Review of the Literature on Community-Based Instruction ...daddcec.org/Portals/0/CEC/Autism_Disabilities/Research/Publications/... · Review of the Literature on Community-Based Instruction

Review of the Literature on Community-BasedInstruction across Grade Levels

Allison R. WalkerTemple University

Nicole M. UpholdIllinois State University

Sharon RichterAppalachian State University

David W. TestThe University of North Carolina at Charlotte

Abstract: As community-based instruction has been recognized as a variable leading to postschool success for allstudents with disabilities, early transition planning has become vital in students’ preparation for adulthood.Based upon the need and importance of students receiving community-based instruction, this literature reviewexamined 23 transition intervention studies to identify vocational, community, daily living, and recreationskills taught across grade levels using CBI. The majority of studies included in the review showed positive resultsfor all participants while more than half of the studies were conducted at the high school level. In addition,findings indicated mixed generalization and maintenance results. These findings suggest the need forpractitioners to use evidence-based strategies in the community across grade levels.

Adult outcomes for students with disabilitiesare dismal (Blackorby & Wagner, 1996; Gay-lord & Hayden, 1998; Wagner & Blackorby,1996). Findings from the original NationalLongitudinal Transition Study (NLTS) sug-gest that adults with disabilities are employedat lower rates than those without disabilities(Blackorby & Wagner; Wagner & Blackorby).Although the employment rate of youth withdisabilities increased by 2003, youth were notanymore likely to be competitively employed(Wagner, Newman, Cameto, & Levine, 2005).

The NLTS data also show that youth withdisabilities do not live independently in thecommunity after high school (Brown, 2000;Gaylord & Hayden, 1998). Only one in eightyouth with disabilities lived independently twoyears after leaving high school and changes inliving arrangements did not occur between1987 and 2003 (Wagner et al., 2005). Studentswith disabilities are also not adjusting to thecommunity once they leave high school (Sam-ple, 1998). For example, only 25% of youth

with disabilities belonged to a communitygroup after high school (Wagner et al.).These findings indicate that there is still aneed to better prepare youth with disabilitiesto successfully transition from school to adult-hood.

Numerous studies have been conducted todetermine the variables that lead to betterpostschool outcomes for students with disabil-ities (e.g., Baer et al., 2003; Heal & Rusch,1995; Kohler, 1993; Phelps & Hanley-Maxwell,1997; Rabren, Dunn, & Chambers, 2002;Repetto, Webb, Garvan, & Washington, 2002;Sample, 1998). Variables that have been con-sistently identified as contributing to success-ful outcomes for students include paid workexperience while in school (Sample), employ-ment support from Vocational Rehabilitationand/or Mental Health/Mental Retardation attime of graduation (Rabren et al.), inter-agency collaboration (Kohler; Sample), workstudy participation, vocational education, andregular academics (Baer et al.) and commu-nity-based instruction (CBI; Repetto et al.).For example, Repetto et al. found that inter-agency characteristics, transition programs,services, and supports were positively corre-lated with increased numbers of students inpost-secondary education in 1997. Results in-

Correspondence concerning this article shouldbe addressed to Allison Walker, Temple University,Curriculum, Instruction and Technology in Educa-tion, Ritter Hall 362, 1301 Cecil B. Moore Avenue,Philadelphia, PA 19122.

Education and Training in Autism and Developmental Disabilities, 2010, 45(2), 242–267© Division on Autism and Developmental Disabilities

242 / Education and Training in Autism and Developmental Disabilities-June 2010

dicated that in 1997, 85% of school districtsincluded community training as part of theirtransition program and 90% of these districtsincluded life skills instruction. These resultsindicated that these experiences lead studentsto learn valuable knowledge and gain neces-sary supports to be successful after highschool.

CBI, also referred to as community-refer-enced instruction or life skills instruction, is aform of instruction in which the communityserves as the classroom (Kluth, 2000). Thepurpose of CBI is to teach students functionalskills in natural environments (Hamill, 2002).That is, instruction occurs in settings that arepractical and facilitate meaningful experi-ences so that students can practice skills inplaces they would most likely use them(Kluth). Some skills that have been taughtusing CBI include purchasing, pedestriansafety, riding a bus, and community socialskills (Beakley & Yoder, 1998; Burcroff, Ra-dogna, & Wright, 2003; Kluth). For example,students might be taught how to make pur-chases at a department store and restaurant.Further, students could learn pedestriansafety by crossing streets in their neighbor-hood or navigating the parking lot at a localmall. Students could also learn to read a busschedule and develop appropriate social skillsfor riding the bus. Providing instruction in thecommunity prepares students for life afterhigh school, promotes students’ ability tofunction independently, and enhances theirquality of life (Hamill).

As CBI has become a valuable componentof transition programs, early transition plan-ning (Agran, Snow, & Swaner, 1999; Cum-mings, Maddox, & Casey, 2000; deFur, 2003;Neubert, 2003; Sitlington, Frank, & Carson,1992) has been identified in the literature asan emerging variable leading to successfuloutcomes for students with disabilities. deFurstated that educational decisions made abouta student with a disability will impact his/herpostschool life. Decisions made in elementaryschool will affect programming in middleschool, which, in turn, affect decisions abouthigh school courses (deFur). Each subsequentdecision is impacted by previous educationalplanning decisions.

Brolin and Gysbers (1989) also indicatedthat early transition planning is essential for

all students with disabilities. Brolin and Gys-bers also consider career development, theprocess by which students become aware ofthe different careers available to them, to be amajor part of transition planning that shouldbegin as early as elementary school. As stu-dents move through their education, they be-come increasingly prepared for adulthood byexploring careers and building occupationalcompetencies that prepare them for the worldof work. Because successful adult outcomesfor students with disabilities depend on schoolprogramming, it is important that all deci-sions made about a student’s course of studyfocus on the transition from school to adultlife (Kohler, 1993). Since community-basedinstruction is one variable that leads to suc-cessful postschool outcomes (Fabian, Lent, &Willis, 1998), it stands to reason that it mightbe important for students to receive this typeof instruction at all levels of their education.Therefore, the purpose of this article is toreview the transition intervention literature toidentify the vocational, community, daily liv-ing, and recreation skills that have beentaught using CBI to students with disabilitiesacross grade levels.

Method

A comprehensive review of the literature wasconducted on interventions that taught func-tional life skills to students in the communitysince 1990, the year Individuals with Disabili-ties Education Act (1990) first stated thatwhen students reach age 16 they must havetransition services included on their Individu-alized Education Plans (IEP) to 2007. Usingthis start date, an electronic database searchusing Educational Resources InformationCenter (ERIC), MasterFILE Premier, and Ac-ademic Search Premier was conducted. First,search terms included full and truncatedforms of community based instruction, community,disability, vocational, daily living, community liv-ing, community participation, transportation, mo-bility, orientation, street crossing, pedestrian traffic,safety, grocery, shopping, math, budget, saving, ac-count, banking, ATM, money, laundry, cleaning,restroom, recreation, leisure, play, sport, movie, club,social skill, functional, academic, residential, home,emergency, hygiene, self-care, bath, health, mealpreparation, cooking, and dining. Second, the

Review of Community-Based Instruction / 243

reference lists of the articles included in thisreview were analyzed to determine additionalarticles. Third, Morse and Schuster’s (2000)literature review of grocery shopping skills,Lancioni and O’Reilly’s (2002) review of foodpreparation skills, and Xin, Grasso, Dipipi-Hoy, and Jitendra’s (2005) review of purchas-ing skills were analyzed. Fourth, authors alsoreviewed the literature map of transition re-search articles developed by Alwell and Cobb(2006). Finally, the first three authors con-ducted a hand search of the following jour-nals, Education and Training in DevelopmentalDisabilities, Career Development for Exceptional In-dividuals, Journal of Vocational Special Needs Ed-ucation, Journal of the Association for Persons withSevere Handicaps/Research and Practice for Per-sons with Severe Disabilities, Exceptional Children,Focus on Autism and Other Developmental Disabil-ities, Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, Journalof Positive Behavior Interventions, Behavior Disor-ders, and American Journal on Mental Retarda-tion.

Inclusion/Exclusion Criteria

Articles included in the review: (a) were pub-lished in a peer reviewed journal from theUnited States; (b) were published after 1990;(c) reported quantitative results; (d) includedparticipants who were students in elementaryschool, middle school, high school, or an18-21 program; (e) included students who re-ceived instruction during school at a commu-nity setting, including articles that taught skillsat both school and the community; and (f)described studies that aimed to teach a func-tional skill in one of four domain areas, in-cluding vocational (e.g., work skills), daily liv-ing (e.g., grocery shopping), community (e.g.,eating at a restaurant), and recreation (e.g.,participating on a basketball team).

Each study was analyzed to determine thetype of skill being taught in the communityand the corresponding domain. For example,eating at McDonald’s was categorized as dailyliving if the skill being taught was purchasing(e.g., money handling skills) or community ifthe skill being taught was using a fast foodrestaurant (e.g., entering store, orderingfood, eating food). Since not all articles in-cluded both a grade level and age for partici-pants, grade levels were defined as follows: (a)

elementary school, including kindergartenthrough sixth grade (i.e., ages 5-11), (b) mid-dle school, including seventh and eighthgrades (i.e., ages 12-14), and (c) high school,including ninth through twelfth grades (i.e.,ages 15-21).

We excluded articles that examined the re-lationship between leisure/recreation skillsand personal skills, promoting achievement,or reducing inappropriate behaviors sincethese studies were not designed to directlyteach a leisure/recreation skill (e.g., youthdevelopment programs; Keller, Bost, Lock, &Marcenko, 2005). Studies were also excludedfrom this review if the instruction took placein the classroom and only generalizationprobes occurred in the community (e.g., Fred-erick-Dugan, Test, & Varn, 1991; Hutcherson,Langone, Ayres, & Clees, 2004).

Analysis of Literature

Twenty-three articles met the search criteria.The first two authors agreed on the inclusionof 95.8% of the articles based on the inclusioncriteria. Review forms were completed foreach article and included the following infor-mation: (a) authors and date; (b) purpose; (c)participant demographic information includ-ing grade, age, and disability; (d) setting; (e)domain and skill; (f) research design; (g) de-pendent and independent variables; and (h)results. Interrater reliability was conducted bythe first three authors for 20% of the articleson information included on these forms. Re-liability was established by adding the totalnumber of agreements and dividing this sumby the total number of possible responses.Disagreements in reliability were addressed bythe third author who reviewed the article inquestion to gain consensus on information onthe review forms among all authors. Reliabilityranged from 86.7% to 100%, with a mean of95.6%.

Results

Twenty-three studies met the inclusion crite-ria. Six (26.1%) studies were at the elementaryschool level, eight (34.8%) at middle school,and fourteen (60.1%) at high school (studiesmay have included more than one gradelevel). The domains included 10 (43.5%)


studies dealing with daily living skills, 8(34.8%) related to community skills, 4(17.4%) studies dealing with vocational skills,and 2 (8.7%) related to recreation skills[Rynders, Schleien, & Mustonen (1990) in-cluded two domains: vocational and recre-ation] (see Table 1).

The studies included 161 participants withages ranging from 5 to 21. Individuals in thestudies had a variety of disabilities, includingmental retardation (n � 20, 87.0%), autism(n � 4, 17.4%), multiple disabilities (n � 2,8.7%), orthopedic disability (n � 1, 4.3%),behavior and emotional disability (n � 1,4.3%), and traumatic brain injury (n � 1,4.3%).

Setting

The majority of studies taught skills at a com-munity site only (n � 15, 65.2%). However, afew of the studies included simulation in theclassroom either as a comparison to CBI (n �4, 17.4%) or before teaching the skill in thecommunity (n � 7, 30.4%). Alberto, Cihak,and Gama (2005) used video modeling andpicture prompts in the classroom before CBI.In Bates, Cuvo, Miner, and Korabek (2001)one group received community-based trainingonly to teach grocery shopping skills, whilethe other group received community-basedtraining after simulated instruction. Branham,Collins, Schuster, and Kleinert (1999) usedthree techniques to teach daily living skills, (a)classroom simulation plus CBI, (b) videotapemodeling plus CBI, or (c) videotape modelingplus classroom simulation plus CBI. Cihak,Alberto, Taber-Doughty, and Gama (2006)used static pictures and video prompting inthe classroom before instructing students inthe community.

Cihak, Alberto, Kessler, and Taber (2004)used four techniques to teach vocational skillsincluding (a) simulation only, (b) CBI, (c)simulation and CBI on consecutive days, and(d) simulation and CBI on the same day. Stu-dents were taught using all techniques overfour skills. Collins, Stinson, and Land (1993)compared classroom simulation plus CBI withCBI only. For classroom simulation activities,the teacher used materials similar to thosefound in the community. Cuvo and Klatt(1992) used three instructional methods,

flash cards in school setting, videotaped re-cordings in school setting, and naturally oc-curring signs in community to teach commu-nity-referenced sight words; all studentsreceived instruction with all three methods.Domaracki and Lyon (1992) taught studentsjanitorial and housekeeping skills in a simu-lated setting (i.e., special education facility)before teaching in a community setting. Next,Haring, Breen, Weiner, Kennedy, and Bed-nersh (1995) gave students videotaped train-ing on how to purchase items either before,after, or during in vivo training at differenttypes of stores in the community. Pattavina,Bergstrom, Marchand-Martella, and Martella(1992) used photos of streets to teach streetcrossing in the classroom before CBI to en-sure safety. Finally, Taber, Alberto, Hughes,and Seltzer (2002) taught students how to callfor assistance in the classroom before movinginstruction into the community.

Most studies were conducted at more thanone location (n � 15, 65.2%). The settingsincluded 10 studies (43.5%) at grocery stores(Alberto et al., 2005; Cihak et al., 2006; Bateset al., 2001; Berg et al., 1995; Cihak et al.,2004; Ferguson & McDonnell, 1991; Haring etal., 1995; Morse & Schuster, 2000; Taber et al.,2002; Taber, Alberto, Seltzer, & Hughes,2003), 4 studies (17.4%) on public streets(Branham et al., 1999; Collins et al., 1993;Pattavina et al., 1992; Taber et al., 2003), 3studies (13.0%) at department stores (Taberet al., 2002; Taber et al., 2003; Westling, Floyd,& Carr, 1990), 3 studies (13.0%) at shoppingmalls/centers (Berg, et al.; Cuvo & Klatt,1992; Taber et al., 2003), 2 studies (8.7%) atrestaurants (Bates et al.; Berg et al.), 2 studies(8.7%) at convenience stores (Haring et al.;Westling et al., 1990), 2 (8.7%) at bowlingalleys (Schloss et al., 1995; Vandercook, 1991),2 studies (8.7%) at home (Hall, Schuster, Wol-ery, Gast, & Doyle, 1992; Murzynski & Bourret,2006). One study each (4.3%) was conductedat each of the following settings: a (a) pool(Schloss et al.), (b) laundromat (Bates et al.),(c) on hiking and biking trails (Schloss et al.),(d) library (Taber et al., 2002), (e) publicrestroom (Bates et al.), (f) post office (Bran-ham et al.), (g) bank (Branham et al.), (h)hotel (Domaracki & Lyon, 1992), (i) camp(Rynders et al., 1990), (j) jobsite (i.e., foodpreparation facility; Davis, Brady, Williams, &


TA

BL

E1

Stud

yC

hara

cter

isti

cs

Ref

eren

ce(D

omai

n)P

urpo

seP

arti

cipa

nts

Sett

ing

Des

ign

Skill

(DV

)IV

Res

ults

Alb

erto

,C

ihak

,&

Gam

a(2

005)

(Com

mun

ity)

To

com

pare

the

effe

ctiv

enes

sof

clas

sroo

msi

mul

atio

nst

rate

gies

inco

mbi

nat

ion

wit

hin

vivo

inst

ruct

ion

.

8pa

rtic

ipan

ts;

Mid

dle

sch

ool;

Age

s:11

-15;

Mod

erat

eco

gnit

ive

disa

bilit

ies

Sch

ool

reso

urce

clas

sroo

man

da

loca

lgr

ocer

yst

ore

Alt

ern

atin

gtr

eatm

ents

desi

gn

Use

ofa

debi

tca

rdto

wit

hdr

aw$2

0U

seof

ade

bit

card

topu

rch

ase

two

item

s(P

erce

nt

ofco

rrec

tre

spon

ses,

num

ber

ofer

rors

,an

dn

umbe

rof

sess

ion

sto

acqu

isit

ion

)

Stat

icpi

ctur

epr

ompt

san

dvi

deo

mod

elin

g

All

stud

ents

acqu

ired

and

mai

nta

ined

skill

sn

eces

sary

tous

ea

debi

tca

rdto

(a)

wit

hdr

aw$2

0an

d(b

)pu

rch

ase

two

item

s.St

uden

tsm

ade

few

erer

rors

and

atta

ined

mas

tery

infe

wer

inst

ruct

ion

alse

ssio

ns

wh

enst

atic

pict

ures

wer

eus

edin

sim

ulat

edin

stru

ctio

nra

ther

than

vide

om

odel

ing.

Seve

nof

eigh

tex

hib

ited

the

sam

esu

cces

sw

ith

stat

icpi

ctur

epr

ompt

san

dvi

deo

mod

elin

g;h

owev

er,

one

stud

ent

was

mor

esu

cces

sful

wit

hst

atic

pict

ure

prom

pts.

Ove

rall,

com

bin

edw

ith

CB

I,st

uden

tsw

ere

mor

esu

cces

sful

wit

h(a

)st

atic

pict

ure

prom

pts

over

(b)

vide

om

odel

ing.

Mai

nte

nan

ce:

All

stud

ents

mai

nta

ined

skill

s(n

oti

me

repo

rted

).


Bat

es,

Cuv

o,M

iner

,&

Kor

abek

(200

1)(D

aily

livin

g)

To

exam

ine

sim

ulat

edan

dco

mm

unit

y-ba

sed

inst

ruct

ion

alar

ran

gem

ents

acro

ssa

com

mon

set

offu

nct

ion

alliv

ing

task

san

dac

ross

two

leve

lsof

reta

rdat

ion

(mod

erat

ean

dm

ild).

40pa

rtic

ipan

ts;

Hig

hsc

hoo

lan

dad

ults

;A

ges:

Mea

nag

efo

rpa

rtic

ipan

tsw

ith

mod

erat

em

enta

lre

tard

atio

n:

17.4

Mea

nag

efo

rpa

rtic

ipan

tsw

ith

mild

cogn

itiv

edi

sabi

litie

s:16

.9

Lar

gen

atio

nal

chai

ngr

ocer

yst

ore,

aco

mm

erci

alla

undr

omat

,co

mm

unit

yre

stau

ran

t,pu

blic

rest

room

ina

loca

lre

hab

ilita

tion

faci

lity

Mul

ti-fa

ctor

mix

edde

sign

wit

htw

ore

peat

edm

easu

res,

repl

icat

edfo

rea

chof

the

four

fun

ctio

nal

livin

gsk

ills

task

s

Gro

cery

shop

pin

g,us

eof

aco

mm

erci

alla

undr

omat

,pu

rch

asin

ga

soft

drin

kin

are

stau

ran

t,ja

nit

oria

lsk

ills

asso

ciat

edw

ith

clea

nin

ga

rest

room

.(P

erce

nt

ofst

eps

com

plet

edin

depe

nde

ntl

yon

task

anal

yses

)

Lea

stto

mos

tpr

ompt

hie

rarc

hy

Hal

fof

the

part

icip

ants

rece

ived

com

mun

ity-b

ased

inst

ruct

ion

afte

rth

eyha

dre

ceiv

ed10

sim

ulat

edin

stru

ctio

nal

tria

lson

the

targ

eted

task

whi

leth

eot

her

half

rece

ived

com

mun

ity-

base

dtr

aini

ngon

ly.

The

follo

win

gre

sults

are

base

don

stud

ents

rece

ivin

g10

com

mun

ity-b

ased

inst

ruct

ion

tria

ls.

Bot

hpe

rson

sw

ith

mild

and

mod

erat

eM

Rpe

rfor

med

bett

erin

the

com

mun

ity

follo

win

gco

mm

unit

y-ba

sed

inst

ruct

ion

.In

com

pari

son

toth

ein

terv

enti

onph

ase,

both

grou

psde

crea

sed

inpe

rfor

man

ceat

follo

w-

up;

how

ever

,th

efo

llow

-up

scor

esw

ere

still

sign

ifica

ntl

ybe

tter

than

the

pre

com

mun

ity

perf

orm

ance

.G

ener

aliz

atio

n:

Bot

hgr

oups

perf

orm

edsi

gnifi

can

tly

bett

erin

one

ofth

etw

osi

tes

(gro

cery

,la

undr

y,an

dja

nit

oria

l)fo

rea

chof

the

task

s.


TA

BL

E1—

(Con

tinue

d)

Ref

eren

ce(D

omai

n)P

urpo

seP

arti

cipa

nts

Sett

ing

Des

ign

Skill

(DV

)IV

Res

ults

Ber

g,W

acke

r,E

bber

s,W

iggi

ns,

Fow

ler,

&W

ilkes

(199

5)(D

aily

livin

g)

To

exam

ine

the

appl

icab

ility

ofge

ner

aliz

atio

ntr

ain

ing

proc

edur

esin

com

bin

atio

nw

ith

com

mun

ity-

base

din

stru

ctio

nin

prom

otin

gth

eac

quis

itio

n,

gen

eral

izat

ion

,an

dm

ain

ten

ance

of perf

orm

ance

ofag

e-ap

prop

riat

esk

ills.

4pa

rtic

ipan

ts;

Mid

dle

&H

igh

sch

ool;

Age

s:13

-17

;Pr

ofou

nd

men

tal

reta

rdat

ion

and

mul

tipl

eh

andi

caps

Asa

ndw

ich

coun

ter

ata

shop

pin

gm

all,

afa

stfo

odre

stau

ran

t,a

cook

iest

ore

ata

shop

pin

gm

all,

ade

lico

unte

rat

agr

ocer

yst

ore

Con

curr

ent

and

non

curr

ent

mul

tipl

eba

selin

eex

peri

men

tal

desi

gns

Ord

erin

gan

dpu

rch

asin

git

ems

(Per

cen

tage

ofta

skst

eps

com

plet

edin

depe

nde

ntl

yan

dco

rrec

tly)

Tre

atm

ent

pack

age

con

sist

ing

ofm

ulti

ple

trai

nin

gex

ampl

esin

com

mun

ity

sett

ing

and

inst

ruct

ion

usin

gve

rbal

and

phys

ical

prom

ptin

g

Ord

erin

git

ems:

All

part

icip

ants

incr

ease

dth

epe

rcen

tage

ofst

eps

perf

orm

edin

depe

nde

ntl

yw

ith

insi

xse

ssio

ns.

Mai

nte

nan

ce:

Tw

ost

uden

tsm

ain

tain

edsk

illat

100%

accu

racy

over

20w

eeks

afte

ran

init

ial

decl

ine

inpe

rfor

man

ce.

Gen

eral

izat

ion

:G

ener

aliz

edsk

illto

new

sett

ing,

mat

eria

ls,

and

mot

oric

resp

onse

.Pu

rch

asin

git

ems:

Dat

ash

owed

hig

hva

riab

ility

intr

ain

ing.

Mai

nte

nan

ce:

Tw

ost

uden

tsm

ain

tain

edsk

illat

sam

era

teas

inte

rven

tion

over

20w

eeks

.G

ener

aliz

atio

n:

Gen

eral

ized

skill

ton

ewse

ttin

g,m

ater

ials

,an

dm

otor

icre

spon

se.


Bra

nh

am,

Col

lins,

Sch

uste

r,&

Kle

iner

t(1

999)

(Dai

lyliv

ing)

Will

the

con

stan

tti

me

dela

ypr

oced

ure

used

wit

hth

eco

mbi

ned

tech

niq

ues

ofcl

assr

oom

sim

ulat

ion

plus

CB

I,vi

deot

ape

mod

elin

gpl

usC

BI,

and

clas

sroo

msi

mul

atio

npl

usvi

deot

ape

mod

elin

gpl

usC

BI

resu

ltin

gen

eral

izat

ion

inco

mm

unit

yse

ttin

gsfo

rth

esk

ills

ofca

shin

ga

chec

k,cr

ossi

ng

ast

reet

,an

dm

ailin

ga

lett

er?

3pa

rtic

ipan

ts;

Hig

hsc

hoo

l;A

ges:

14-2

0;C

ogn

itiv

edi

sabi

litie

s

Post

offi

ces,

ban

ks,

and

stre

ets.

Mul

tipl

epr

obe

acro

ssbe

hav

iors

Cas

hin

ga

chec

k,cr

ossi

ng

ast

reet

,m

ailin

ga

lett

er(P

erce

nt

corr

ect

ofst

eps

perf

orm

edon

the

task

anal

yses

)

Con

stan

tti

me

dela

ypr

oced

ure

wit

hon

eof

the

follo

win

gte

chn

ique

s:(a

)cl

assr

oom

sim

ulat

ion

plus

CB

I,(b

)vi

deot

ape

mod

elin

gpl

usC

BI,

(c)

vide

otap

em

odel

ing

plus

clas

sroo

msi

mul

atio

npl

usC

BI

Eac

hst

uden

tsh

owed

anim

med

iate

incr

ease

inth

eta

rget

beh

avio

raf

ter

inte

rven

tion

.C

lass

room

sim

ulat

ion

plus

CB

Iw

asth

em

ost

effi

cien

tof

the

3te

chn

ique

s.G

ener

aliz

atio

n:

All

part

icip

ants

gen

eral

ized

the

skill

sto

diff

eren

tse

ttin

gsw

ith

100%

accu

racy

.


TA

BL

E1—

(Con

tinue

d)

Ref

eren

ce(D

omai

n)P

urpo

seP

arti

cipa

nts

Sett

ing

Des

ign

Skill

(DV

)IV

Res

ults

Cih

ak,

Alb

erto

,K

essl

er,

Tab

er(2

004)

(Voc

atio

nal

)

To

exam

ine

the

impa

ctof

four

inst

ruct

ion

alsc

hed

ulin

gar

ran

gem

ents

(i.e

.,si

mul

ated

-on

lyin

stru

ctio

n,

com

mun

ity-

base

din

stru

ctio

non

ly,

com

bin

atio

nof

sim

ulat

edan

dC

BI

inst

ruct

ion

onth

esa

me

sch

ool

day,

and

com

bin

atio

nof

sim

ulat

edan

dC

BI

inst

ruct

ion

onco

nse

cuti

vesc

hoo

lda

ys)

onfu

nct

ion

alan

dvo

cati

onal

skill

s.

5pa

rtic

ipan

ts;

Hig

hsc

hoo

l;A

ges:

17-1

9;M

oder

ate

cogn

itiv

edi

sabi

litie

s

Sch

ool

reso

urce

clas

sroo

m,

loca

lgr

ocer

yst

ore

Mul

tipl

epr

obe

acro

ssst

uden

ts

Tas

k com

plet

ion

offu

nct

ion

alan

dvo

cati

onal

skill

s

Syst

emof

leas

tpr

ompt

sFo

urin

stru

ctio

nal

sch

edul

ing

arra

nge

men

ts,

incl

udin

g:(a

)si

mul

atio

n-o

nly

inst

ruct

ion

,(b

)C

BI,

(c)

com

bin

atio

nof

sim

ulat

ion

inst

ruct

ion

and

CB

Ion

con

secu

tive

days

,(d

)co

mbi

nat

ion

ofsi

mul

atio

nan

dC

BI

onth

esa

me

day

All

stud

ents

acqu

ired

,ge

ner

aliz

ed,

and

mai

nta

ined

the

four

skill

s.O

vera

ll,st

uden

tsex

hib

ited

hig

hes

tsc

ores

inth

esk

illta

ugh

tin

the

com

bin

atio

nof

sim

ulat

edan

dC

BI

sett

ing

onth

esa

me

day,

follo

wed

byth

esk

illta

ugh

tin

the

CB

I-on

lyse

ttin

g.St

uden

tsex

hib

ited

low

ersc

ores

onth

esk

illta

ugh

tw

ith

sim

ulat

edan

dC

BI

inst

ruct

ion

onco

nse

cuti

veda

ys.

Low

est

scor

esw

ere

iden

tifi

edfo

rth

esk

illta

ugh

tin

the

sim

ulat

ed-o

nly

sett

ing.

Mai

nte

nan

ce:

All

stud

ents

mai

nta

ined

100%

accu

racy

over

4w

eeks

.G

ener

aliz

atio

n:

All

stud

ents

gen

eral

ized

skill

ton

ewse

ttin

g.


Cih

ak,

Alb

erto

,T

aber

-D

ough

ty,

&G

ama

(200

6)

To

dete

rmin

eth

eef

fect

sof

stat

icpi

ctur

epr

ompt

sor

vide

opr

ompt

sta

ugh

tin

agr

oup

inst

ruct

ion

alfo

rmat

onth

eab

ility

ofst

uden

tsto

wit

hdr

awm

oney

from

anA

TM

and

purc

has

eit

ems.

6pa

rtic

ipan

ts;

Mid

dle

sch

ool;

Age

s:11

-15

year

sol

d;6

Mod

erat

eco

gnit

ive

disa

bilit

ies,

2A

DH

D(s

econ

dary

diag

nos

is)

Cla

ssro

oman

dgr

ocer

yst

ores

Ada

pted

alte

rnat

ing

trea

tmen

tsde

sign

Use

ofa

debi

tca

rdto

wit

hdr

aw$2

0U

seof

ade

bit

card

topu

rch

ase

two

item

s(P

erce

nt

ofco

rrec

tre

spon

ses,

num

ber

ofer

rors

,an

dn

umbe

rof

sess

ion

sto

acqu

isit

ion

)

Stat

icpi

ctur

epr

ompt

sor

vide

opr

ompt

s

All

stud

ents

acqu

ired

the

skill

sof

usin

ga

debi

tca

rdto

wit

hdr

awm

oney

and

purc

has

eit

ems.

No

diff

eren

ces

wer

efo

und

betw

een

the

stat

icpi

ctur

epr

ompt

san

dvi

deo

prom

pts

for

four

ofsi

xst

uden

ts.

Th

etw

ost

uden

tsw

ith

ase

con

dary

diag

nos

isw

ith

AD

HD

perf

orm

edbe

tter

wit

hpi

ctur

epr

ompt

s.M

ain

ten

ance

:A

llst

uden

tsm

ain

tain

edsk

ills

over

2w

eeks

.C

ollin

s,St

inso

n,

&L

and

(199

3)(C

omm

unit

y)

To

com

pare

invi

voan

dsi

mul

atio

npr

ior

toin

vivo

inst

ruct

ion

onst

reet

cros

sin

gan

dpa

yte

leph

one

use.

Exp

erim

ent

1:4

part

icip

ants

;H

igh

sch

ool;

Age

s:15

-19

year

sol

d;M

oder

ate

disa

bilit

ies

Exp

erim

ent

2:4

part

icip

ants

;E

lem

enta

ry;

Age

s:10

-11

year

sol

d;M

oder

ate

disa

bilit

ies

Cor

ner

ofth

est

reet

and

publ

icte

leph

ones

adja

cen

tto

stre

et

Exp

erim

ent

1&

2:M

ulti

ple

prob

ede

sign

acro

sssu

bjec

tsw

ith

aco

unte

rbal

ance

oftr

eatm

ents

and

skill

str

ain

ed

Safe

tysk

ills

–str

eet

cros

sin

gan

dpa

yte

leph

one

use

(Exp

erim

ent

1&

2:N

umbe

rof

unpr

ompt

edco

rrec

tre

spon

din

gof

step

sin

task

anal

ysis

Exp

erim

ent

1&

2:T

ask

anal

ysis

–pro

gres

sive

tim

ede

lay

Exp

erim

ent

1:A

llpa

rtic

ipan

tsin

crea

sed

num

ber

ofco

rrec

tre

spon

din

gaf

ter

inst

ruct

ion

,re

gard

less

ofta

skor

sett

ing.

Dat

adi

dn

otsu

ppor

tsi

mul

atio

nin

stru

ctio

npr

ior

toin

vivo

inst

ruct

ion

.M

ain

ten

ance

:T

hre

est

uden

tsm

ain

tain

edsk

illfo

ron

em

onth

.G

ener

aliz

atio

n:

Not

repo

rted

.E

xper

imen

t2:

All

part

icip

ants

incr

ease

dle

vel

ofre

spon

din

gaf

ter

inst

ruct

ion

.M

ain

ten

ance

:N

otco

mpl

eted

due

tola

ckof

tim

e.


TA

BL

E1—

(Con

tinue

d)

Ref

eren

ce(D

omai

n)P

urpo

seP

arti

cipa

nts

Sett

ing

Des

ign

Skill

(DV

)IV

Res

ults

Cuv

o&

Kla

tt(1

992)

(Com

mun

ity)

To

com

pare

the

effe

cts

of3

inst

ruct

ion

alm

eth

ods

(flas

hca

rds

insc

hoo

lse

ttin

g,vi

deot

aped

reco

rdin

gsin

sch

ool

sett

ing,

and

nat

ural

lyoc

curr

ing

sign

sin

com

mun

ity)

onac

quis

itio

nof

com

mun

ity-

refe

ren

ced

sigh

tw

ords

.

6pa

rtic

ipan

ts;

Mid

dle

sch

ool;

Age

s:13

-17

year

sol

d;5

Mod

erat

eco

gnit

ive

disa

bilit

ies,

1M

ildco

gnit

ive

disa

bilit

ies

Roo

mad

jace

nt

tosp

ecia

led

ucat

ion

room

and

com

mun

ity

(sch

ool

build

ing,

sch

ool

grou

nds

,an

dsh

oppi

ng

cen

ter)

Mul

tipl

eba

selin

eac

ross

stud

ents

Sigh

tw

ords

(9si

gns

-%of

corr

ect

resp

onse

s)

Con

stan

tti

me

dela

yG

roup

sof

3si

gns

wer

eta

ugh

tus

ing

each

inst

ruct

ion

alm

eth

od(fl

ash

card

sin

sch

ool

sett

ing,

vide

otap

edre

cord

ings

insc

hoo

lse

ttin

g,an

dn

atur

ally

occu

rrin

gsi

gns

inco

mm

unit

y)in

coun

terb

alan

ced

orde

rac

ross

part

icip

ants

.

Cor

rect

resp

onse

:A

ttai

ned

crit

erio

nof

100%

corr

ect

shor

tly

afte

rin

terv

enti

on.

Mai

nte

nan

ce:

5of

6st

uden

tsm

ain

tain

ed10

0%co

rrec

tre

spon

din

g(e

xcep

ton

est

uden

tw

ho

mis

sed

1si

gndu

rin

g1

prob

e)fo

r3-

5w

eeks

afte

rin

terv

enti

onen

ded.

6thst

uden

tn

eede

dre

trai

nin

g.

Dav

is,

Bra

dy,

Will

iam

s,&

Bur

ta(1

992)

(Voc

atio

nal

)

To

dete

rmin

eth

eef

fect

sof

audi

tory

prom

ptin

gta

pes

onfl

uen

cyof

perf

orm

ance

.

3pa

rtic

ipan

ts;

Hig

hsc

hoo

l;A

ges:

16-2

0ye

ars

old;

2B

ED

,1

orth

oped

icim

pair

men

t

Com

mun

ity-

base

dfo

odpr

epar

atio

nfa

cilit

y

Mul

tipl

eba

selin

eac

ross

stud

ents

Filli

ng

salt

and

pepp

ersh

aker

sD

ryin

gan

dlin

ing

serv

ing

tray

s(S

hak

ers

–1⁄2

full,

num

ber

fille

dco

rrec

tly

lined

onco

llect

ion

tabl

eT

ray

dryi

ng

and

linin

g–n

umbe

rof

tray

sco

mpl

etel

ydr

yw

ith

liner

inpo

siti

onFl

uen

cy-N

umbe

rof

corr

ect

ofea

chta

skdi

vide

dby

dura

tion

ofta

sk)

Aud

itor

ypr

ompt

sin

ters

pers

edth

roug

hou

tm

usic

.

All

stud

ents

incr

ease

dfl

uen

cyon

cepr

ompt

sw

ere

intr

oduc

ed.

All

stud

ents

mad

en

oer

rors

.O

nly

1st

uden

tin

crea

sed

flue

ncy

ton

orm

ativ

era

teof

prod

ucti

on(4

shak

ers/

min

).


Dom

arac

ki&

Lyo

n(1

992)

(Voc

atio

nal

)

To

com

pare

the

effe

ctof

gen

eral

case

sim

ulat

ion

and

invi

voin

stru

ctio

non

jan

itor

ial

and

hou

seke

epin

gw

ork

skill

s.

4pa

rtic

ipan

ts;

Hig

hSc

hoo

l;(n

oag

egi

ven

);M

oder

ate

and

seve

reco

gnit

ive

disa

bilit

ies

Hot

elan

dre

stau

ran

tco

mpl

exan

dsp

ecia

led

ucat

ion

faci

lity

Mul

tipl

epr

obe

acro

ssbe

hav

iors

.

Jan

itor

ial

and

hou

seke

epin

gsk

ills

(Per

cen

tage

ofst

eps

perf

orm

edin

depe

nde

ntl

y)

Prom

ptin

gus

ing

agr

adua

ted

assi

stan

ceh

iera

rch

y

Sim

ulat

ion

trai

nin

g:A

llpa

rtic

ipan

tsin

crea

sed

perc

enta

geof

step

spe

rfor

med

inde

pen

den

tly,

but

did

not

reac

hcr

iter

ion

.N

atur

alis

tic

trai

nin

g:St

uden

tsre

ach

edcr

iter

ion

and

took

12-1

5se

ssio

ns

tore

ach

.G

ener

aliz

atio

n:

Stud

ents

did

not

gen

eral

ize

skill

sto

an

ewse

ttin

g(p

erce

nta

geof

step

spe

rfor

med

inde

pen

den

tly

ran

ged

from

1%to

65%

).


TA

BL

E1—

(Con

tinue

d)

Ref

eren

ce(D

omai

n)P

urpo

seP

arti

cipa

nts

Sett

ing

Des

ign

Skill

(DV

)IV

Res

ults

Ferg

uson

&M

cDon

nel

l(1

991)

(Dai

lyliv

ing)

To

com

pare

the

rela

tive

effi

cacy

ofse

rial

and

con

curr

ent

sequ

enci

ng

stra

tegi

esin

teac

hin

ga

com

mun

ity-

base

dac

tivi

ty.

6pa

rtic

ipan

ts;

Hig

hsc

hoo

l;A

ges:

16-1

8;M

oder

ate

tose

vere

cogn

itiv

edi

sabi

litie

s

3gr

ocer

yst

ores

Tw

o-le

vel

mul

tipl

eba

selin

eac

ross

subj

ect

Gro

cery

shop

pin

g(P

erce

nt

ofit

ems

corr

ectl

ylo

cate

din

gen

eral

izat

ion

prob

est

ores

)(T

opog

raph

yan

dfr

eque

ncy

ofsp

ecifi

cer

rors

mad

edu

rin

gge

ner

aliz

atio

npr

obe

sess

ion

)(N

umbe

rof

item

pres

enta

tion

sdu

rin

gtr

ain

ing

and

min

utes

ofin

stru

ctio

nto

crit

erio

n)

Con

curr

ent

and

seri

alse

quen

cin

g

Item

sco

rrec

tly

loca

ted:

Stud

ents

wh

ore

ceiv

edse

rial

sequ

ence

trai

nin

gon

aver

age

loca

ted

69%

ofth

eit

ems

inth

ege

ner

aliz

atio

npr

obe

stor

es.

Stud

ents

wh

ore

ceiv

edco

ncu

rren

tse

quen

cetr

ain

ing

onav

erag

elo

cate

d86

%of

the

item

sin

the

gen

eral

izat

ion

prob

est

ores

.E

rror

s:D

ata

show

edst

uden

tsh

adle

ssai

sle

erro

rsw

hen

they

rece

ived

the

con

curr

ent

sequ

enci

ng

inte

rven

tion

.It

empr

esen

tati

ons:

Stud

ent

tria

lsra

nge

dfr

om70

to12

5an

d14

0to

200

min

utes

ofin

stru

ctio

nin

the

seri

altr

ain

ing

phas

e.T

rial

sra

nge

dfr

om32

to29

0an

d60

to52

0m

inut

esof

inst

ruct

ion

inth

eco

ncu

rren

ttr

ain

ing

phas

e.


Hal

l, Sch

uste

r,W

oler

y,G

ast,

&D

oyle

(199

2)(D

aily

livin

g)

To

dete

rmin

eth

eef

fect

ofdy

adic

grou

pson

the

acqu

isit

ion

ofco

okin

gsk

ills.

4pa

rtic

ipan

ts;

Hig

hSc

hoo

l;A

ges:

16-1

8ye

ars

old;

Mod

erat

eto

seve

reco

gnit

ive

disa

bilit

ies

Kit

chen

ina

hom

eM

ulti

ple

prob

eac

ross

beh

avio

rs

Coo

kin

g(C

orre

ctre

spon

se:

inde

pen

den

tly

com

plet

ing

task

wit

hin

20s

ofpe

rvio

usst

epIn

corr

ect

resp

onse

s:In

itia

ted

step

wit

hin

4sbu

t(a

)di

dn

otco

mpl

ete

wit

hin

requ

ired

tim

e,(b

)co

mpl

eted

task

out

ofor

der,

or(c

)pe

rfor

med

inco

rrec

tm

otor

resp

onse

No

resp

onse

:D

idn

otin

itia

test

epw

ith

in4

s)

0-4

sco

nst

ant

tim

ede

lay.

Stud

ents

wor

ked

indy

ads

and

had

tope

rfor

mh

alf

ofth

eta

sks

requ

ired

for

the

cook

ing.

All

stud

ents

incr

ease

dco

rrec

tre

spon

ses

afte

rin

stru

ctio

n.

Th

eti

me

tocr

iter

ion

ran

ged

from

7to

22se

ssio

ns

abov

eth

em

inim

umre

quir

ed.

Har

ing,

Bre

en,

Wei

ner

,K

enn

edy,

& Bed

ner

sh(1

995)

(Dai

lyliv

ing)

To

dete

rmin

eth

eef

fect

ofvi

deot

ape

mod

elin

gw

hen

pres

ente

dbe

fore

,af

ter,

and

con

curr

ent

toin

vivo

shop

pin

gtr

ain

ing

onpe

rfor

man

cein

trai

ned

,pr

obed

,an

dun

trai

ned

stor

es.

6pa

rtic

ipan

ts;

Ele

men

tary

,M

iddl

e,an

dH

igh

sch

ools

;A

ges:

10-1

6;Se

vere

cogn

itiv

edi

sabi

litie

san

dA

utis

m

Boo

ksto

res,

con

ven

ien

cest

ores

,dr

ugst

ores

,gi

ftsh

ops,

groc

ery

stor

es,

hob

bysh

ops,

and

reco

rdst

ores

Mul

tipl

epr

obe

acro

ssse

ttin

gs

Purc

has

ing

skill

s(P

erce

nt

ofta

skan

alys

isst

eps

wit

hco

rrec

tre

spon

din

gan

dcu

mul

ativ

en

umbe

rof

inde

pen

den

tpu

rch

ases

)

Mod

elin

gof

trai

nin

gco

ndu

cted

in3

way

s:(a

)in

vivo

inst

ruct

ion

follo

wed

byvi

deot

ape

trai

nin

g,(b

)vi

deot

ape

trai

nin

gfo

llow

edby

invi

voin

stru

ctio

n,

and

(c)

con

curr

ent

vide

otap

ean

din

vivo

inst

ruct

ion

All

part

icip

ants

show

edin

crea

ses

inth

epe

rcen

tof

corr

ect

step

son

the

task

anal

ysis

inth

ein

vivo

trai

nin

gph

ase.

Wh

enpa

rtic

ipan

tsre

ceiv

edin

vivo

trai

nin

gin

one

stor

ean

dvi

deot

ape

trai

nin

gin

1to

3ad

diti

onal

stor

es,

part

icip

ants

mad

em

ore

inde

pen

den

tpu

rch

ases

.M

ain

ten

ance

:A

llst

uden

tsm

ain

tain

edpu

rch

asin

gsk

ills

(no

tim

ere

port

ed).

Gen

eral

izat

ion

:A

llst

uden

tsge

ner

aliz

edsk

illto

an

ewse

ttin

gat

sam

era

teof

resp

ondi

ng

duri

ng

inte

rven

tion

.


TA

BL

E1—

(Con

tinue

d)

Ref

eren

ce(D

omai

n)P

urpo

seP

arti

cipa

nts

Sett

ing

Des

ign

Skill

(DV

)IV

Res

ults

Mor

se&

Sch

uste

r(2

000)

(Dai

lyliv

ing)

To

exam

ine

the

effe

ctiv

enes

sof

invi

votr

ain

ing

wit

hco

nst

ant

tim

ede

lay

and

sim

ulat

ion

trai

nin

gus

ing

pict

oria

lst

oryb

ook

onth

eac

quis

itio

nof

groc

ery

shop

pin

gsk

ills.

10pa

rtic

ipan

ts;

Ele

men

tary

sch

ool;

Age

s:5-

12ye

ars

old;

Mod

erat

eco

gnit

ive

disa

bilit

ies

Gro

cery

stor

eM

ulti

ple

prob

eac

ross

stud

ents

Gro

cery

shop

pin

g(P

erce

nta

geof

step

spe

rfor

med

corr

ectl

y)

Con

stan

tti

me

dela

ySi

mul

atio

ntr

ain

ing

usin

gst

oryb

oard

toco

nst

ruct

sequ

ence

ofsk

ills

used

wh

ensh

oppi

ng

for

groc

erie

s

(2st

uden

tsdi

dn

otst

art

trai

nin

gpr

ogra

m)

6st

uden

tsre

ach

edcr

iter

ion

afte

rin

terv

enti

on.

Mai

nte

nan

ce:

6st

uden

tsm

ain

tain

edcr

iter

ion

ofcr

itic

alst

eps

6w

eeks

afte

rin

terv

enti

onen

ded.

Gen

eral

izat

ion

:6

stud

ents

gen

eral

ized

skill

sto

aun

ique

groc

ery

stor

ean

dpe

rfor

med

crit

ical

step

sof

TA

wit

h90

-100

%ac

cura

cy.

Mur

zyn

ski

&B

ourr

et(2

006)

To

com

pare

vide

om

odel

ing

plus

leas

t-to-

mos

tpr

ompt

ing

and

leas

t-to-

mos

tpr

ompt

ing

alon

eon

juic

e-m

akin

g,sa

ndw

ich

-m

akin

g,an

dsh

irt

and

pan

tfo

ldin

g.

2pa

rtic

ipan

ts;

Ele

men

tary

sch

ool;

Age

s9

and

11ye

ars

old;

Aut

ism

Hom

ePa

ralle

l-tr

eatm

ent

desi

gn

Juic

e-m

akin

gSa

ndw

ich

-m

akin

gSh

irt

and

pan

tfo

ldin

g(N

umbe

rof

step

spe

rfor

med

inde

pen

den

tly)

Lea

st-to

-mos

tpr

ompt

ing

wit

hvi

deo

mod

elin

gor

leas

t-to-

mos

tpr

ompt

ing

alon

e

Stud

ents

incr

ease

dth

en

umbe

rof

step

spe

rfor

med

corr

ectl

yac

ross

all

skill

saf

ter

inte

rven

tion

.St

uden

tsac

quir

edth

esk

ills

infe

wer

tria

lsw

ith

leas

t-to-

mos

tpr

ompt

ing

wit

hvi

deo

mod

elin

g.

Patt

avin

a,B

ergs

trom

,M

arch

and-

Mar

tella

,&

Mar

tella

(199

2).

(Com

mun

ity)

To

inve

stig

ate

ast

rate

gyto

teac

ha

stud

ent

tosu

cces

sful

lycr

oss

stre

ets

inth

eco

mm

unit

y.

1pa

rtic

ipan

t;M

iddl

esc

hoo

l;A

ge:

12;

Tra

umat

icbr

ain

inju

ry

Sch

ool

sett

ing,

and

stre

ets

inth

eco

mm

unit

y

AB

desi

gnC

ross

ing

stre

ets

inth

eco

mm

unit

y(N

umbe

rof

step

spe

rfor

med

inde

pen

den

tly)

Ver

bal

and

visu

alpr

ompt

sC

orre

ctly

cros

sed

stre

etaf

ter

6w

eeks

ofin

stru

ctio

nM

ain

ten

ance

:M

ain

tain

edsk

illat

2,4,

and

16w

eek

chec

ks.

Gen

eral

izat

ion

:G

ener

aliz

edsk

illto

new

stre

ets

into

wn

.


Ryn

ders

,Sc

hle

ien

,&

Mus

ton

en(1

990)

(Voc

atio

nal

)(R

ecre

atio

n)

To

dete

rmin

eth

eef

fect

sof

anin

ten

sive

inte

grat

edca

mpi

ng

expe

rien

ceon

soci

alin

tera

ctio

ns

and

skill

deve

lopm

ent.

3pa

rtic

ipan

ts;

Ele

men

tary

sch

ool;

Age

s:9-

11ye

ars

old;

1A

utis

m,

2Se

vere

cogn

itiv

edi

sabi

litie

s

Cam

p,in

clud

ing

lodg

es,

din

ing

hal

l,fa

rm,

gree

nh

ouse

,or

char

d,an

dbe

ach

.

Qua

si-

expe

rim

enta

l(p

re/p

ost)

Tab

lecl

eari

ng

Swim

min

gpr

epar

atio

n(S

ocia

lin

tera

ctio

ns:

(a)

appr

opri

ate

soci

albe

hav

ior

(en

gage

din

goal

-di

rect

edac

tivi

ty,

appr

opri

ate

use

ofm

ater

ials

)(b

)In

appr

opri

ate

soci

albe

hav

ior

(non

goal

-dir

ecte

dbe

hav

ior,

inap

prop

riat

eus

eof

mat

eria

ls,

not

part

icip

atin

gin

acti

vity

)(c

)In

itia

tin

gso

cial

inte

ract

ion

(tou

chin

g,ge

stur

ing,

voca

lizin

g,or

talk

ing

tope

er;

init

iati

onw

asin

tera

ctio

nbe

twee

n2

child

ren

wh

oh

adn

otin

tera

cted

for

prev

ious

3s)

(d)

Rec

eivi

ng

soci

alin

tera

ctio

ns

(ch

ildis

touc

hed

,ge

stur

ed,

give

ndi

rect

ion

s,or

ques

tion

edby

peer

(in

tera

ctio

nco

ded

ifin

itia

tion

sw

ere

sepa

rate

dby

3s)

Soci

alin

tera

ctio

ns

–rei

nfo

rcem

ent

ofap

prop

riat

ebe

hav

ior

and

con

tin

gen

tre

info

rcem

ent

ofpe

erso

cial

inte

ract

ion

sSk

ills

–tas

kan

alyt

icap

proa

ch(t

est-

teac

h)

–lea

ders

taug

ht

step

sth

atw

ere

not

com

plet

edin

depe

nde

ntl

yth

roug

hpr

ompt

ing

Soci

alin

tera

ctio

ns:

App

ropr

iate

beh

avio

rde

crea

sed

pre/

post

test

.Sk

ill:

Stud

ents

incr

ease

dn

umbe

rof

step

spe

rfor

med

inde

pen

den

tly

from

pret

est

topo

stte

st.

How

ever

,si

gnifi

can

cew

asn

otte

sted

beca

use

ofsm

all

num

ber

ofpa

rtic

ipan

ts.


TA

BL

E1—

(Con

tinue

d)

Ref

eren

ce(D

omai

n)P

urpo

seP

arti

cipa

nts

Sett

ing

Des

ign

Skill

(DV

)IV

Res

ults

Sch

loss

,A

lper

,Yo

ung,

Arn

old-

Rei

d,A

ylw

ard,

&D

uden

hoe

ffer

(199

5)(C

omm

unit

y)

To

inve

stig

ate

the

effe

ctiv

enes

sof

adi

rect

inst

ruct

ion

proc

edur

ein

volv

ing

mod

elin

gan

dgu

ided

prac

tice

onth

eac

quis

itio

nof

fun

ctio

nal

sigh

tw

ords

.

3pa

rtic

ipan

ts;

Ele

men

tary

and

mid

dle

sch

ool;

Age

s:12

-14;

Mild

cogn

itiv

edi

sabi

litie

s

Publ

icsw

imm

ing

pool

(dir

ect

inst

ruct

ion

),a

32-la

ne

auto

mat

edbo

wlin

gal

ley

(con

trol

),an

arca

de(d

irec

tin

stru

ctio

n),

ast

ate

park

hik

ing

trai

l(c

ontr

ol),

am

ulti

plex

thea

ter

(dir

ect

inst

ruct

ion

),a

mov

iere

nta

lch

ain

,a

Dep

artm

ent

of Con

serv

atio

nbi

ketr

ail

(dir

ect

inst

ruct

ion

),a

publ

icte

nn

isfa

cilit

y(c

ontr

ol),

and

apu

blic

lake

Para

llel

trea

tmen

tde

sign

:M

ulti

ple

base

line

repl

icat

ion

sac

ross

sigh

tw

ords

and

Alt

ern

atin

gtr

eatm

ent

to com

pare

inst

ruct

ion

alpr

oced

ures

Fun

ctio

nal

acad

emic

s(N

umbe

rof

wor

dsid

enti

fied

)

Tw

oin

stru

ctio

nal

con

diti

ons:

(a)

dire

ctin

stru

ctio

nw

ith

invi

vow

ord

fin

dw

hic

hin

clud

edve

rbal

inst

ruct

ion

,m

odel

ing,

guid

edpr

acti

ce,

and

feed

back

;(b

)co

ntr

olw

ith

invi

vow

ord

iden

tifi

cati

onw

hic

hin

volv

edth

eau

thor

sre

adin

gke

ypa

ssag

esto

part

icip

ants

duri

ng

are

crea

tion

alac

tivi

ty

Eac

hpa

rtic

ipan

tre

ach

edcr

iter

ion

of10

0%w

ith

inn

ine

wee

ksof

the

dire

ctin

stru

ctio

nco

ndi

tion

bein

gim

plem

ente

d.R

esul

tssh

owed

each

part

icip

ant

had

limit

edac

quis

itio

nof

the

sigh

tw

ords

wh

enth

eco

ntr

olco

ndi

tion

was

impl

emen

ted.

Mai

nte

nan

ce:

Eac

hpa

rtic

ipan

tm

ain

tain

edpe

rfor

man

ceth

roug

hou

tth

e4-

wee

km

ain

ten

ance

prob

e.


Souz

a&

Ken

ned

y(2

003)

(Dai

lyliv

ing)

To

incr

ease

ast

uden

t’s

soci

alin

tera

ctio

ns

inco

mm

unit

yse

ttin

gsw

ith

inth

eco

nte

xtof

acti

viti

esan

dro

utin

esas

soci

ated

wit

hth

eIn

divi

dual

ized

Edu

cati

on/T

ran

siti

onPl

an(I

ET

P).

1pa

rtic

ipan

t;H

igh

Sch

ool;

Age

:20

;Se

vere

cogn

itiv

edi

sabi

litie

s

Bus

&ca

fete

ria

Mul

tipl

eba

selin

eac

ross

sett

ings

/peo

pleSo

cial

skill

s(N

umbe

rof

soci

alin

tera

ctio

ns

last

ing

15m

inut

esor

lon

ger

inea

chse

ttin

gan

dqu

alit

yof

inte

ract

ion

)

Proc

ess

wh

ich

incl

uded

:(a

)id

enti

fyin

ga

pers

onw

ith

out

disa

bilit

ies

wh

ofr

eque

nte

dth

ese

ttin

gw

hen

the

stud

ent

was

pres

ent,

(b)

appr

oach

ing

the

pers

onan

das

kin

gif

they

wou

ldlik

eto

mee

tth

est

uden

t,(c

)th

ete

ach

erin

trod

ucin

gth

epe

rson

wit

hou

tdi

sabi

litie

sto

the

stud

ent

and

disc

ussi

ng

poss

ible

sch

edul

edin

tera

ctio

ns,

(d)

sch

edul

ing

acti

viti

es,

tim

es,

and

days

inw

hic

hbo

thvi

site

da

part

icul

arse

ttin

g,(e

)te

ach

erm

onit

orin

gin

tera

ctio

ns

betw

een

the

stud

ent

and

the

pers

onw

ith

out

adi

sabi

lity

Incr

ease

sin

soci

alin

tera

ctio

ns

occu

rred

duri

ng

the

17w

eek

peri

odw

hen

the

inte

ract

ion

stra

tegy

was

impl

emen

ted.

Qua

lity

ofin

tera

ctio

nre

sult

edin

anin

crea

sin

gtr

end

betw

een

wee

ks13

and

17.


TA

BL

E1—

(Con

tinue

d)

Ref

eren

ce(D

omai

n)P

urpo

seP

arti

cipa

nts

Sett

ing

Des

ign

Skill

(DV

)IV

Res

ults

Tab

er,

Alb

erto

,H

ugh

es,

Selt

zer

(200

2)(D

aily

livin

g)

To

dete

rmin

eif

stud

ents

coul

did

enti

fyw

hen

they

wer

elo

stan

dth

enus

ea

cell

phon

eto

call

for

assi

stan

ce.

14pa

rtic

ipan

ts;

Mid

dle

sch

ool;

Age

s:11

-14

year

sol

d;M

oder

ate

cogn

itiv

edi

sabi

litie

s

Sch

ool

Gro

cery

stor

e,pu

blic

libra

ry,

depa

rtm

ent

stor

e.

Con

curr

ent

mul

tipl

epr

obe

acro

ssgr

oups

Cal

ling

for

assi

stan

ce(P

erce

nta

geof

task

anal

ysis

step

spe

rfor

med

inde

pen

den

tly)

Five

-leve

lle

ast

intr

usiv

epr

ompt

ing

syst

emw

ith

tota

lta

skpr

esen

tati

on

All

stud

ents

wer

eab

leto

corr

ectl

ype

rfor

m80

%of

task

anal

ysis

afte

r3

sess

ion

sof

inte

rven

tion

atth

esc

hoo

l.W

hen

the

inte

rven

tion

mov

edto

the

com

mun

ity,

all

stud

ents

sust

ain

ed10

0%ac

cura

cy.

Gen

eral

izat

ion

:St

uden

tsw

ere

able

toca

llfo

ras

sist

ance

wit

ha

pers

onot

her

than

the

inve

stig

ator

.T

aber

,A

lber

to,

Selt

zer,

&H

ugh

es(2

003)

(Com

mun

ity)

To

dete

rmin

eif

stud

ents

coul

das

sist

anad

ult

wh

ore

cogn

ized

the

stud

ent

was

lost

and

use

spee

ddi

alto

call

for

assi

stan

ce.

6pa

rtic

ipan

ts;

Hig

hsc

hoo

l;A

ges:

14-1

8ye

ars

old;

Mod

erat

eco

gnit

ive

disa

bilit

ies

Seco

nda

rysc

hoo

lsan

dco

mm

unit

yse

ttin

gs(g

roce

ryst

ore,

disc

oun

tde

part

men

tst

ore,

mai

nst

reet

,an

dsu

burb

anm

all)

Mul

tipl

epr

obe

acro

ssst

uden

ts

Cal

ling

for

assi

stan

ce(E

ven

tre

cord

ing

tom

ark

leve

lof

prom

ptst

uden

tn

eede

don

each

step

ofT

A)

Five

leve

l,le

ast-t

o-m

ost

prom

pts

wit

hta

skan

alys

is

Stud

ents

reac

hed

80%

crit

erio

naf

ter

inte

rven

tion

.O

nly

1in

stan

ceof

over

lap

betw

een

base

line

and

inte

rven

tion

.


Van

derc

ook

(199

1)(R

ecre

atio

n)

To

exam

ine

acqu

isit

ion

and

gen

eral

izat

ion

ofle

isur

esk

ills

wh

enen

gage

dw

ith

ape

er.

5pa

rtic

ipan

ts;

Hig

hsc

hoo

l;A

ges:

18-2

1ye

ars

old;

Mul

tipl

edi

sabi

litie

s

Bow

ling

alle

yM

ulti

ple

prob

eac

ross

acti

viti

es

Bow

ling

and

pin

ball

(Ski

llde

mon

stra

tion

wit

hin

stru

ctor

)(S

kill

gen

eral

izat

ion

wit

hpe

er)

(Soc

ial

inte

ract

ion

sof

peer

sw

hile

enga

ged

inac

tivi

ty)

(Att

itud

esof

peer

sw

ith

out

disa

bilit

ies

tow

ard

pers

ons

wit

hdi

sabi

litie

s)

Tas

kan

alys

is-

tota

lta

skap

proa

chw

ith

decr

easi

ng

assi

stan

cepr

ompt

ing

Skill

dem

onst

rati

onw

ith

inst

ruct

orre

sult

edin

incr

ease

dsk

illle

vel

for

each

stud

ent

for

each

acti

vity

(bow

ling

and

pin

ball)

.Sk

illge

ner

aliz

atio

nw

ith

peer

occu

rred

.So

cial

inte

ract

ion

sof

peer

sw

hile

enga

ged

inac

tivi

ty:

Coo

pera

tive

part

icip

atio

nin

crea

sed

Wes

tlin

g,Fl

oyd,

&C

arr

(199

0)(C

omm

unit

y)

To

dete

rmin

eth

eef

fect

sof

trai

nin

gst

uden

tsin

asi

ngl

ese

ttin

gor

mul

tipl

ese

ttin

gson

depa

rtm

ent

stor

esh

oppi

ng.

15pa

rtic

ipan

ts;

Hig

hSc

hoo

l;A

ges:

13-1

9ye

ars

old;

Mod

erat

e,se

vere

,or

prof

oun

dco

gnit

ive

disa

bilit

ies

Dep

artm

ent

stor

esan

dco

nve

nie

nce

stor

es

Qua

si-

expe

rim

enta

lPu

rch

asin

git

ems

(Cor

rect

num

ber

ofbe

hav

iors

(e.g

.,en

ter

thro

ugh

corr

ect

door

,lo

oks

onco

rrec

tsh

elf,

take

sou

tm

oney

)an

dso

cial

(e.g

.,as

ksfo

rh

elp

tofi

nd

corr

ect

sect

ion

,w

aits

turn

atch

eck

out

stan

d,gr

eets

cash

ier)

Fun

ctio

nal

crit

erio

nsc

ores

–nec

essa

rybe

hav

iors

perf

orm

edN

umbe

rof

sess

ion

sto

reac

hth

ree

con

secu

tive

crit

erio

non

oper

atio

nal

beh

avio

r)

Pre-

com

mun

ity-

Rol

epl

ayin

g,di

scus

sion

,an

dde

mon

stra

tion

ofsk

ills

nee

ded

inth

eco

mm

unit

yse

ttin

g.T

rain

ing

site

s–l

east

-to-m

ost

intr

usiv

epr

ompt

syst

emof

task

anal

ysis

:si

ngl

e(o

ne

depa

rtm

ent

stor

e)M

ulti

ple

(3di

ffer

ent

site

s)

Ope

rati

onal

beh

avio

rs:

Bot

hgr

oups

mad

esi

gnifi

can

tga

ins

atbo

thde

part

men

tst

ores

and

con

ven

ien

cest

ores

Soci

albe

hav

iors

:B

oth

grou

psm

ade

gain

sat

depa

rtm

ent

stor

es,

but

only

mul

tipl

ese

ttin

gpa

rtic

ipan

tsm

ade

gain

sat

con

ven

ien

cest

ore.

Fun

ctio

nal

crit

erio

n:

No

sign

ifica

nt

diff

eren

ces.

Num

ber

ofse

ssio

ns:

No

sign

ifica

nt

diff

eren

ces.

Mai

nte

nan

ce:

All

stud

ents

mai

nta

ined

skill

sfo

r2

mon

ths

post

-in

terv

enti

on.


Burta, 1992), (k) bookstore (Haring et al.), (l)drugstore (Haring et al.), (m) gift shop (Har-ing et al.), (n) hobby shop (Haring et al.), (o)record store (Haring et al.), (p) arcade(Schloss et al.), (q) movie theater (Schloss etal.), (r) movie rental chain (Schloss et al.), (s)tennis courts (Schloss et al.), (t) public lake(Schloss et al.), (u) bus (Souza & Kennedy,2003), and (v) special education facility(Domaracki & Lyon).

Design

The majority of the studies used a single sub-ject design (n � 19, 82.6%). Of these, 10(52.6%) used multiple probe design, 5(26.3%) used a multiple baseline design, 2(10.5%) used an alternating treatments de-sign, 1 (5.2%) used a parallel-treatment de-sign, and 1 (5.2%) used a multiple baselineand alternating treatment design. The re-mainder of the studies used a quasi-experi-mental design (n � 3, 13.0%) or a multi-factormixed design (n � 1, 4.3%).

Skill/Dependent Variable

Results showed a variety of dependent vari-ables across the four domain areas (i.e., voca-tional, daily living, community, and recre-ation). Purchasing grocery items was the mostcommon dependent variable (n � 6, 26.1%).Safety skills were measured in four studies(17.4%). Three studies each (13.0%) mea-sured purchasing non-grocery items andcleaning (e.g., janitorial skills, housekeepingskills, and clearing a tray after eating). Com-munity-referenced sight words and using adebit card to withdraw money were taught intwo studies each (8.7%). Cashing a check,planning and preparing a meal, purchasing ina restaurant, mailing a letter, dressing, foldingshirts and pants, social skills, using a Laundro-mat, juice and sandwich making and leisureskills (e.g., riding a bicycle, bowling, playingtabletop games, horseshoes, and pinball),weremeasured in one study each (4.3% each). Onestudy (4.3%) measured job skills (i.e., fillingsalt and pepper shakers and lining trays) on awork site.

Independent Variable

Fourteen studies (60.9%) used prompting toteach the target skill. Four studies (17.4%)used constant time delay to teach the targetskill. Modeling was used in two studies (8.7%)to teach the target skills. One study used pro-gressive time delay (4.3%) and one study(4.3%) used direct instruction. One study(4.3%) used concurrent and serial sequencingand one study used contingent reinforcement(4.3%). One study (4.3%; Souza & Kennedy,2003) introduced the participant to an indi-vidual to increase social interactions. Threestudies (13.0%) used two methods to teachskills. Rynders et al. (1990) used contingentreinforcement and task analysis to teach twodifferent skills, including social skills and tableclearing. Next, Alberto et al. (2005) used pic-ture prompts and video modeling to teachcommunity skills. Murzynski and Bourret(2006) used least-to-most prompting withvideo modeling to teach daily living skills.

Results

The interventions resulted in increases in thetarget skill. All studies showed positive resultsfor all participants, except for two studies.Morse and Schuster (2000) stated that twostudents out of eight did not reach criterion asa result of the intervention. Domaracki andLyon (1992) indicated that all students in-creased the target skill, but students onlyreached criterion in the naturalistic trainingphase, not the simulation training phase. It isalso important to note that the Davis et al.(1992) study showed increases in the targetskill, but only one student met the normativeproduction rate.

Twelve studies (52.2%) collected generali-zation measures. Nine of these studies(75.0%) had participants generalize the skillat a new site, two (16.7%) measured general-ization with a new person, and one (8.3%)measured generalization with new materialsand motoric movements and at a new site(Berg et al., 1995). Ten of the 12 studies(83.3%) that measured generalization hadpositive results (Berg et al.; Branham et al,1999; Cihak et al., 2004; Collins et al., 1993;Ferguson & McDonnell, 1991; Haring et al.,1995; Morse & Schuster, 2000; Pattavina et al.,


1992; Taber et al., 2003; Vandercook, 1991).One study had mixed results (Bates et al.,2001), while students in one study did notgeneralize the skill (Domaracki & Lyon,1992). Finally, 11 studies (47.8%) collectedmaintenance data, ranging from 1 week to 20weeks. All studies showed positive mainte-nance results, except for Cuvo and Klatt(1992) where one of six students did notmaintain the skill.

Discussion

Results from the 23 intervention studies pro-vide additional evidence that students withdisabilities can learn skills in natural environ-ments (Phillips, Reid, Korabek, & Hursh,1988; Wehman, 1990). The studies includedin this literature review span from 1990 to2006 and reveal that various skills such as pur-chasing items, grocery shopping, and bankingskills can be taught in the community. Resultsshowed daily living skills as a common domainin which students were taught functional lifeskills in the community. For example, Bran-ham et al. (1999) used a time delay procedureto teach students of high school age banking,street crossing, and mailing skills in the com-munity. As a result, each participant showedan increase in the target behavior as well asgeneralized the skill to different settings. Sim-ilarly, Berg et al. (1995) used training andprompting to teach middle and high schoolstudents how to order and purchase items invarious settings in the community such as theshopping mall and grocery store. Resultsshowed that students increased the number ofsteps performed independently and that sev-eral students were able to maintain the skills.Additionally, recreation, community, and vo-cational skills were also taught across gradelevels. For instance, Davis et al. (1992) usedauditory prompting to teach the vocationaltask of filling salt and pepper shakers to stu-dents in a community-based food preparationfacility. Findings showed that students wereable to increase their fluency of performingthis task after auditory prompting tapes wereintroduced.

Although the studies included in this reviewspan from 1990 to 2006, the results are similarto previous literature reviews. According to ameta-analysis conducted by Xin et al. (2005),

researchers found 9 out of 28 studies providedin vivo instruction, with a median of 87% non-overlapping data (PND) points. In addition,Browder and Grasso (1999) conducted a liter-ature review of studies that taught money skillsto students with mental retardation. Resultsshowed that of the 43 studies reviewed, 74% ofthe studies implemented the instruction inthe classroom and the community or imple-mented instruction in the classroom and con-ducted probes in the community. However,only a few studies taught all skills in the com-munity. Overall, results showed that studentswith varying levels of mental retardation couldlearn the skills to make purchases indepen-dently.

Limitations

Although evidence has shown that CBI is ef-fective in teaching functional skills, results ofthis literature review should be viewed withcaution due to several limitations. First, sincethe purpose of the review was to look at stud-ies that taught skills to students in the com-munity, the exclusion criterion resulted ineliminating any studies in which adults werethe only participants. There have been severalstudies that taught functional skills to adults incommunity settings (e.g., Taylor & O’Reilly,2000; Test, Howell, Burkhart, & Beroth,1993.) It is possible that these skills could betaught to students with disabilities duringcommunity-based instruction. A second limi-tation to the current review was only studies inwhich participants were affiliated with aschool were included. For example, Arnold-Reid, Schloss, and Alper (1997) included 3high school aged participants who lived in agroup home. The study was conducted in thegroup home and therefore was not includedin the current review. Finally, studies includedin this review only dated back 15 years. Thisdate was selected since it was the first time thatfederal law mandated transition services to beincluded on IEPs.

Implications for Future Research

The purpose of this review was to determinethe extent of research using community-basedinstruction across grade levels. The majority ofthe studies (n � 14) were conducted at the


high school level, while eight studies were atthe middle school level, and six studies were atthe elementary school level. These results in-dicate a need for additional research with stu-dents in the primary and middle grades. Ad-ditionally, students with mental retardationwere most common in terms of disability cat-egory (87.0%) across the studies included inthis review. Therefore, there is a need for CBIstudies in which participants with other dis-abilities are included. Finally, of the 23 stud-ies, 10 taught skills in the daily living domain,8 in the community domain, 4 in the voca-tional domain, and 2 in the recreation do-main area. The large number of studies in thedaily living domain demonstrates a need formore research in the vocational, community,and recreation domain areas in a communitysetting.

In addition, results showed that slightlymore than half (52.2%) of the studies col-lected generalization data. In order to helpfacilitate students learning and increase theirability to use their skills in different settings,with different people, or with different items,students should be taught these skills in thecommunity and generalization probes shouldbe administered to determine their ability todraw from their newly acquired skills. Finally,since less than half (48%) of the studies col-lected maintenance data, it would be benefi-cial if future researchers included mainte-nance data in their studies. Particularly, asfunctional life skills are intended to help stu-dents gain the skills needed to help thembecome independent adults, students whohave these skills are likely to be more success-ful in the real world.

Implications for Practice

The findings of this review offer practitionersmany ideas for teaching functional skills in thenatural environment and in providing addi-tional simulated instruction across the voca-tional, daily living, community, and recreationdomain areas. Furthermore, skills may betaught to students ranging in age from child-hood to adulthood. Specifically, more teach-ers can teach elementary-aged students skillsin the community. For example, teachers canteach social skills to elementary age studentsin recreational settings such as on the play-

ground during recess. There also appears tobe a need for practitioners at the middleschool level to teach job skills. Further, re-search suggests that practitioners at the ele-mentary, middle, and high school levels teachsafety skills.

Results of this literature review show that ofthe 23 studies included in this review, 15(65.2%) were published before the passage ofNo Child Left Behind (NCLB) in 2001. Theresult of this mandate has encouraged morestudents with disabilities to access the generalcurriculum. According to Wagner, Newman,and Cameto (2004), NLTS2 data showed 21percentage point decrease in the number ofstudents with disabilities taking courses in thespecial education setting. Because of the im-portance of students with disabilities accessingthe general curriculum, students may not betaught functional skills which have been doc-umented in the literature as leading topostschool success (Spooner, Dymond, Smith,& Kennedy, 2006). Additionally, teachers mayface challenges such as a lack of (a) commu-nity resources to design these experiences, (b)administrative support, or (c) manpower toprovide instruction. Therefore, teachers mayneed to refer to literature reviews such as thisone for examples of previous researchers whohave used evidence-based strategies to effec-tively conduct community based instruction. Itis also important to note that although thepurpose of this literature review was to identifythe skills taught in the community acrossgrade levels, practitioners may teach pre-req-uisite skills in the classroom prior to teachingthe intended skill in the community. For ex-ample, if a teacher wanted to teach purchas-ing skills to a student that is unfamiliar withthe value of coins he/she may teach the stu-dent the values of each coin in the classroomprior to teaching purchasing an item in thecommunity. These and other techniques willhelp facilitate students’ acquisition of skillsand knowledge that are essential to their suc-cess after high school.

References

(References marked with an “*” were included inthe literature review)

Agran, M., Snow, K., & Swaner, J. (1999). A survey ofsecondary level teachers’ opinions on communi-


ty-based instruction and inclusive education. TheJournal of the Association for Persons with Severe Hand-icaps, 24, 58–62.

*Alberto, P. A., Cihak, D. F., & Gama, R. I. (2005).Use of static picture prompts versus video model-ing during simulation instruction. Research in De-velopmental Disabilities, 26, 327–339.

Alwell, M., & Cobb, B. (2006). A map of the inter-vention literature in secondary special educationtransition. Career Development for Exceptional Indi-viduals, 29, 3–27.

Arnold-Reid, G. S., Schloss, P. J., & Alper, S. (1997).Teaching meal planning to youth with mentalretardation in natural settings. Remedial and Spe-cial Education, 18, 166–173.

Baer, R. M., Flexer, R. W., Beck, S., Amstutz, N.,Hoffman, L., & Brothers, J., et al. (2003). A col-laborative follow up study on transition serviceutilization and post-school outcomes. Career Devel-opment for Exceptional Individuals, 26, 7–25.

*Bates, P. E., Cuvo, T., Miner, C. A., & Korabek,C. A. (2001). A simulated and community-basedinstruction involving persons with mild and mod-erate mental retardation. Research in DevelopmentalDisabilities, 22, 95–115.

Beakley, B. A., & Yoder, S. L. (1998). Middle school-ers learn community skills. Teaching ExceptionalChildren, 30, 16–21.

*Berg, W. K., Wacker, D. P., Ebbers, B., Wiggins, B.,Fowler, M., & Wilkes, P. (1995). A demonstrationof generalization of performance across settings,materials, and motor responses for students withprofound mental retardation. Behavior Modifica-tion, 19, 119–143.

Blackorby, J., & Wagner, M. (1996). Longitudinalpostschool outcomes of youth with disabilities:Findings from the National Longitudinal Transi-tion Study. Exceptional Children, 62, 399–413.

*Branham, R. S., Collins, B. C., Schuster, J. W., &Kleinert, H. (1999). Teaching community skills tostudents with moderate disabilities: Comparingcombined techniques of classroom simulation,videotape modeling, and community-based in-struction. Education and Training in Mental Retar-dation and Developmental Disabilities, 34, 170–181.

Brolin, D. E., & Gysbers, N. C. (1989). Career edu-cation for students with disabilities. Journal ofCounseling and Development, 68, 155–159.

Browder, D. M., & Grasso, E. (1999). Teachingmoney skills to individuals with mental retarda-tion: A research review with practical applica-tions. Remedial and Special Education, 20, 297–308.

Brown, P. (2000). Linking transition services to stu-dent outcomes for students with moderate/severemental retardation. Career Development for Excep-tional Individuals, 23, 39–55.

Burcroff, T. L., Radogna, D. M., & Wright, E. H.(2003). Community forays: Addressing students’

functional skills in inclusive settings. Teaching Ex-ceptional Children, 35, 52–57.

*Cihak, D. F., Alberto, P. A., Kessler, K. B., & Taber,T. A. (2004). An investigation of instructionalscheduling arrangements for community-basedinstruction. Research in Developmental Disabilities,25, 67–88.

*Cihak, D., Alberto, P. A., Taber-Doughty, T., &Gama, R. I. (2006). A comparison of static pictureprompting and video prompting simulation strat-egies using group instructional procedures. Focuson Autism and Other Developmental Disabilities, 21,89–99.

*Collins, B. C., Stinson, D. M., & Land, L. (1993). Acomparison of in vivo and simulation prior to invivo instruction in teaching generalized safetyskills. Education and Training in Mental Retardation,28, 128–142.

Cummings, R., Maddox, C. B., & Casey, J. (2000).Individualized transition planning for studentswith learning disabilities. The Career DevelopmentQuarterly, 49, 60–72.

*Cuvo, A. J., & Klatt, K. P. (1992). Effects of com-munity-based, videotape, and flash card instruc-tion of community-referenced sight words on stu-dents with mental retardation. Journal of AppliedBehavior Analysis, 25, 499–512.

*Davis, C. A., Brady, M. P., Williams, W. E., & Burta,M. (1992). The effects of self-operated auditoryprompting tapes on the performance fluency ofpersons with severe mental retardation. Educationand Treatment in Mental Retardation, 27, 39–50.

deFur, S. H. (2003). IEP transition planning –Fromcompliance to quality. Exceptionality, 11, 115–128.

*Domaracki, J. W., & Lyon, S. R. (1992). A compar-ative analysis of general case simulation instruc-tion and naturalistic instruction. Research in Devel-opmental Disabilities, 13, 363–379.

Fabian, E. S., Lent, R. W., & Willis, S. P. (1998).Predicting work transition outcomes for studentswith disabilities: Implications for counselors. Jour-nal of Counseling and Development, 76, 311–316.

*Ferguson, B., & McDonnell, J. (1991). A compari-son of serial and concurrent sequencing strate-gies in teaching generalized grocery item locationto students with moderate handicaps. Educationand Training in Mental Retardation, 26, 292–304.

Frederick-Dugan, A., Test, D. W., & Varn, L. (1991).Acquisition and generalization of purchasingskills using a calculator by students who are men-tally retarded. Education and Training in MentalRetardation, 26, 381–387.

Gaylord, V., & Hayden, M. (1998). A decade later:Employment, residential, and social changes inthe lives of adults and young adults with moderateand severe disabilities. Policy Research Brief, 9(2),2–12.


Individuals with Disabilities Education Act of 1990,P.L. 101–476, 20 U.S.C. §1400 et seq.

*Hall, M. G., Schuster, J. W., Wolery, M., Gast, D. L.,& Doyle, P. M. (1992). Teaching chained skills ina non-school setting using a divided half instruc-tional format. Journal of Behavioral Education, 2,257–279.

Hamill, L. B. (2002). Teaching students with mod-erate to severe disabilities: An applied approachfor inclusive environments. Upper Saddle River,NJ: Merrill Prentice Hall.

*Haring, T. G., Breen, C. G., Weiner, J., Kennedy,C. H., & Bednersh, F. (1995). Using videotapemodeling to facilitate generalized purchasingskills. Journal of Behavioral Education, 5, 29–53.

Heal, L. W., & Rusch, F. R. (1995). Predicting em-ployment for students who leave special educa-tion high school programs. Exceptional Children,61, 472–488.

Hutcherson, K., Langone, J., Ayres, K., & Clees, T.(2004). Computer assisted instruction to teachitem selection in grocery stores: An assessment ofacquisition and generalization. Journal of SpecialEducation Technology, 19(4), 33–42.

Keller, T. E., Bost, N. S., Lock, E. D., & Marcenko,M. O. (2005). Factors associated with participa-tion of children with mental health problems instructured youth development programs. Journalof Emotional and Behavioral Disorders, 13, 141–151.

Kluth, P. (2000). Community-referenced learningand the inclusive classroom. Remedial and SpecialEducation, 21, 19–26.

Kohler, P. D. (1993). Best practices in transition:Substantiated or implied? Career Development forExceptional Individuals, 16, 107–121.

Lancioni, G. E., & O’ Reilly, M. F. (2002). Teachingfood preparation skills to people with intellectualdisabilities: a literature overview. Journal of AppliedResearch in Intellectual Disabilities, 15, 236–253.

*Morse, T. E., & Schuster, J. W. (2000). Teachingelementary students with moderate intellectualdisabilities how to shop for groceries. ExceptionalChildren, 66, 273–288.

*Murzynski, N. T., & Bourret, J. C. (2006). Combin-ing video modeling and least-to-most promptingfor establishing response chains. Behavioral Inter-ventions, 22, 147–152.

Neubert, D. A. (2003). The role of assessment in thetransition to adult life process for students withdisabilities. Exceptionality, 11, 63–75.

*Pattavina, S., Bergstrom, T., Marchand-Martella,N. E., & Martella, R. C. (1992). “Moving on”:Learning to cross streets independently. TeachingExceptional Children, 25(1), 32–35.

Phelps, L. A., & Hanley-Maxwell, C. (1997). School-to-work transitions for youth with disabilities: Areview of outcomes and practices. Review of Edu-cational Research, 67, 197–226.

Phillips, J. F., Reid, D. H., Korabek, C. A., & Hursh,D. E. (1988). Community-based instruction withprofoundly mentally retarded persons: Client andpublic responsiveness. Research in DevelopmentalDisabilities, 9, 3–21.

Rabren, K., Dunn, C., & Chambers, D. (2002). Pre-dictors of post-high school employment amongyoung adults with disabilities. Career Developmentfor Exceptional Individuals, 25, 25–40.

Repetto, J. B., Webb, K. W., Garvan, C. W., & Wash-ington, T. (2002). Connecting student outcomeswith transition practices in Florida. Career Develop-ment for Exceptional Individuals, 25, 123–139.

Rynders, J. E., Schleien, S. J., & Mustonen, T.(1990). Integrating children with severe disabili-ties for intensified outdoor education: Focus onfeasibility. Mental Retardation, 28, 7–14.

Sample, P. L. (1998). Postschool outcomes for stu-dents with significant emotional disturbance fol-lowing best-practice transition services. BehavioralDisorders, 23, 231–242.

*Schloss, P. J., Alper, S., Young, H., Arnold-Reid, G.,Aylward, M., & Dudenhoeffer, S. (1995). Acquisi-tion of functional sight words in community-based recreation settings. The Journal of SpecialEducation, 29, 84–96.

Sitlington, P. L., Frank, A. R., & Carson, R. (1992).Adult adjustment among high school graduateswith mild disabilities. Exceptional Children, 59,221–234.

*Souza, G., & Kennedy, C. H. (2003). Facilitatingsocial interactions in the community for a transi-tion-age student with severe disabilities. Journal ofPositive Behavior Interventions, 5, 179–182.

Spooner, F., Dymond, S. K., Smith, A., & Kennedy,C. H. (2006). What we know and need to knowabout accessing the general curriculum for stu-dents with significant disabilities. Research & Prac-tice for Persons with Severe Disabilities, 31, 277–283.

*Taber, T. A., Alberto, P. A., Hughes, M., & Seltzer,A. (2002). A strategy for students with moderatedisabilities when lost in the community. Researchand Practice for Persons with Severe Disabilities, 27,141–152.

*Taber, T. A., Alberto, P. A., Seltzer, A., & Hughes,M. (2003). Obtaining assistance when lost in thecommunity using cell phones. Research and Prac-tice for Persons with Severe Disabilities, 28, 105–116.

Taylor, I., & O’Reilly, M. F. (2000). Generalizationof supermarket shopping skills for individualswith mild intellectual disabilities using stimulusequivalence training. The Psychological Record, 50,49–62.

Test, D. W., Howell, A., Burkhart, K., & Beroth, T.(1993). The one-more-than technique as a strat-egy for counting money for individuals with mod-erate mental retardation. Education and Trainingin Mental Retardation, 28, 232–241.


*Vandercook, T. (1991). Leisure instruction out-comes: Criterion performance, positive interac-tions, and acceptance by typical high schoolpeers. The Journal of Special Education, 25, 320–339.

Wagner, M., & Blackorby, J. (1996). Transition fromhigh school to work or college: How special edu-cation students fare. The Future of Children, 6(1),103–120.

Wagner, M., Newman, L., & Cameto, R. (2004).Changes over time in the secondary school experiences ofstudents with disabilities: A report of findings from theNational Longitudinal Transition Study (NLTS2).Retrieved January 16, 2008 from http://www.nlts2.org/reports/2004_04/nlts2_report_2004_04_ch3.pdf

Wagner, M., Newman, L., Cameto, R., & Levine, P.(2005). Changes over time in the early postschool out-comes of youth with disabilities: A report of findingsfrom the National Longitudinal Transition Study

(NLTS) and the National Longitudinal TransitionStudy-2 (NLTS2). Retrieved September 12, 2005from http://www.nlts2.org/pdfs/str6_completereport.pdf

Wehman, P. (1990). School-to-Work: Elements ofsuccessful programs. Teaching Exceptional Children,23(1), 40–43.

*Westling, D. L., Floyd, J., & Carr, D. (1990). Effectof single setting versus multiple setting trainingon learning to shop in a department store. Amer-ican Journal on Mental Retardation, 94, 616–624.

Xin, P. X., Grasso, E., Dipipi-Hoy, C. M., & Jitendra,A. (2005). The effects of a purchasing skill in-struction for individuals with developmental dis-abilities: A meta-analysis. Exceptional Children, 71,379–400.

Received: 9 December 2008Initial Acceptance: 11 February 2009Final Acceptance: 1 July 2009


Documents

Review of the Literature on Community-Based Instruction ...daddcec.org/Portals/0/CEC/Autism_Disabilities/Research/Publications/... · Review of the Literature on Community-Based Instruction