism, t h i n k i n gi n th rees , w i l l still serve u s w e l l in p u r s u i n g fresh ques t ionswi th Palaeo l i th ic data .

notes1 The Arras meet ing ( 18 - 2 0 N ov em b er 1994) w as hosted by A l a i nTuffreau, assisted by Agnes Lamotte and Jean-Luc Marcy. A postconference excurs ion vis i ted th e p a l aeo l i t h i c si tes at ( ' a gn y an dAbbevil le , w h i l e Tut't'reau and his col leagues enabled th e p ar t i c i p an t sto s tudy the excavated mater ial from Biache-Saint -Vaast , Cagny,Secl in and Riencour t - les-Bapaume. Par t icipants were, in alphabet icalorder: G. Bosinski , V . Cabrera-Valdes. J. Pblot -August ins , C.S. Gamble,R.D. Guthr ie, J . J auber t , M. Lake , L . Larsson. M . M u s s i , N. Pras lov,L . Raposo, W . Roebroeks, M . Santonja, M . Sparreboom (ESF) ,J. Svoboda, A. Tuffreau, A. Turq, and G. Vega Toscano. ( I nv i t ed , bu tunab le to attend: G. Bai ley, M . Cremaschi , C. Farizy, S . M i t h e n ) .2 His chang e of min d probably also ow e d m u c h to th e w or k IVictor Commont in the Somme w ho is h e a v i l y ci ted in bothedi t ions.3 B y contrast , McBurney ' s ( 1950) geographical paper f inds theM i d d l e Palaeol i thic uncontrovers ial .

4 In a paper w r i t ten for the D arw in i an centen nia l Bordes r evea l sI n s f u l l t r i n i l a n a n credent i a l s i nher i t ed direc t ly f rom Lubbock, "Caw e d is t in gu ish any par t i cu l ar d i r ec t ion or t endenc ies in the generaevolution o f p reh i s tor i c cu l t ur es ? I bel ieve so. It seems possible todi s t i ng u i s h three great cycles w h i c h developed in pa r a l l e lf a sh i o n . . . t h e Low e r and M i d d l e Palaeoli th ic . . . the Upper Pa laeo l i thMes ol i t h i c . . . t h e Neol i t h i c" (1959: 109).5 Bos inski (1982 : 165) divided the Mi ddle Palaeol i thic as fol lowsEar ly Middle Palaeol i thic of the R I S S ( S aa le ) . Mi ddle Mi dd leI ' . i l . i c o l i t h i c of the Riss /Wurm ( E em ) , Lat e M i d d l e Pa laeo l i th i c ofth e Wiirrn (W eichse l ) . The Saale complex is now recognised asmore t h a n | u s t t he pen u l t ima te ( R i s s ) g l ac i a t ion an d comprises O I8, 7 and 6.6 M acaques ar e i n t e r es t i ng because af ter h o t n i n i n e s they are themost s ucces s f u l colon i s ing p r ima te . Thei r app ear ance across a w i drange o f lat i tudes contras ts m a r k e d l y w i t h o t h e r t r o p i c a l l y basedprimates in both the New and Old Worlds . It is very possible t h a tt h e i r social t emperam ent h as m u c h to do w i t h t h i s expan s io n an d such t hey m ay serve as a better a n a l o g u e f or ea r l y h u m an s oc ie t i ethan previous ly bel ieved ( Y . M a r s h a l l pers . comm.) .7 It needs s t ress ing tha t such shor t - term o sc i l l a t io n s h a v e no t beereported from terrestrial records Indeed, subsquent research ofc l i mat e f l u c tua t io n s and other r ecords account s f or th e di s cr epancybetween th e terrestrial and ice core records through th e m o v e m e nth e warm Norweg ian cu r ren t d u r i n g th e K c m i a n , poss ib ly causedth e i n p u t of large amounts of fresh water from th e North Paci fic .Th i s created cold w ater masses near Greenlan d and so a f f ec t ed th eo x y g e n i sotope com pos i t ion of th e source region f or p rec ip i t a t ionth e S u m m i t area (Lar s cn et al. 1995; Johnson e l al . 1995). B u i t heosci l lat ions h ad little effect on the cl imate of the European mainla( L i t t e / ai 1996).


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i ; CLIVE GAMBLE AND WIL R O E B R O E K S -A POINT OF INFLECTION

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Roebroeks & Gamble (1999) - THE MIDDLE PALAEOLITHIC OCCUPATION OF EUROPE