The role, current practice and potential for the use of ICT in physical education in secondary schools: A pilot study

Tearle, Penni and Katene, Will (University of Exeter)

Paper presented at the British Educational Research Association Annual Conference, University of Glamorgan, 14-17 September 2005

Keywords: Information and communications technology, secondary physical education teachers

AbstractThis paper outlines and reports on a pilot study to explore the role, current use and potential for the use of Information and Communications Technology (ICT) in Physical Education (PE) at Key Stage 3 (ie for 11-14 year olds). It also considers the attitudes of PE teachers to the use of ICT, their competence and confidence in using it, and what they perceive as the main barriers to using ICT for teaching and learning. This pilot study was set up to inform a planned programme of professional development across the academic year 2004/05, and also for further research into this issue over the same time period. Data were collected from teachers using questionnaires, and also from PE/ICT ‘experts’, through focus groups and interview. This gave rise to both quantitative data which was interpreted using descriptive statistics, and qualitative text based material which was subjected to a data reduction process leading to a comment bank, subsequently sorted into a coding system grounded in the data.The study revealed that the PE teachers had a positive attitude to the use of ICT in their specialist area, and there was some evidence of their actual use of ICT, in particular calling on use of images. There was little evidence however of use which in any way lived up to the ‘potential’ use of ICT described by those who could be considered as ‘experts’ in the use of ICT in PE.

IntroductionIn England, the importance of Information and Communications Technology (ICT) in facilitating effective teaching and learning is reflected through, and driven by, the UK Government’s policy and strategy. The Government publication ‘Policy in Practice: ICT at the heart of education reform’, captures and endorses such a view through both its title and content (DfES, 2003). The intention initially stated by the UK Government was to deploy ICT in order to raise standards (DfEE, 1997) when the Government stated its commitment to equip all teachers with the knowledge, skills and understanding they required to make informed decisions about their use of ICT in teaching and learning (DfEE, 1998). Although other agendas are referenced, the overarching aim of the UK Government’s educational strategy for ICT use continues to be to raise standards of achievement: ‘…all teachers should be able to exploit the potential of ICT to raise further pupils’ standards of achievement.’(TTA, 1999: p.1).

For the purpose of this paper the term ICT is used in its broadest sense. The working definition for ICT used here is drawn from that offered by the Teacher Training Agency (TTA): ‘ICT includes Internet-aware computers and the relevant peripherals, for example, CD-ROM, subject and professional software, projectors, interactive whiteboards, digital cameras, scanners, video, sensing technology and calculators’ (TTA, 2003: p.23). An understanding and appreciation of the breadth of the definition beyond ICT as simply meaning ‘computer use’, is essential in this context.

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The Impact 2 study (BECTa, 2002), tasked with investigating the impact of ICT on standards of pupil attainment in a sample of schools in England reported: ‘there is evidence that, taken as a whole, ICT can exert a positive influence on learning, though the amount will vary from subject to subject as well as between key stages, no doubt in part reflecting factors such as the expertise of teaching staff, problems of accessing the best material for each subject at the required level, and the quality of ICT materials that are available’ (BECTa, 2002: p.43). Alongside this potential benefit of ICT to teaching and learning is the report from OFSTED (2004a) in relation to ICT use and teacher capability. The main themes of this report are: an ‘increase in competence’, ‘record levels of resourcing’ and ‘improvements in pupils’ ICT capability’ (OFSTED, 2004a: p. 4). In parallel to this however, the patchy nature of provision stands out: ‘the gap between the best and worst ICT provision is unacceptably wide’ and: ‘the overall picture conceals wide variations in both the impact of training and the provision of hardware.’ (OFSTED, 2004a: p.4).

There is a requirement within the UK National Curriculum (DfEE/QCA, 1999) which is followed in all Government maintained schools, for pupils to be given opportunities to apply and develop their ICT capability through the use of ICT tools to support their learning in all subjects. In support of this, the National Curriculum document also provides notes which exemplify opportunities for pupils to use ICT as they learn the subject. Physical Education is a subject within the National Curriculum, and as such there is exemplification of how ICT can be used to support teaching and learning in this area (QCA, 2003). However, it is a uniquely practical subject, and the links between using ICT, the teaching and learning of PE and raising standards are taking time to recognise both at Government and school level, and also to implement in schools and departments. The purpose of this paper is to explore the role, the use and the potential of ICT for teaching and learning PE at Key Stage 3 (11 – 14 year olds). This particular age phase was chosen as in the UK this is where the teaching and learning of PE is led by subject specialists, but the options to study accredited courses such as GCSE, AS and A2 have not yet been introduced. Furthermore, across this age phase in the UK the evidence of ICT use in PE is weakest (OFSTED, 2004b), and the practical nature of the subject is most strongly emphasised.

The role of ICT in PEIn a PE setting, it is recognised through Government documents (e.g. DfEE/QCA, 1999; TTA, 1999), reports (eg OFSTED, 2004b) and from research in the area (e.g. Capel, 2004; Elbourn & Cale, 2001) that ICT has an important and relevant role to play in the teaching and learning of PE. Despite this, it is fair to say that the role of ICT in PE has not had as high a profile as other areas of the curriculum, and it still lacks clarity, understanding and research.

The National Curriculum in Action Website (www.ncaction.org.uk/subjects/pe/index.htm) provides support and ideas for ways ICT can be used in the curriculum, but the ‘ICT learning’ page within PE, gives only a generic list of ways ICT can enhance learning, without the option of being able to select subject specific examples as can be done in other curriculum areas. There are relatively few professional articles, and even fewer academic ones, which focus specifically on issues relating to the use of ICT in PE in a school context. Those that do, although helpful in illustrating how ICT can be usefully deployed, tend to move quickly from the general case for ICT use, to specific examples of ways in which ICT can be used in PE (eg Greenwell, 2003; Van Damme, 2001). Van Damme splits the many examples he offers into two distinct categories: Ways in which ICT can be integrated into learning and teaching and

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how ICT can maximise effectiveness and efficiency in the learning process of PE (Van Damme, 2001). The second of these is of relevance and potential interest in trying to understand the role of ICT in PE, but the examples given, whilst helpful, all focus on the communication aspect rather than, for example, the analysis or improvement of performance, the recording and monitoring of activity or the development of independent and group learning skills. Stratton & Finch (2001) focus on the context of teacher education and they note that through working with trainees; practicing teachers are also involved in critical reflection and professional development. They usefully exemplify and discuss a range of applications, but, as in most of the literature, this does not get to the heart of the question posed here about the role (as opposed to examples of use) of ICT in terms of impacting on teachers’ practice and pupil learning.

So there is little guidance on the potential impact on modes and styles of teaching or the learning theories which underpin practice. Historically, dominant learning theories on which much of today’s PE teaching has been based, centre on behaviorist ideas. Interestingly ICT lends itself well to supporting and emphasising this mode of working. However, additionally, it has the potential to provide the means for independent learning, for critical reflection and for building one’s own understanding as well working with others; all moving towards a more constructivist and social constructivist view of learning.

The early views of ICT being associated just with computer use, may not sit comfortably against the view of PE as a practical subject. The well-embedded role for video in PE, is then perhaps not always perceived as ‘using ICT’, with a similar argument holding for heart-rate monitors, stop watches and other devices. In practice the technology itself is helping to address this. In the case of video, the move to the use of digital cameras and the opportunity to harness considerable additional power to the use of moving video by analysis made possible through computer technology and specialised software brings it firmly into the recognisable ‘ICT’ category as well as providing more persuasive arguments for its adoption. Similarly other devices are also now becoming more technically driven (so more readily recognisable as an application of ICT), and their use is more user friendly and better able to meet the demands of the subject. This difficulty with what ICT is and isn’t perceived to be does not help with reaching an understanding of what roles it might play.

Motivation is frequently noted as a role for ICT in general (Passey & Rogers, 2004), and its motivating role in PE is also recognised (e.g. Beashel & Sibson, 2000), but the links with learning, and ultimately raising standards, is less clear (Tearle, 2004a) and not helped by a lack of empirical research in this field.

The role of ICT in PE over recent years has therefore been the subject of some confusion and a lack of focused attention. The indications are that it can be used for demonstration and to help facilitate the building of strong analytical and critical viewing skills and through this to play a positive role in relation to improving knowledge, understanding and personal performance. It can also play an ‘intervention’ role in the monitoring of activity, as well as the collecting of data (in its broadest sense). Finally, in addition to roles relating to administration, information gathering and for communication, ICT has a role in helping to develop and promote independent learning and as a motivator. As use of ICT in PE gains a much higher profile, and as the technology is better harnessed in meeting the needs of teachers and pupils in PE, the ‘chicken and egg’ situation of fully understanding its role will

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continue to perpetuate and as it does this, will bring more clarity to the current picture. The pilot study reported here seeks to open up such a debate.

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Current practice in the use of ICT in PEThe use of ICT for teaching and learning in UK schools has proved a difficult issue to address in any subject area, and has been the subject of considerable research and many reports over recent years (eg OFSTED, 2004a; Tearle, 2004a, 2004b; BECTa, 2002). The use of ICT in PE has not had the same high profile as in other curriculum subjects, and there is reported to be less use of ICT in PE than in any other subject area (OFSTED, 2004b). Also less is known about how widespread use of ICT in PE is, why those adopting it are doing so, what teachers are using it for and what the impact on learning is. As noted previously, there is also the issue about teacher perception of what is and what isn’t included when ICT is referenced, as well as relatively little published academic research relating to use of ICT in PE within the compulsory education framework (ie Key Stages 1 to 4 for pupils aged 5 – 16).

So, whilst ICT is becoming a central feature of school life and there is evidence of its use in PE; it is not being used within the majority of PE lessons (OFSTED, 2004b; Bailey, 2001; Conway, 2000). The section of the OFSTED report on ICT in schools which focused on secondary PE (OFSTED, 2004b) notes the contribution of ICT to raising pupils’ achievements in PE in some (a quarter) of schools. It also highlights as a particular concern the variability of ICT use in PE which is described as being unsatisfactory in a third of schools. Use of ICT at key stage 3 is also noted as being too limited in the majority of schools.

Professional journals continue to report examples of ICT use to enhance and support teaching and learning in PE. Beashel & Sibson (2000) cite an example of the use of digital video in athletics, enabling demonstration followed importantly by ‘judicious use of questions’ (p.6) to enable pupils to take to the track a mental picture of what is described as ‘good performance’ (p.6). The video camera is then used by pupils to capture and view their own performance, making use of freeze frame and slow motion facilities as required. Beashel & Sibson stress that the importance of this is beyond that of improving performance and beyond that of motivation; it is helping pupils to become independent learners, enabling them to develop their analytical skills, and to work constructively together. They also cite use of digital video in team games, explaining how it can be used in that setting to improve understanding of tactics and strategy, and to enhance the evaluation of individual contributions to strategic team play. Other articles note the use of video analysis software (eg Kandle and DartTrainer) suggesting a widespread interest in this area, and video analysis is being adopted by an increased user-base of teachers.

Though not the main focus of this paper, ICT is also being used by PE teachers to support them in their wider professional role, including planning and preparation and administration. For example locating information from the Internet, recording pupil performances, arranging sports fixtures (eg Conway, 2000) are all referenced when ICT use is discussed.

The potential for the use of ICT in PEWith advances in technology, with a more informed user-base of PE ‘experts’ and teachers, and with better resource provision; the realisation of the potential of ICT in PE is showing signs of gaining momentum quickly. What a few years ago was a vision recognised by the minority and accessible to even fewer, has now become reality which could transform the teaching and learning of PE. Previous barriers, such as very high cost and the need for high specification equipment (not always robust) which required sophisticated technical skills to

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operate; limited the opportunities for some of the ICT tools of most relevance to PE to be utilised. To get access to the resources needed and then for them to be available in the ‘right place’, at the ‘right time’ and with the ‘right’ PE specialists was rarely possible or practical, and certainly not accessible to the majority. Other technologies such as portable and ‘waterproof’ computing, cheaper and more user friendly data collection (and delivery) devices, have similarly added to the ability of the technology to meet the demands of the subject. Little has been published with regard to this potential, but it is anticipated from the current activity and interest in the area (eg increased number of training events, new software releases and an increase in Web references), that this too is set to change.

SummarySet against this background of policy, practice and the research literature, a need to get a better understanding of how a range of aspects regarding use of ICT to enhance teaching and learning in PE emerges. Thus, the purpose of this study is to examine how teachers are currently using ICT in PE and what their perceptions are of this. The study also seeks to set out a view of the potential for the use of ICT in PE in order to be able to set the findings in context.

The research described in this paper is a pilot study, drawing mainly on practitioner (PE teacher) comments regarding their current use of ICT and their attitudes, perceptions and concerns in relation to this, set against ‘expert’ opinion to get a clearer initial insight into the potential of ICT in PE.

The research approach and processWorking in the interpretive paradigm, the intention was to get a better understanding of a complex issue through small scale research, viewed essentially as pilot work. Given the purpose and resourcing limitations, the research was designed not so much to provide findings and outcomes in their own right, but to guide future work. For example it sought to identify possible challenges to existing theory, to identify issues which potentially related to the impact of policy on practice and to highlight specific areas on which to focus further research.

To achieve this the views and practices of practitioners were sought alongside opinion from those who could be seen as ‘expert’ in their use and appreciation of the role of ICT in the teaching and learning of PE in UK secondary schools. Questionnaires which comprised a range of questioning styles and included several open questions for free text comment were used as the main data collection method. These were targeted at PE practitioners in 50 secondary schools in southwest England. It was felt this design provide descriptive statistics indicating the extent to which different views were held and different practices undertaken and also provide a richer description of this through the text based responses. The nature of ‘expert view’ demanded a different approach, as this was much more focused. Here the detail and the reasoning behind the comment was of particular interest. This could only be achieved through interview and discussion.

Having undertaken a critical review of the literature, the research design was implemented in three further stages:

Development of methods and instruments. Data collection, reduction, analysis and interpretation.

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Application of the findings to the current education setting and addressing future needs.

Development of methods and instrumentsData collection was undertaken using two methods; questionnaires and group discussion/interview. Each approach targeted a different audience. Questionnaires were directed at practicing teachers and group discussion and interviews focused on obtaining the views and opinions of PE and PE/ICT ‘experts’.

The questionnaire was designed to get an insight into the practice, attitudes, confidence and beliefs of individual teachers in terms of use of ICT in the teaching and learning of PE and to highlight specific issues which may be interesting to follow-up in future research. Most questions required ‘tick box’ responses, but some invited free text comment, which sought to provide depth to the understanding of the issues. The questionnaire was informed by two which had been used for previous studies; one in the field of ICT use in schools (Tearle, 2004a), and the other to gauge opinion regarding attitude to PE (Katene et al, 2000). This adaptation of previous tools provided some degree of validation.

Group discussions and semi-structured interviews were used to gain an insight into the ‘experts’ perceived potential of ICT in PE.

Chronologically the questionnaires were issued first and those involved in the group discussion had not seen the questionnaire data. The data from the group meetings were used to inform the structure and questions for the interviews.

Data collection, reduction, analysis and interpretationQuestionnaires were distributed to 50 teachers in southwest England who were attending a university based PE Initial Teacher Training Partnership Meeting.

Questionnaire data were entered on a spreadsheet to provide basic statistical measures. The text comments were entered exactly as provided, and each was coded according to the particular point being made. Through this process a coding structure grounded in the data was developed (Strauss & Corbin, 1998). The coded statements in response to each question were then grouped in terms of their main focus, in order to provide summary tables.

Expert opinion on the use and potential of ICT for teaching and learning in PE was obtained via the comments of five PE experts in a series of three group discussions, followed by semi-structured interviews with the two members of the group who had worked extensively with ICT and PE, and had earned a national reputation for this aspect of their work. The group discussion were part of a wider agenda regarding the structure of a professional development event to promote the embedded use of ICT in the teaching and learning of PE. Data from the relevant parts of the group discussions were initially in the form of notes taken by the researcher and ICT specialist during the meetings, subsequently interpreted and reduced to a series of statements. Interviews were recorded, and then a data reduction process was undertaken in order to generate a set of statements from each expert. Actual quotes remained available on the taped version, to allow for transcription of sections as required.

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Findings33 completed questionnaires were returned, giving a 66% return rate. In addition to this were the statements reached through the interpretive reduction of the group discussions and interviews with PE/ICT experts.

Given that the data comprised the views of two distinct target audiences and focused on two different approaches to the issue of ICT use, the responses of practicing PE teachers and the PE experts are reported separately.

Teacher views: questionnaire resultsThe questions fell into three broad categories:

Current ICT use. Confidence, competence and attitude. Reasons for ICT use, supportive features and barriers.

Current ICT useTeachers were asked to indicate, (by choosing between ‘regularly’, ‘quite often’, ‘sometimes’, ‘not often’ and ‘hardly ever/never’) the extent of their ICT use in teaching, lesson preparation, other duties relating to teaching, and personal use.

Most teachers (70%) reported using ICT regularly for reasons other than job-related, with only 6% stating that they never or hardly ever used ICT. ICT was also used ‘regularly’ or ‘quite often’ for activities such as lesson preparation (60%), administration (69%) and retrieving information from the Internet (54%).

For class use, a distinction was drawn between using cameras (still or video) and other ‘types’ of ICT, such as computers, heart-rate monitors and other data-logging or monitoring devices. 72% of teachers reported use of cameras in their teaching either regularly or quite often, but other instances of ICT use in teaching were low, with just 6% of teachers doing this regularly and 19% reporting that they use it quite often.

Pupil use of ICT in lessons was low, with 15% of teachers giving pupils access to cameras (mainly digital stills cameras) either regularly or quite often, but computers or other ICT devices were seldom used by pupils, with no-one reporting doing this regularly.

To get a better understanding of how teachers used ICT, they were invited to give the three main ways they used it. Of 91 comments just over half (50) related to use of a camera (still or video). Using ICT as a visual aid for presentations and demonstrations and for whiteboard activities featured next, but a long way behind camera use. The complete breakdown of responses is shown in Table 1 (below). It is recognised that the table provides a mix of ‘what’ people used, and the purpose of its use; this reflects the slightly different interpretations of what the question required.

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Table 1: Main use of ICT in PE classes

Main use of ICT in PE class (n=91)

Number of comments

Cameras

video camera (24) stills camera (10)camera (unspecified) (11)

45

Visual Aids:

presentations (7) demonstrations (3) whiteboard (2)

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Subject specific software/websites 7Analysis/evaluation of performance 5Tests and assessments 4Stopwatches, fitness equipment 4Internet 4Lesson preparation: 3Data collection/spreadsheets 2Word processing 4Administration 1

Confidence, competence and attitudeTeachers were asked to respond to statements relating to their confidence, competence and attitude towards ICT, indicating agreement or disagreement on a 4 point Likert style scale.There was strong support (84%) for the suggestion that ICT has an important part to play in teaching and learning generally, and all teachers felt that ICT is important for administration and record keeping. Most teachers (67% in each case) also felt that using ICT saves time, is enjoyable and is instrumental in career development. The vast majority (85%) agreed that ICT can make lessons more interesting and 76% agreed that it has potential within PE teaching in general.

Focusing on the use of ICT at Key Stage 3, ie for ‘core’ PE lessons, most teachers (64%) felt that ICT can help address learning objectives, increase pupil motivation (73% agreement) and improve pupil performance (73% agreement). All teachers agreed that using cameras is useful in PE at Key Stage 3. 54% felt that it saved them time in preparing lessons.

In terms of teacher confidence, the results showed a clear distinction between personal or professional use of ICT and use of ICT in a teaching situation. All teachers appeared confident in their general use of ICT for personnel or professional non-teaching use, but only just over half of them felt confident to use ICT in a lesson. The extent to which having technical support available was important received mixed views, with roughly equal numbers agreeing as disagreeing.

There seemed to be an issue with regard to teachers finding it easy to think of ways of using ICT in teaching, with just under a third of teachers agreeing they could do this, but none strongly agreeing. Just under half (48%) of teachers said that they struggle with trying to do some of the things they would like to on a computer, though 52% felt they could learn more but haven’t the time. The need for training was confirmed by 67% of respondents, with an emphasis on subject specific training.

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Reasons for ICT use, supportive features and barriers.Teachers were invited to give up to three reasons why they use ICT in their teaching, and this gave rise to a total of 47 comments. The most common point related to ICT enhancing teaching and learning. This was described in a variety of ways including ‘improves performance’, ‘better quality lessons’, ‘provides structure and consistency’. The ability to offer improved evaluation and feedback using ICT was also influential with comments relating to the way use of ICT allowed more variety in a lesson and hence was more motivating for pupils. The suggestion that ICT saves time included remarks such as: ‘it makes life easy’. Table 2 (below) gives the frequency of occurrences of different comments.

Table 2: Main reasons for using ICT in teaching

Main reasons for using ICT in teaching (n=47)

Number of comments

Enhances teaching and learning 14Evaluation and feedback benefits 11Variety 7Time saving 5Improved presentation 4Good practice/professional development 2Miscellaneous 2Administration 1Research 1

The reasons given for not using ICT were all of a practical nature rather than relating to beliefs about its value and usefulness, and focused heavily on time and on access to resources. For example one of the 19 comments made about not having the time to use ICT noted that there were ‘too many other demands on my time’ and another said there was ‘no time between lessons to set-up’. When it came to resources, one teacher talked of the ‘poor departmental facilities’ and another quoted ‘a lack of relevant resources’.

When asked to consider what had been influential in encouraging them to use ICT by ranking ten given features in order of their usefulness; teachers noted access to resources as being the most important. Top of the list was access to specific software or ICT devices useful for PE, and second was access to ICT equipment for teaching. Training and professional development was ranked third followed by technical assistance to support professional needs.

When asked to make their own comments about influential features, 65 positive influences were noted. Most commonly referenced was the effect ICT has on pupils in terms of increasing their enthusiasm and motivation. Other influences reported were the benefits use of ICT afforded to teaching, in particular for making presentations, assessing and giving feedback on performance and also having the support of other colleagues. The complete breakdown of responses is given in Table 3 (below).

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Table 3: Most positive influence on use of ICT in teaching

Positive influence on use of ICT in teaching (n=65)

Number of comments

Pupil enthusiasm/motivation 14Support of colleagues 6Assessment/evaluation/feedback 6Improved presentation 5Aid to lesson preparation 4Training/practice 4Good practice/professional development 4Administration 4Home pc/own laptop 3Access to cameras 2General school access to computers 2Whole school policy 3Time saving 2Miscellaneous 6

A similar approach was used to establish barriers or hindrances to ICT use. From the rankings of listed features, time and access to resources were the main barriers to ICT use. More detail came from the 83 ‘free text’ comments offered in relation to factors which had hindered teachers in using ICT in their teaching. Lack of access to computers, equipment or to relevant software featured most heavily, closely followed by lack of time, with some people specifically referring to time for preparing lessons where ICT was deployed and others citing the setting up of equipment. In some cases there was a lack of clarity if it was in relation to pressure on the teacher’s own time, or the time available within a lesson. Table 4 (below) gives a detailed breakdown of the comments.

Table 4: Barriers to using ICT in teaching

Barriers to using ICT in teaching (n=83) Number of comments

Access to resources: to computers and equipment (22)to relevant software (7) 29preparation time (7)

Time: general (unspecified) (20)training time (1)

28

Lack of support support/help with setting up (7)general (unspecified) (3)

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Knowledge or ideas of how to use it 7Confidence 2Training 2Poor quality resources 2Money 1Concern that focus should be on physical activity 1Miscellaneous 1

Expert view: Discussion groups and interviewThere were four main areas on which the views of ‘experts’ were sought:

Why use ICT in PE? What were the expected and desired outcomes of using ICT in PE? What was the range of practices currently evident? What was needed to improve current practice?

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Why use ICT in PE?The overriding reasons given were to improve performance and raise standards. One expert noted: “it [ICT] lifts aspirations and effects standards”; she went on to suggest: “Seeing yourself is very powerful. Seeing your own performance is quite shocking and different from your perceptions of what your performance was like.”

There was a secondary interest in the motivational factor, which was seen to contribute to this first goal of improving performance and also led to increased enthusiasm for, and participation in, Physical Education and school sport. Other points noted included the role of ICT to promote independent learning, and to cater for differentiation by offering extension activities for the more able as well as opening up opportunities for less able pupils.

What were the expected and desired outcomes of using ICT in PE?The strength of conviction of cause and effect in terms of use of certain aspects of ICT and improved performance and raising of standards was clearly evident. The view was that “each aspect of ICT has its own use. For example digital video helps children see movement in discrete parts as well as the whole; it can also help with target setting by providing a model or target.” Another outcome noted was that “use of digital video effects how they [children] see it [performance]. The ‘glasses’ that children will be wearing will be very different from now. They will be more educated viewers.”

What was the range of practices currently evident?A wide range of practices were referenced, with the emphasis and detail on the most developed and positive ones. Some very effective examples of use of digital video and analysis of the output using software designed for this purpose were reported. In one example PE changing rooms equipped with data projectors and screens to prepare pupils for the subsequent lesson which took place in a location with cameras and related equipment permanently in place was vividly described. This illustrated a well developed use of ICT which it was strongly believed had made the major contribution to the reported improved performance. There was minimal reference to places where ICT was used little or not at all, but acknowledgement that this was the situation in many schools.

Grave reservations were expressed about the use of ICT just on ‘special occasions’; inspection weeks being a prime example. The approach being encouraged was for the use of ICT to be seamlessly integrated into everyday practice.

What was needed to improve current practice?A number of suggestions were offered; with the need for departments to have a clear and well focused policy for the use of ICT in PE emphasised. It was noted that “this should include equipment/software use and also pedagogic advice” and that “ICT in PE had to be seen as a basic resource rather than a luxury for the minority”. The importance of sharing best practice was also referenced, as was the need for increased funding streams for both hardware and training. All the experts referred to the importance of more discussion between the PE and ICT departments, giving a range of reasons for this. One was “so that the core skills needed to manage video cameras and use processing software can be taught as part of the core ICT programme, reducing the need to use valuable practical PE time to teach camera/computer skills.”

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DiscussionThe general pattern of ICT use amongst this small sample of teachers emerges clearly. It would seem that most are quite regular users of ICT for a range of purposes outside the classroom, so it is reasonable to assume they have basic ICT skills. This is supported by the generally positive attitudes expressed about use of ICT and reasonably high levels of confidence reported.

In terms of simply how much and how often ICT is used by the teachers in this pilot study, it could be argued, based on the fact that 72% use a camera in PE lessons at least once a week, that ICT use is high. However, through closer scrutiny, cross referencing and interpretation of the data regarding what this use entailed, and also looking at the evidence relating to use of other forms of ICT in teaching and learning, it is more realistic to say that use of ICT in lessons, is almost certainly very low. That use of ICT in classes was much lower than either personal or professional use of computers outside the teaching environment is similar to patterns reported in other subjects. A prior study into the use of ICT for teaching and learning in the other curriculum subject areas (Tearle, 2003), suggested that whilst 75% of staff made regular use of a computer for personal or professional use outside the classroom, only about 40% used ICT for teaching, with pupil use of ICT lower still. This research did not pre-suppose a similar pattern, indeed it set out to challenge such an assumption given the practical nature of the subject. What is important is setting this seemingly very low use of ICT in PE, in the context of the apparent contribution its use can make. As can be seen from earlier discussion, the PE/ICT experts interviewed in this study, although very few in number, were absolutely clear in their view of the real benefits of seamlessly integrated and embedded use of ICT in many different settings and contexts in PE. In fact the strength of view of experts in this study was arguably stronger than that made by equivalent ICT and subject ‘experts’ in any other curriculum area. This somewhat polarised situation of such apparently clear gains and low use, has not been noted in any other subject area and is seen to be significant.

Whilst an understanding of ‘how much’ and ‘how often’ is relevant, and is an important part of the complex picture; it is more interesting to focus on why and how ICT was used. In this study the use of cameras for capturing images of pupil performance accounts for a high proportion of application of ICT and this provides common ground with expert opinion of where the real potential lies. Here the similarity ends. The experts are clear about the value of moving video for both playback and analysis of performance, but in this study there isn’t absolute clarity how the cameras are being used. Only a relatively low proportion of people appear to be using video (as opposed to still images), and the interpretation of comments suggests that in general this is for playback, presumably to provide visual feedback to promote pupil understanding through use of images and (critical) analysis. There are few indications that those surveyed are making use of video analysis software such as DartTrainer or Kandle. Indeed interpretation of the results suggests that digital video was only being used by a few teachers. It is understood that ‘digital still’s cameras’ and analogue video cameras (videotape based) accounted for almost all the reported use. Similarly the interpretation of the data suggests that although some ‘regular’ use of cameras is referenced, ICT was not really embedded into teaching and learning in PE. Again the data highlighted the wide gap between the potential of the technology expressed by the experts and the current use of it in most schools in this study; a much wider gap than would have been anticipated from previous work in other curriculum areas.

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The potential the ‘experts’ attribute to the use of digital video suggests its use will make an impact in a much wider context and across a longer term than simply within PE lessons in a school setting. The combination of improved motivation and improved performance levels suggests setting in place lifestyle patterns for the future. Additionally, if in the school setting pupils are helped to develop new ways of proactively viewing and making sense of video footage of sporting activity, and in parallel to this the media continue to develop their already sophisticated use of video for sporting events; today’s school pupils will be able to continue to develop their own understanding, learning and enjoyment of sport in a way most of the adult population can only achieve in a relatively superficial way. This line of argument strengthens the case for use of digital video in the teaching and learning of PE, and emphasises the need for further understanding through research.

It was also noted by experts that to achieve these quite substantial gains in performance, understanding and motivation through regular use of digital video analysis, there will need to be some reconciliation in other areas. First, current indications are that to develop this potential use of the technology, takes up more time during lessons. Current PE teaching programmes may have to be ‘slimmed down’. Is it really necessary to cover so much? Could some of the breadth of programmes be cut back to enable more ‘depth’? Secondly, there may be a need to recognise that for the use of digital video to live up to its potential and impact on performance, a small reduction in the percentage of time when pupils are physically active in PE teaching time may be required. Whilst this may seem out of line with the current calls for children to be more physically active, as long as this is properly recognised, so opportunities for physical activity can be built in elsewhere in the curriculum, and/or extended time be given to PE; this should not be allowed to detract from the gains use of video analysis may have. PE, as a subject area or discipline, can only play a role in promoting physical activity; it cannot and should not have to provide the setting for ensuring each pupil undertakes the complete amount of physical activity recommended each week without an additional allocation of time. The nature of the contribution it is suggested use of digital video can make, may be viewed as ‘prevention not cure’ and is potentially very significant in both medium and long term.

Whilst all subjects have their own special demands and foci for ICT use, and these are now becoming better recognised; PE is clearly an area where some quite specific and specialised uses of ICT are required. The strong importance that has been attached to the use of images, in particular digital video, gives rise to the suggestion that PE teachers’ use of computers may be markedly different from the main applications of ICT in teaching and learning in other subjects. Furthermore, it may be markedly different from their own use of it for administration and other professional duties. Use of ICT for teaching and learning in PE is an area where relatively limited professional development opportunities are currently offered, and indeed was hardly been covered at all in many of the New Opportunities lottery funded ICT training (NOF) programmes followed by almost all UK teachers (NOF, 1999). When this is set in a context of a lack of recognition of the importance of ICT in PE, it should come as no surprise to find the relatively undeveloped use of ICT across the sample of schools considered here. There are pockets of excellence, and to identify these and research their context and practice will contribute to a better understanding of the potential of ICT use in PE as well as help uncover some of the key issues to address in order to embed meaningful use of the technology in everyday practice.

Attitude to ICT, so often quoted as a key factor when teachers don’t use of ICT, is noted here in quite a positive tone. This may underpin the similarly positive response regarding teacher

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motivation to use ICT, which was reported as being mainly intrinsic. General confidence is also quite high in comparison with that reported by teachers in other subject areas in a parallel study (Tearle, 2004a). The pattern of a slight slump in confidence noted for using ICT with a class, and the fact that over half feel they could address many of the ICT needs if they had the time, is not dissimilar to that of teachers in other subject areas, but here it is more pronounced. This may be associated with the point made earlier about there being little link between a teacher’s professional but non-teaching use of ICT and that needed for teaching situations. The importance of organisational requirement as well as pedagogical approach in PE is such that the introduction of ICT into the teaching process may be a bigger and more challenging step than teachers in other subject areas face.

The barriers reported, whilst in no way trivial, do lend themselves to practical solutions. The situation however is complex, as whilst endeavouring to address each individual issue may be challenging but possible, to keep sight of the whole, ie the overview of everything collectively and how it pieces together in a school context, demands very careful planning, individual and collective motivation, teamwork, resourcing, support, training and almost certainly a high level of creative thinking. The main barriers of time and access to resources are in keeping with those generally put forward by teachers (Tearle 2004a and 2004b; BECTa, 2002), though resourcing issues are becoming much less dominant in most UK schools. Teacher comment suggested the problem of access to resources is commonly a departmental one, and the ‘experts’ also indicated that frequently the PE area is a pocket of a school poorly equipped for ICT use, particularly in terms of resourcing in ways beneficial to the teaching and learning needs of the subject. This is in line with previous research, and needs to be addressed as part of whole school planning and policy.

When looking for ways of ‘overcoming’ barriers however, the view of Ridgeway and Passey is worth noting: ‘overcoming a barrier to the integration of IT in education is not to succeed, rather it is to face a more interesting and challenging barrier’ (Ridgeway & Passey, 1995: p.66). This is regarded as a positive statement, simply noting the existence of a series of challenges. So for example, in the context of ICT, as confidence and competence grow, and as resources become available, teachers develop a better understanding of what they really want to do with ICT, bringing a new set of needs and challenges.

From responses about confidence, motivation, support and a lack of ideas for using ICT, there is an interesting interpretation of the data that here is a group of people who, if given some training, support and access to resources are very likely to make good use of them. In other subject areas there has been a slow take-up of ICT despite the provision of some of these key requirements. There is evidence here that PE teachers may have had less access to resources, relevant training and general encouragement and support to use ICT in their teaching, but may prove to have an attitude and approach which has a ‘higher than usual’ return on the investment of training, equipment and support, and be less influenced by other negative factors.ConclusionThe use of ICT for teaching and learning in schools has been high on the Government agenda for the last few years, and is aimed primarily at raising standards (DfEE 1997). Studies such as Impact 2 (BECTa, 2002), reported that when used in some ways, and for some purposes, ICT does indeed contribute to learning and raising standards of performance. No explicit focus on the use of ICT in PE was undertaken in the Impact 2 study, but the expert view expressed here suggests that this may be one of the contexts where ICT can indeed be

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associated with learning gains and the ‘raising of standards’; in this case standards of performance. From this study, focusing specifically on ICT use in PE, the experts provided the view that the use of digital video in PE has the potential to be a major influence on teaching and learning in that subject, being closely associated with improved performance and raising of standards. It may be that the use of ICT in PE, in particular the use of digital video for visual feedback and analysis, may offer one of the strongest links between use of ICT and important learning and lifestyle gains of any subject. This seems somewhat ironic given the lack of emphasis on ICT in PE in the past and even in key stages 1 and 2 in the present National Curriculum documents (DfEE/QCA, 1999), as well as the frequent lack of recognition of the need for PE departments in schools to be a high priority for ICT resourcing. Even from this small study it is evident that there is some way to go before embedded use of ICT in PE is common place, and all children are able to benefit from the potential it is believed this offers.

This study indicates that ICT, in particular but not exclusively through the use of digital video, has a crucial role to play in the teaching and learning of PE and that teachers may be at the very early stages of recognising this. The identification and research of contexts where there are pockets of good practice will help provide a better understanding of the potential of this approach and how it can be more widely implemented.

AcknowledgementsThanks are extended to all the teachers who participated in this study, and also to Janvrin, Steve, Gill, Sue and Ian for their input. The invaluable support of Karan Ogden with data collection, input, analysis and interpretation is also acknowledged.

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