Review from last class….Higher order conditioningOvershadowing (Stimulus Features)Blocking & Latent Inhibition (Prior

Experience)

Higher Order Conditioning

Need to maintain 1st order conditioningTone-Food

Note that Light is still never directly paired with food!

first-order CS

tone (CS1) food (US)

second-order CS

Light (CS2)

Phase 1:ToneFood

Phase 2:LightTone

But what would happen to the Tone?- Extinction!ToneFood

Overshadowing (Stimulus Features)A more salient stimulus will interfere with

learning about less salient stimulie.g. compound stimuli

Loud noise & dim light foodLight not learned about

Blocking (Prior Experience)Novel stimuli presented in compound with an

existing CS will not be learned aboutCS must be informative (i.e. add new

information)Light won’t be learned about

Latent Inhibition (Prior Experience)Pre-exposure to a CS makes it harder to condition

Learn first that CS does not signal US

Phase 1:Buzzer No FoodPhase 2:Buzzer Food

“Regular” Classical Conditioning:Buzzer Food

MORE TRIALS!

Pavlovian (Classical) Applications

Conditioned SuppressionConditional Response (CR) involves suppress

behaviour that would otherwise be performed1) Train rat to press bar for food2) Classical Conditioning: Pair light with shockScared rats “freeze”

i.e. when shock is coming, the rat will freezeWhile the rat is “frozen with fear”, it will NOT be

pushing the barAfter conditioning, the rat should freeze in response

to the light (CR)

Compare the amount of bar pressing when light is off and when light is on

Conditioned Emotional ResponseEmotional reactionsLearnedClassical conditioning

Little AlbertWatson & Rayner (1920)

Hard line behaviouristNature vs Nurture

Fear previously thought to be:InnateFaulty reasoning

Initial studies showed that infants NOT afraid of many “innately frightening” stimuliE.g. snakes, fire, rats

Conditioned fear

MethodologyAlbert (11 months old)Present rat … observe

No initial fearPresent rat … bang metal bar (loud noise)

UR = startlePresent rat … Albert cries, avoids

CRPresent other furry objects

generalization

TerminologyUS = noiseUR = startle response/fearCS = ratCR = fear/avoidance

ConclusionsFear response produced through classical

conditioningWatson suggests fear, hate, love

conditionable

Albert IssuesSample sizeReplicationGeneralization to other objects

PrejudicePrejudice related to hate and fearHate and fear conditionableStaats & Staats (1958)Paired positive, negative, neutral words with

nationalitiesSubjects rate nationalitiesRatings correspond with conditioning

In real life…Where do these associations come from?

Political speechesMedia coverageNegative images, words, impressions paired

with identifiable group

Counter ConditioningMary Cover Jones (1924)Eliminate phobia via classical conditioningPeter feared rabbitsPeter eats snack (US) … present rabbit (CS)Associate positive US with CS

Systematic DesensitizationA type of Counter-conditioning

Also Aversion therapyRelaxation techniquesGradual introduction of phobic stimulusImagination up to real situation

Flooding“Flood” patient with exposure to fear-

inducing stimulusNot counter-conditioningKind of like habituation but…… not discreet trials!

First-Order C.C. in AdsProduct (initially neutral --> CS)Pair with stimulus that elicits positive

emotion (US)Consumer sees product, has positive CR

ExampleSausagesUS = funny situationUR = happinessCS = brandCR = happiness, amusement, positive

emotion

Example

Second-Order C.C.Use previously conditioned celebrity,

situation, etc.CS1 & US

Now, pair brand (CS2) with CS1

ExampleSprintPeyton Manning = CS1

Positive feeling = CRAttractive, successful, lifestyle = USPositive feeling = URSprint mobility = CS2

Assumption: buy phone, be rich, popular, laser rocket arm

ExampleJapander.comBrad Pitt and 503 Jeans

Pitt (CS1), leading man, celebrity, rich, pretty = desirable (US), 503s (CS2)

Performance-void

ProblemsCelebs don’t always maintain statusTom Cruise spoofMichael Jackson

Paraphilia“Incorrect love”Fetishism, masochism, pedophilia, etc.More common in malesFreud: unconscious forcesClassical conditioning: association formed

Example: MasochismGenerally, CS is previously neutralBut, a US, by pairing with another strong US,

can become a CSPavlov: shock (CS) for food (US)Masochism: pain (CS) for sexual pleasure

(US)

Counter ConditioningPair undesired CS with strongly aversive US

(e.g., nausea)Aversion therapyAwareness not necessary for conditioning

TreatmentVery difficult with some types of paraphilia

Pedophilia, rape?Evolutionary PsychologyMale attraction to youthfulnessDesire for dominance and power

TypicallyLong-delay or trace conditioningUS is food poisoning, illness, etc.UR is nausea induced painCS is novel food/flavourCR is avoidance, nauseaViolation of contiguity?

Explanations?SensitizationAftertasteBiological preparedness

Taste aversion a special case

Biological Preparedness in Taste-AversionGarcia & Koelling (1966)

Pre-cond Post-cond Pre-cond Post-cond

X-ray Shock

Flavoured water “Bright-noisy” water

ExplanationBiological predispositionTaste and nauseaAudiovisual and shockMust know about CS-US relationship before

predicting nature of CRCertain stimuli more easily associated than

others

Allergic ReactionRelease of histaminesBody’s immune response to allergensNot all allergic responses biologicalCan be learned

ExamplesPatient sneezes when presented artificial

roseAllergies to pets; sometimes not as bad if

don’t know if pets are in house

Russell et al. (1984)Expose guinea pigs to BSABecomes allergen (US for histamine

release)Pair BSA with odour of fish or sulphur (CSs)Expose guinea pigs to odours and get

increased histamines (CR) in bloodstreamPreparatory value of classical conditioning