Review Article Nanosized Particles of Silica and Its ...downloads.hindawi.com/journals/jnt/2015/852394.pdfaspects of food and nutrition applications [] . Sol-gel SiO 2 ... Micro- and

Review ArticleNanosized Particles of Silica and Its Derivatives for Applicationsin Various Branches of Food and Nutrition Sectors

Mohammad Reza Kasaai

Department of Food Science and Technology Sari Agricultural Sciences and Natural Resources University Khazar Abad RoadKm 9 PO Box 578 Sari Mazandaran Iran

Correspondence should be addressed to Mohammad Reza Kasaai reza kasaaihotmailcom

Received 28 July 2015 Revised 17 November 2015 Accepted 19 November 2015

Academic Editor Jorge M Seminario

Copyright copy 2015 Mohammad Reza Kasaai This is an open access article distributed under the Creative Commons AttributionLicense which permits unrestricted use distribution and reproduction in any medium provided the original work is properlycited

Nanosized particles of silica and its derivatives have been identified as versatile for a broad range of science technology andengineering applications In this paper an effort has been made to provide a short review from the available literature informationon their applications in various branches of food and nutrition sectors The information provided in this paper describes variousparameters affecting their performances and efficienciesThe properties and applications of nanosilica and its derivatives have beencomparedwithmicrosilica and bulk-silica for their performancesTheuse of nanosized particles of silica and its derivatives providesa number of advantages Their efficiencies and performances are significantly higher than those of the traditional ones

1 Introduction

Science and technology have many challenges in foodindustries due to the need to produce high quality offood ingredients or food products For instance pathogendetection encapsulation delivery of bioactive compoundspacking systems food protection and food storage are someexamples of developing applications of nanotechnology thatcould improve production processes in order to achieveproducts with better characteristics and functionalities infood industries [1 2]

Materials with at least one dimension in nanometer-length scale and a large surface-to-volume ratio createnovel properties and phenomena [2] They become ideal forapplications that involve food composite materials chemicalreactions controlled and immediate release of substancesin active and functional packaging technologies and energystorage in intelligent packaging [2]

High quality of food components or food products canbe achieved by means of nanotechnology Nanotechnologycan address all of the requirements on food safety (controllingmicrobial growth and delaying oxidation) [3] In addition itprovides new food packaging materials with improvement inboth performance and properties (mechanical barrier and

antimicrobial) together with monitoring the conditions offood during transport and storage

Applications of nanosized particles in food packagingto achieve high quality of food products probably are amajor section of its applications in food nanotechnologyPolymer nanocomposites consist of polymer matrices andfillers with at least one dimension within 1ndash100 nm Polymerscontaining nanosized particles exhibit unique combinationsof properties not achievable with traditional compositesUnlike traditional composites these novel fillers often alterthe properties of the entire polymer matrix while at thesame time imparting new functionality because of theirchemical composition and nanosized components [4] Poly-mer nanocomposites incorporating nanosized particles are anovel class of composite materials Nanocomposites producefrom low volume fractions of fillers which affect the entirematrix due to their large surface area to volume ratiothrough an interaction zone The unique nature of theseparticles presents unique opportunities to create a wide rangeof multifunctional polymer composites [4] They have beenshown significant improvements in mechanical properties atvery low filler weight fractions Applications of nanosizedsilica in food and nutrition are given in the followingsections

Hindawi Publishing CorporationJournal of NanotechnologyVolume 2015 Article ID 852394 6 pageshttpdxdoiorg1011552015852394

2 Journal of Nanotechnology

A number of important issues should be taken intoconsideration for applications of nanotechnology in foodtechnology The most important ones are the safety concernsdue to possible migration of nanoparticles from packagingmaterials into foods and their eventual toxicological effects[3] The major disadvantage of nanoscale materials for foodand nutrition application is their toxicity Some of limitedscientific data about migration of nanoparticles into foodsare given in the following Previous studies have shown thepossibility of nanomaterials migration from packaging orcontainers to foodstuff [3]Materials that are 300 nmor less indiameter can be taken up by individual human cells [5] andnanomaterials less than 70 nm can even be taken up by a cellrsquosnuclei where they can cause major damage [6 7] The effectsof exposing human lungrsquos submucosal cells to SiO

2of various

sizes (10 150 and 500 nm) for 2ndash24 h in vitro have beenstudied [8] The authors concluded the nanotoxicity of 10 nmSiO2on the submucosal cells is associatedwith inflammation

Toxic effect was not observed with amorphous silica with 150and 500 nm

The major applications of nanotechnology could bein food packaging due to a wide range of benefits suchas improvements in barrier mechanical and antimicrobialproperties and performances Many researches are addressedto the setup of new food packaging materials in whichpolymer nanocomposites incorporate nanoparticles [4]

Nanosized particles of silica and its derivatives havebeen employed in various branches of food and nutritionsectors However these particles have not been used as aningredient of food productsThey have been used in food andnutrient components analysis as a supporting material formaking column chromatography or increasing sensitivity orefficiency for glucose biosensors as food packaging as fillersor protecting agent to increase shelf-life of food productsas edible (flavor) carriers as an adsorbent of moisture oras a clarifying agent to remove impurities and undesirableparticles remaining in beverages In this report an effort hasbeen made to provide a short review from some availableliterature information on the applications of nanosized par-ticles of silica and silica derivatives in various branches offood and nutrition sectors as fillers in food packaging asflavor carriers as supporting materials for food and nutrientcomponents analysis or as an adsorbent or a clarifying agentAll of the above-mentioned applications of the nanosizedparticles result in products with better quality characteristicsor functionalities in food industries in comparison withemploying of larger particles with the same composition

2 Presenting Different Types ofSilica for Applications inVarious Food and Nutrition Sectors

Synthetic silica (colloidal silica silica gels and precipitatedsilica) which is pure and produced mostly in amorphouspowder forms can be used for this study [9] Silica gelsare widely employed in food industry as flavor carriers [10]Amorphous sol-gel SiO

2is nontoxic and safe whereas the sol-

gel entrapment of delicate chemicals in its inner pores results

in pronounced chemical and physical stabilization of theentrapped actives [10] Porous sol-gel-made silica particleshave been used as encapsulation matrices for controlledrelease of substances in food and pharmaceutical sectors[11] Sol-gel process is also widely used to produce silicondioxide glass and ceramic materials [9] Sol-gel silica glasseshave been used as containers in food packaging [12 13]Sol-gel silica glasses do not swell or change structure underpH or temperature variations and are not suitable for otheraspects of food and nutrition applications [10] Sol-gel SiO

2

doped with liquid organic process has never resulted information of pure silicon oxide as the residual valenceelectrons on siloxane (SindashOndashSi) have the ability to react withwater resulting in a surface covered with silanol groups (SindashOH) possessing a highly polar behavior A large numberof unreacted silanol groups exist at surface of doped sol-gelglasses thereby creating a large inner porosity which givesplace to the impressive variety of chemical applications ofdoped sol-gel silica [10]

3 Parameters Corresponding to Particle SizesAffecting the Properties of Materials

Micro- and nanoscience and technology refer to materi-als size characterization with dimensions on the order ofmicrometers and nanometers A number of physical effectshave different significance on the micrometer scale com-pared to nanometer scale [14ndash16] The small dimension ofnanomaterials such as nanofillers and their specific pro-cessing methods affects their defect structure which hasa significant influence on the properties of these materi-als [16] Nanofillers possess small mechanical optical andelectrical defects compared to microscale fillers [16] Whenthe dimensions of particles reduce into nanoscale level theproperties of the particles differ significantly from those ofbulk materials and micron-scale particles Thus variationsin melting temperature color magnetization and chargecapacity are often observed [3] The small size of the fillersleads to an exceptionally large interfacial area in composites[3] Nanofillers are characterized for at least one dimensionin nanometer-length scale (within 1ndash100 nm in size) Theterm nanocomposites refers to composite materials thatcontain typically low amounts of nanostructured materialsTypically 1ndash7 of nanoparticles is added to the materials toform composite materials [2 3] Most nanocomposites beingconsidered in the packaging sector are based on low volumefractions [2 3] The total surface area of 1 gr of polymerparticles having a diameter of 01 120583m would be about 60m2and the total surface area is inversely proportional to thediameter [17]

4 Description of Various Applications ofNanosized Silica Particles in Food andNutrition Sectors

41 Use of Nanosized Silica Particles in Fabrication of Sen-sors SiO

2nanosized particles have been used to construct

nanobiosensors [18 19] The sensitivity and performance of

Journal of Nanotechnology 3

biosensors are being improved by using nanomaterials fortheir constructions and their size characterizations The useof nanomaterials has allowed the introduction of many newsignal transduction technologies in biosensors because oftheir nanosized dimensions [20ndash22] The principal advan-tages to use biosensors are high specificity and sensitivitybeing simple to use low-cost instrumentation fast responsetimes minimum sample pretreatments and ease of transportfor in situ measurement [23]

Glucose biosensor is an environmental friendly diagnosisdevice to measure glucose in food nutrition and clinicalsectors A variety of glucose biosensors with a high sensitivityand an excellent reproducibility based on nanotechnologyhave been developed [24ndash28] Among these developmentsthe nanoparticles enhanced glucose biosensors are interestingbiosensors [28] The unprotected Pt nanoclusters (averagesize 2 nm) mixed with the nanoscale SiO

2particles (average

size 13 nm) were used as a glucose oxidase immobilizationcarrier to fabricate the amperometric glucose biosensor [29]The bioactivity of glucose oxidase (GOx) immobilized onthe composite was maintained and the as-prepared biosen-sor demonstrated high sensitivity (385120583AmMminus1) and goodstability in glucose solution The PtndashSiO

2biosensor showed

a detection limit of 15 120583M with a linear range from 027 to408mM In addition the biosensor can be operated underwide pH range (pH 49ndash75) without great changes in itssensitivity

The body naturally regulates blood glucose levels as apart of metabolic homeostasis It is the primary source ofenergy for the bodyrsquos cells and blood lipids It is an importantnutrient substance Thus it is desirable to develop a reliablea reproducible and a sensitive method for its measurementThe ability to obtain a rapid an accurate and a precise glucosemeasurement is an essential aspect in nutrition and clinicalsectors Glucose biosensors offer a possibility of carrying outa simple and a rapid analytical procedure [30 31]

Sol-gel derived silicates have been proved to be highlycompatible with enzymes [32] With the development ofmaterial science it provides more opportunities to immo-bilize various biomolecules which show high selectivity andsensitivity to the target analytes and therefore fabricatebiosensors with a good performance A series of monodis-persed nanosilica film enhanced glucose biosensors withdifferent thicknesses were fabricated by using a dip-coatingmethod The suitable thickness for a nanosized SiO

2film

provided optimal environment for glucose oxidase to retainits bioactivity A key factor to fabricate a high sensitivityglucose biosensor was to enlarge the enzyme loading on thesurface The high surface area of the small nanosized SiO

2

particles in a thick film increased the surface enzyme loadingresulting in a high performance of a biosensor But if the filmis too thick the performance of the sensor would decreasebecause the mass transfer of glucose and H

2O2becomes

difficulty [28 33 34]Glucose can be oxidized to gluconolactone in the pres-

ence of glucose oxidase with a parallel conversion of dis-solved O

2to H2O2 Glucose oxidase produces hydrogen

peroxide which is directly proportional to the concentrationof glucose The H

2O2formed near electrode can thus be

detected quantitatively (either by oxidation or reduction)[28 34]

Glucose +O2

Glucose oxidase997888997888997888997888997888997888997888997888997888997888997888rarr

oxidationD-glucose-15-lactone

+H2O2

(1)

H2O2+O-dianisidine Peroxidase

997888997888997888997888997888997888997888rarroxidation

H2O

+ oxidized chromogen(2)

The majority of biosensors for glucose measurement havefocused on the amperometric detection of glucose Theelectrochemical response of glucose with a nanosized silicabiosensor revealed a linear behavior in the range of 0005ndash25mM glucose in a phosphate buffer solution with pH 72[28 34 35]

42 Use of Nanosized Silica Particles in Food PackagingGenerally polymer composites made by silicates as fillerswith a low level of concentration exhibited enhancement ofmechanical and physicochemical properties in comparisonwith the original polymers Mechanical strength is generallyrequired tomaintain the structural integrity andbarrier prop-erties of thin films Nanoparticles have been proved to be apromising option in order to improvemechanical and barrierproperties of materials for making nanocomposites [36] Itcould be inferred that the nanoparticles could affect watervapor permeability (WVP) oxygen permeability (OP) andlongitudinal strength of polymeric films which could yieldsignificant barrier and mechanical properties advantages[37]The improvements result in protection of food productsfrom deterioration prolong shelf-life of foods and maintainfood quality Gas permeation through polymer nanocompos-ites follows a mass transport mechanism similar to that in asemicrystalline polymer matrix During gas permeation gasmolecules are initially adsorbed on the surface of the polymerand then diffuse through the polymer In a nanocompositethe polymer phase is considered to be permeable and silicateplatelets are considered to be nonpermeable to gases [38]Nanosized silica as an inorganic material at appropriate levelof contents was introduced into polylactic acid (PLA) as anorganic component with a biodegradable property to preparebiodegradable organic-inorganic hybrid coating materials bysol-gel process [39] Water vapor and gas barrier propertiesof the final composite materials PLASiO

2 were improved

The final products can be used as coating films in foodpackagingThe barrier property of a polymer material can bedescribed in terms of permeability which is dependent on thediffusion coefficient of gas and the solubility coefficient of thatgas in the polymer matrix [12 13 38ndash41] Polycaprolactone(PCL) filled with SiO

2nanosized particles can be used as

a polymer-based nanocomposite system [42] The size andmorphology of monodispersed silica particles have beenexamined by transmission electron microscopy (TEM) andX-ray diffraction analysis TEM analysis has revealed that thesilica nanoparticles are nearly perfect with no agglomeratedspheres and with an average diameter of 100ndash200 nm while


X-ray analysis has shown that silica nanopowders are com-pletely amorphous [42] Youngrsquos modulus of PCLmodifiedSiO2nanocomposites was increased about 25 with respect

to that found for the PCL homopolymer These resultsare attributed to a good compatibility good dispersion ofnanoparticles and good interfacial adhesion to the matrix[42] Nylon 6 filled with 5 of silica nanosized particles with50 nm in diameter yields increase of 15 in tensile strength23 in Youngrsquos modulus and 78 in impact strength[43]

Aluminum is used as a thin film a thin layer a multilayerfilm a cask (can) for beverages (fruit juices and beer) andfood coatings and packaging [12 13 44] A thin layer of fewnanometers silica on the surface of aluminum (as a thin filma thin layer or a multilayer) protects the metal surface fromoxidizing and reduces its reflectivity [12 13 45]

5 Use of Nanosized Silica as Food Additives inFood Technology

Calcium and magnesium silicate (CaSiO3sdotXH2O MgSiO

3sdot

XH2O) calcium aluminum silicate and aluminum silicate

have been used as anticaking agents in food industries toprevent caking in food products [common salt seasoningsalt (eg a mixture of onion or garlic powder with com-mon salt) dehydrated vegetable and fruit powders soupand sauce powders and baking powder] [44 46ndash48] Cal-cium silicate and silicon dioxide have been also used asnutrient sources and food supplements in food industries[49]

Bentonite montmorillonite clay a complex hydrated alu-minum silicate [Al

2SiO9(OH)119909] with exchangeable cations

and frequently sodium ions have been employed as clarifyingagents It is a selective adsorbent for proteins pectinsphenolic compounds and plant pigments such as chlorophylland carotenoids The adsorption and separation processesare based on attraction between positive charges of thelatter components and the negative charges of the silicatesNanosized silica is used as a fining agent for wines topreclude protein precipitationNanosized silica particles havestronger adsorption ability than that of larger sized particlesfor separation of food components having positive charges[46 47 50]

Nanomembranes are used to separate liquids and gasesat the molecular level Silica nanoparticles embedded in acarbon based may help to produce gases free of impuritiesBecause of the nanocompositersquos ability to trap molecular-sized impurities it could be further used in processes suchas biomolecules purification and sea water desalination [51]Nanomembranes are commonly made from polymers basednanocomposites with a thickness less than 100 nm Suchnanomembranes include polymers combined with a mesh ofsilica nanosized particles The size of the holes in the meshrestricts or allows the passage of different sized moleculesNanomembranes combined with nanosized silica have beenused for purification of polluted water and removal ofcarbon dioxide and other pollutants from liquids and gases[51]

6 Use of Nanosized Silica in Chromatographyto Analysis of Food Components

The most common support for the stationary phase ofchromatography columns is highly pure spherical micro-porous particles of silica that are permeable to solvent andhave a surface area of several hundred square meters pergram A silica surface possesses up to 8120583mol of silanolgroups (SindashOH) per square meter [45] Another examplefor stationary phase is porous graphic carbon deposited onsilicaThe column is packed with tiny particles of silica whichare attached to long hydrocarbon molecules This materialexhibits increased retention of nonpolar compounds relativeto their retention by bonded phases such as C

8 It has high

affinity for polar compounds and performs separations ofisomeric compounds that cannot be done with C

18[45]

Monolithic silica column is a single porous silica rod poly-merized from liquid precursors The inside of silica skeleton(with a network of 2120583m pores) contains a finer networkof sim13 nm pores [45] Approximately 80 of the volumeof the rod is empty space The surface area is 300m2sdotgminus1which compares favorably with that of excellent stationaryphase materials [45] After fabrication the silica rod istightly encased in a chemically resistant plastic tube made ofpolyether ether ketone (PEEK) Employing monolithic silicacolumns for separation of different components enables usto increase the flow rate in liquid chromatography up to10mLsdotminminus1 while retaining a good separation The finerthe particle sizes for the stationary phase the greater theresolution and the slower the flow rate of the column Thisresults in a faster analysis as well as a shorter time of analysis[45] Microporous silica with a controlled pore size provides10000ndash16000 plates per meter Particles with different poresizes can be mixed to give a wider molecular size separationrange For instance a stationary phase with a pore sizerange of 13ndash100 nm can be used to separate a wide range ofmolecular weight (05ndash150 kDa) [45] A very finely divided(10 nm pore size) ultrapure silica gel has been used to modifychemically at the surface by bonding to octadecylsilyl groups[38] To minimize any interaction with basic compounds theparticles should be encapsulated carefully to covermost of theremaining silanol groups [38]

Columns in different chromatography procedures areused to separate several materials present in unknown sam-ples For example in the separation of caffeine from theo-bromine in a chocolate sample caffeine is more soluble thantheobromine in hydrocarbon on the silica surface Thereforecaffeine sticks to the coated silica nanosized particles inthe column more strongly than theobromine does [45]Separation of aroma extracts of roasted coffee was performedby gas chromatography on silica gel [47] Separation of flavorisolates into individual components may be achieved by gaschromatography with fused-silica capillary columns [46]The volatile flavor compounds were separated on a cross-linked 5phenylmethyl silicone fused silica capillary columninstalled in GC equipped with a flame ionization detector[52] Thin-layer chromatography on silica gel impregnatedwith silver nitrate has been used to distinguish betweenisomeric pairs of glycerides The silver ions are complexed


by double bonds of unsaturated triglycerides whose mobilityis thus reduced [45] Fats may be fractionated on a silica-gelcolumn and its nonpolar fraction is eluted with a petroleumether-diethyl ether mixture [46] Separation of many higherboiling food compounds may be achieved by high perfor-mance liquid chromatography with silica as a stationaryphase [46]

7 Conclusions

In this short review the following conclusions were made

(1) Use of nanosized silica as a filler for fabrication ofnanocomposite materials is a promising option inorder to improve various (water vapor oxygen orother gas barrier or mechanical ones) properties toincrease efficiency and to extend shelf-life of foodproducts in food packaging technology

(2) The sensitivity and accuracy of glucose sensorsincrease by applying nanosized silica Use of nano-sized silica in a glucose sensor allows one to measureglucose with a greater reproducibility and low con-centrations

(3) Use of nanosized silica in chromatography columnsto separate different food components takes a shortertime in comparison with microsized silica

(4) A few nanometers of a thin-layer made-up nanosizedsilica protect the surface of aluminum from oxidativereaction and reduce its reflectivity

(5) Use of nanosized silica instead of traditional parti-cles (micron-scale fillers) improves the efficiency ofmaterials (such as anti-caking clarifying adsorptionagents) and reduces consumption of raw materials

Conflict of Interests

The author of this paper declares that there is no conflict ofinterests regarding the publication of this paper

References

[1] H Hernandez-Sanchez and G F Gutierrez-Lopez ldquoIntroduc-tionrdquo in Food Nanoscience and Nanotechnology H Hernandez-Sanchez and G F Gutierrez-Lopez Eds chapter 1 pp 1ndash3Springer New York NY USA 2015

[2] M D Sanchez-Garcia and J M Lagaron ldquoNanocompositesfor food packagingrdquo in Kirk-Othmer Encyclopedia of ChemicalTechnology pp 1ndash11 John Wiley amp Sons New York NY USA2010

[3] C Silvestre D Duraccio and S Cimmino ldquoFood packagingbased on polymer nanomaterialsrdquo Progress in Polymer Sciencevol 36 no 12 pp 1766ndash1782 2011

[4] MAvellaM E ErricoGGentile andMGVolpe ldquoNanocom-posite sensors for food packagingrdquo in Food Nanoscience andNanotechnology H Hernandez-Sanchez and G F Gutierrez-Lopez Eds chapter 53 pp 501ndash510 Springer New York NYUSA 2015

[5] M C Garnett and P Kallinteri ldquoNanomedicines and nanotoxi-cology some physiological principlesrdquo Occupational Medicinevol 56 no 5 pp 307ndash311 2006

[6] M Chen and A von Mikecz ldquoFormation of nucleoplasmicprotein aggregates impairs nuclear function in response to SiO

2

nanoparticlesrdquo Experimental Cell Research vol 305 no 1 pp51ndash62 2005

[7] M Geiser B Rothen-Rutishauser N Kapp et al ldquoUltrafineparticles cross cellular membranes by non-phagocytic mech-anisms in lungs and in cultured cellsrdquo Environmental HealthPerspectives vol 113 no 11 pp 1555ndash1560 2005

[8] J McCarthy I Inkielewicz-Stępniak J J Corbalan and MW Radomski ldquoMechanisms of toxicity of amorphous silicananoparticles on human lung submucosal cells in vitro Protec-tive effects of fisetinrdquo Chemical Research in Toxicology vol 25no 10 pp 2227ndash2235 2012

[9] I A Rahman and V Padavettan ldquoSynthesis of silica nanoparti-cles by sol-gel size-dependent properties surface modificationand applications in silica-polymer nanocompositesmdasha reviewrdquoJournal of Nanomaterials vol 2012 Article ID 132424 15 pages2012

[10] R Ciriminna and M Pagliaro ldquoSol-gel microencapsulationof odorants and flavors opening the route to sustainablefragrances and aromasrdquo Chemical Society Reviews vol 42 no24 pp 9243ndash9250 2013

[11] S R Veith M Perren and S E Pratsinis ldquoEncapsulation andretention of decanoic acid in sol-gel-made silicasrdquo Journal ofColloid and Interface Science vol 283 no 2 pp 495ndash502 2005

[12] R Coles D McDowell and M J Kirwan Food PackagingTechnology Blackwell Publishing CRC Press Oxford UK2003

[13] L Robertson G Food Packaging Principles and Practices Tayloramp Francis Boca Raton Fla USA 2005

[14] G A Mansoori Principles of Nanotechnology Molecular-BasedStudy of Condensed Matter in Small Systems World ScientificHackensack NJ USA 2005

[15] P Sanguansri and M A Augustin ldquoNanoscale materialsdevelopmentmdasha food industry perspectiverdquo Trends in FoodScience amp Technology vol 17 no 10 pp 547ndash556 2006

[16] J Gubicza Defects in Nanomaterials Woodhead PublishingLimited Cambridge UK 2012

[17] P Kumar K P Sandeep S Alavi V D Truong and R E GorgaldquoPreparation and characterization of bio-nanocomposite filmsbased on soy protein isolate and montmorillonite using meltextrusionrdquo Journal of Food Engineering vol 100 no 3 pp 480ndash489 2010

[18] A L Simonian T A Good S-S Wang and J R WildldquoNanoparticle-based optical biosensors for the direct detectionof organophosphate chemical warfare agents and pesticidesrdquoAnalytica Chimica Acta vol 534 no 1 pp 69ndash77 2005

[19] F Luo J Yin F Gao and L Wang ldquoA non-enzyme hydrogenperoxide sensor based on coreshell silica nanoparticles usingsynchronous fluorescence spectroscopyrdquo Microchimica Actavol 165 no 1 pp 23ndash28 2009

[20] T Vo-Dinh B M Cullum and D L Stokes ldquoNanosensors andbiochips frontiers in biomolecular diagnosticsrdquo Sensors andActuators B Chemical vol 74 no 1ndash3 pp 2ndash11 2001

[21] T Haruyama ldquoMicro- and nanobiotechnology for biosensingcellular responsesrdquoAdvancedDrugDelivery Reviews vol 55 no3 pp 393ndash401 2003


[22] A G Mendoza-Madrigal J Chanona-Perez L Guadarrama-Fernandez et al ldquoNanobiosensors in food science and technol-ogyrdquo in Food Nanoscience and Nanotechnology H Hernandez-Sanchez and G F Gutierrrez-Lopez Eds Food EngineeringSeries pp 213ndash230 Springer Mexico City Mexico 2015

[23] E Touloupakis G Basile E Pace M T Giardi and F di CostaldquoSuccesses in the development and application of innovativetechniquesrdquo in Biotechnological Application of PhotosyntheticProteins Biochips Biosensors and Biodevices M T Giaridi andE V Piletska Eds chapter 18 pp 209ndash213 Springer New YorkNY USA 2006

[24] J Yu S Liu and H Ju ldquoGlucose sensor for flow injection analy-sis of serumglucose based on immobilization of glucose oxidasein titania solndashgel membranerdquo Biosensors and Bioelectronics vol19 no 4 pp 401ndash409 2003

[25] J Wang and M Musameh ldquoEnzyme-dispersed carbon-nanotube electrodes a needle microsensor for monitoringglucoserdquo Analyst vol 128 no 11 pp 1382ndash1385 2003

[26] S G Wang Q Zhang R Wang et al ldquoMulti-walled carbonnanotubes for the immobilization of enzyme in glucose biosen-sorsrdquo Electrochemistry Communications vol 5 no 9 pp 800ndash803 2003

[27] K J Cash andH A Clark ldquoNanosensors and nanomaterials formonitoring glucose in diabetesrdquo Trends in Molecular Medicinevol 16 no 12 pp 584ndash593 2010

[28] H Yang and Y Zhu ldquoA high performance glucose biosensorenhanced via nanosized SiO

2rdquoAnalytica Chimica Acta vol 554

no 1-2 pp 92ndash97 2005[29] H Yang and Y Zhu ldquoGlucose biosensor based on nano-SiO

2

and lsquounprotectedrsquo Pt nanoclustersrdquo Biosensors and Bioelectron-ics vol 22 no 12 pp 2989ndash2993 2007

[30] G C Luxton ldquoDiabetes monitoring with out-of-laboratorytestsrdquo Clinical Biochemistry vol 26 no 1 pp 19ndash20 1993

[31] M Romito ldquoBiosensors diagnostic workhorses of the futurerdquoThe South African Journal of Chemistry vol 89 pp 93ndash99 1993

[32] S SakkaHandbook of Sol-Gel Science and Applications KluwerAcademic Publishers Boston Mass USA 2004

[33] A EGCass GDavis GD Francis et al ldquoFerrocene-mediatedenzyme electrode for amperometric determination of glucoserdquoAnalytical Chemistry vol 56 no 4 pp 667ndash671 1984

[34] X Ren X Meng and F Tang ldquoPreparation of Ag-Au nanopar-ticle and its application to glucose biosensorrdquo Sensors andActuators B Chemical vol 110 no 2 pp 358ndash363 2005

[35] S Yabuki and F Mizutani ldquoModifications to a carbon pasteglucose-sensing enzyme electrode and a reduction in theelectrochemical interference from L-ascorbaterdquo Biosensors andBioelectronics vol 10 no 3-4 pp 353ndash358 1995

[36] M Avella J J De Vlieger M E Errico S Fischer P Vacca andM G Volpe ldquoBiodegradable starchclay nanocomposite filmsfor food packaging applicationsrdquo Food Chemistry vol 93 no 3pp 467ndash474 2005

[37] M Zenkiewicz J Richert and A Rozanski ldquoEffect of blowmoulding ratio on barrier properties of polylactide nanocom-posite filmsrdquo Polymer Testing vol 29 no 2 pp 251ndash257 2010

[38] G Choudalakis and A D Gotsis ldquoPermeability of polymerclaynanocomposites a reviewrdquo European Polymer Journal vol 45no 4 pp 967ndash984 2009

[39] G Bang and S W Kim ldquoBiodegradable poly(lactic acid)-based hybrid coating materials for food packaging films withgas barrier propertiesrdquo Journal of Industrial and EngineeringChemistry vol 18 no 3 pp 1063ndash1068 2012

[40] K Bhunia S Dhawan and S S Sablani ldquoModeling the oxygendiffusion of nanocomposite-based food packaging filmsrdquo Jour-nal of Food Science vol 77 no 7 pp 29ndash38 2012

[41] R K Bharadwaj ldquoModeling the barrier properties of polymer-layered silicate nanocompositesrdquo Macromolecules vol 34 no26 pp 9189ndash9192 2001

[42] MAvellaM E ErricoGGentile andMGVolpe ldquoNanocom-posite sensors for food packagingrdquo in Nanotechnological Basisfor Advanced Sensors J P Reithmaier P Paunovic W KulischC Popov and P Petkov Eds NATO Science for Peace andSecurity Series B Physics and Biophysics chapter 53 pp 501ndash510 Springer New York NY USA 2011

[43] Y Ou F Yang and A Yu ldquoA new conception on the toughnessof nylon 6silica nanocomposite prepared via in situ polymer-izationrdquo Journal of Polymer Science B Polymer Physics vol 36no 5 pp 789ndash795 1998

[44] T P Coultate FoodChemistryTheChemistry of Its ComponentsThe Royal Society of Chemistry Cambridge UK 4th edition2002

[45] DCHarrisQuantitative Chemical AnalysisWH Freeman andCompany New York NY USA 6th edition 2003

[46] O R Fennema Food Chemistry Marcel Dekker New York NYUSA 3rd edition 1996

[47] H-D Belitz W Grosch and P Schieberle Food ChemistrySpringer Berlin Germany 4th edition 2009

[48] D E Newton Food Chemistry Facts on File Inc NewYork NYUSA 2007

[49] F Aguilar U R Charrondiere B Dusemund et al ldquoScientificopinion of the panel on food additives and nutrient sourcesadded to food on calcium silicate silicon dioxide and silicicacid gel added for nutritional purposes to food supplementsfollowing a request from the European commissionrdquo EuropeanFood Safety Authority Journal vol 1132 pp 1ndash24 2009

[50] V L Singleton ldquoAdsorption of natural phenols from beerand winerdquo Master Brewers Association of Americas TechnicalQuarterly vol 4 no 4 pp 245ndash253 1967

[51] C J M van Rijin and W Nijdam ldquoNano-membranesrdquo inEncycopedia of Nano-Science and Nanotechnology H S NalwaEd vol 7 pp 47ndash77 American Scientific Publishers ValenciaCalif USA 2004

[52] R K Richardson and S Kasapis ldquoRheological methods in thecharacterization of food biopolymersrdquo in Instrumental Methodsin Food and Beverage Analysis DWetzel and G CharalambousEds Elsevier Amsterdam The Netherlands 1998

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materials


Journal ofNanomaterials


A number of important issues should be taken intoconsideration for applications of nanotechnology in foodtechnology The most important ones are the safety concernsdue to possible migration of nanoparticles from packagingmaterials into foods and their eventual toxicological effects[3] The major disadvantage of nanoscale materials for foodand nutrition application is their toxicity Some of limitedscientific data about migration of nanoparticles into foodsare given in the following Previous studies have shown thepossibility of nanomaterials migration from packaging orcontainers to foodstuff [3]Materials that are 300 nmor less indiameter can be taken up by individual human cells [5] andnanomaterials less than 70 nm can even be taken up by a cellrsquosnuclei where they can cause major damage [6 7] The effectsof exposing human lungrsquos submucosal cells to SiO

2of various

sizes (10 150 and 500 nm) for 2ndash24 h in vitro have beenstudied [8] The authors concluded the nanotoxicity of 10 nmSiO2on the submucosal cells is associatedwith inflammation

Toxic effect was not observed with amorphous silica with 150and 500 nm

The major applications of nanotechnology could bein food packaging due to a wide range of benefits suchas improvements in barrier mechanical and antimicrobialproperties and performances Many researches are addressedto the setup of new food packaging materials in whichpolymer nanocomposites incorporate nanoparticles [4]

Nanosized particles of silica and its derivatives havebeen employed in various branches of food and nutritionsectors However these particles have not been used as aningredient of food productsThey have been used in food andnutrient components analysis as a supporting material formaking column chromatography or increasing sensitivity orefficiency for glucose biosensors as food packaging as fillersor protecting agent to increase shelf-life of food productsas edible (flavor) carriers as an adsorbent of moisture oras a clarifying agent to remove impurities and undesirableparticles remaining in beverages In this report an effort hasbeen made to provide a short review from some availableliterature information on the applications of nanosized par-ticles of silica and silica derivatives in various branches offood and nutrition sectors as fillers in food packaging asflavor carriers as supporting materials for food and nutrientcomponents analysis or as an adsorbent or a clarifying agentAll of the above-mentioned applications of the nanosizedparticles result in products with better quality characteristicsor functionalities in food industries in comparison withemploying of larger particles with the same composition

2 Presenting Different Types ofSilica for Applications inVarious Food and Nutrition Sectors

Synthetic silica (colloidal silica silica gels and precipitatedsilica) which is pure and produced mostly in amorphouspowder forms can be used for this study [9] Silica gelsare widely employed in food industry as flavor carriers [10]Amorphous sol-gel SiO

2is nontoxic and safe whereas the sol-

gel entrapment of delicate chemicals in its inner pores results

in pronounced chemical and physical stabilization of theentrapped actives [10] Porous sol-gel-made silica particleshave been used as encapsulation matrices for controlledrelease of substances in food and pharmaceutical sectors[11] Sol-gel process is also widely used to produce silicondioxide glass and ceramic materials [9] Sol-gel silica glasseshave been used as containers in food packaging [12 13]Sol-gel silica glasses do not swell or change structure underpH or temperature variations and are not suitable for otheraspects of food and nutrition applications [10] Sol-gel SiO

2

doped with liquid organic process has never resulted information of pure silicon oxide as the residual valenceelectrons on siloxane (SindashOndashSi) have the ability to react withwater resulting in a surface covered with silanol groups (SindashOH) possessing a highly polar behavior A large numberof unreacted silanol groups exist at surface of doped sol-gelglasses thereby creating a large inner porosity which givesplace to the impressive variety of chemical applications ofdoped sol-gel silica [10]

3 Parameters Corresponding to Particle SizesAffecting the Properties of Materials

Micro- and nanoscience and technology refer to materi-als size characterization with dimensions on the order ofmicrometers and nanometers A number of physical effectshave different significance on the micrometer scale com-pared to nanometer scale [14ndash16] The small dimension ofnanomaterials such as nanofillers and their specific pro-cessing methods affects their defect structure which hasa significant influence on the properties of these materi-als [16] Nanofillers possess small mechanical optical andelectrical defects compared to microscale fillers [16] Whenthe dimensions of particles reduce into nanoscale level theproperties of the particles differ significantly from those ofbulk materials and micron-scale particles Thus variationsin melting temperature color magnetization and chargecapacity are often observed [3] The small size of the fillersleads to an exceptionally large interfacial area in composites[3] Nanofillers are characterized for at least one dimensionin nanometer-length scale (within 1ndash100 nm in size) Theterm nanocomposites refers to composite materials thatcontain typically low amounts of nanostructured materialsTypically 1ndash7 of nanoparticles is added to the materials toform composite materials [2 3] Most nanocomposites beingconsidered in the packaging sector are based on low volumefractions [2 3] The total surface area of 1 gr of polymerparticles having a diameter of 01 120583m would be about 60m2and the total surface area is inversely proportional to thediameter [17]

4 Description of Various Applications ofNanosized Silica Particles in Food andNutrition Sectors

41 Use of Nanosized Silica Particles in Fabrication of Sen-sors SiO

2nanosized particles have been used to construct

nanobiosensors [18 19] The sensitivity and performance of




2particles (average


2biosensor showed




2film


2


2O2becomes







Glucose +O2



+H2O2

(1)


997888997888997888997888997888997888997888rarroxidation

H2O




2 were improved










3sdot









8 It has high


18[45]





7 Conclusions









References







2



























2
































CeramicsJournal of







Biomaterials




Journal of


Journal of





CoatingsJournal of

Advances in








MaterialsJournal of


Nano

materials






2particles (average


2biosensor showed




2film


2


2O2becomes







Glucose +O2



+H2O2

(1)


997888997888997888997888997888997888997888rarroxidation

H2O




2 were improved










3sdot









8 It has high


18[45]





7 Conclusions









References







2



























2
































CeramicsJournal of







Biomaterials




Journal of


Journal of





CoatingsJournal of

Advances in








MaterialsJournal of


Nano

materials









3sdot









8 It has high


18[45]





7 Conclusions









References







2



























2
































CeramicsJournal of







Biomaterials




Journal of


Journal of





CoatingsJournal of

Advances in








MaterialsJournal of


Nano

materials





7 Conclusions









References







2



























2
































CeramicsJournal of







Biomaterials




Journal of


Journal of





CoatingsJournal of

Advances in








MaterialsJournal of


Nano

materials













2
































CeramicsJournal of







Biomaterials




Journal of


Journal of





CoatingsJournal of

Advances in








MaterialsJournal of


Nano

materials










CeramicsJournal of







Biomaterials




Journal of


Journal of





CoatingsJournal of

Advances in








MaterialsJournal of


Nano

materials



Documents

Review Article Nanosized Particles of Silica and Its ...downloads.hindawi.com/journals/jnt/2015/852394.pdfaspects of food and nutrition applications [] . Sol-gel SiO 2 ... Micro- and