44
39 DOI:10.6226/NTUMR.201912_29(3).0002 員工創造力研究之回顧與展望:臺灣與東亞的研究發現 Research on Employee Creativity in Taiwan and East Asian Countries: Findings and Implications Abstract A lot of research about creativity and innovation has drawn much attention from scholars in recent years. However, the majority is based on Western theories or research samplings without considering the employees’ characteristics from East Asian areas and how these characteristics may influence creative performance. This paper includes analysis on international management journals and empirical research (about creativity in Taiwan and other East Asian countries) from the past 15 years (2000-2015). It also discusses the similarities and differences of research findings between Eastern and Western studies. Although the results indicate that many East Asian studies used Western theories and research constructs, indigenous studies in East Asian countries have emerged in recent years. In addition, most East Asian research findings are consistent with Western ones, showing that the results are partly culture-general, while only few areas revealed inconsistent findings. Finally, in the ‘Future Prospects’ section, we provide suggestions for future research based on East Asian cultural perspectives. Keywordscreativity, innovative behavior, individual creativity, team creativity 摘 要 創造力相關研究近年來已受到學者的廣泛關注,然而截至目前為止,多數研究係基於 西方的理論或研究樣本,尚未充分考慮東亞地區的員工特色,以及這些特色如何影響 其在創造力上的表現。本研究旨在回顧過去十五年間 (2000-2015),國內外重要管理期 刊之中,以臺灣和其他東亞國家為樣本之創造力實證研究,並討論上述研究結果與西 方研究的相似或差異之處。回顧結果發現,雖然許多東亞研究採取源於西方的理論與 研究構念,但近年來出現了東亞國家之本土取向研究。此外,在實證研究結果上,多 數東西方研究結果一致,呈現了部分之文化普同性,但亦有少數研究呈現不同結果之 現象。最後,在未來展望部分,本文基於東亞國家之本土文化觀點,提出未來研究方 向建議。 【關鍵字】創造力、創新行為、個人創造力、團隊創造力 Aichia Chuang, Department of Business Administration, National Taiwan University 莊璦嘉 / 國立臺灣大學工商管理學系暨商學研究所 Chun-Yang Lee, School of Management, Putian University 李均揚 / 莆田學院管理學院 Yu-Syuan Chen, Department of Business Administration, National Taiwan University 陳宇軒 / 國立臺灣大學工商管理學系暨商學研究所 Kuo-Ching Yen, Graduate School of Resources Management and Decision Science, National Defense University 嚴國晉 / 國防大學資源管理及決策研究所 Received 2015/9, Final revision received 2017/8 NTU Management Review Vol. 29 No. 3 Dec. 2019, 39-82

Research on Employee Creativity in Taiwan and East Asian …review.management.ntu.edu.tw/paper/6276-P.pdf · Research on Employee Creativity in Taiwan and East Asian Countries: Findings

  • Upload
    others

  • View
    1

  • Download
    0

Embed Size (px)

Citation preview

Page 1: Research on Employee Creativity in Taiwan and East Asian …review.management.ntu.edu.tw/paper/6276-P.pdf · Research on Employee Creativity in Taiwan and East Asian Countries: Findings

39

DOI:10.6226/NTUMR.201912_29(3).0002

員工創造力研究之回顧與展望:臺灣與東亞的研究發現

Research on Employee Creativity in Taiwan and East Asian Countries: Findings and Implications

Abstract

A lot of research about creativity and innovation has drawn much attention from scholars in recent years. However, the majority is based on Western theories or research samplings without considering the employees’ characteristics from East Asian areas and how these characteristics may influence creative performance. This paper includes analysis on international management journals and empirical research (about creativity in Taiwan and other East Asian countries) from the past 15 years (2000-2015). It also discusses the similarities and differences of research findings between Eastern and Western studies. Although the results indicate that many East Asian studies used Western theories and research constructs, indigenous studies in East Asian countries have emerged in recent years. In addition, most East Asian research findings are consistent with Western ones, showing that the results are partly culture-general, while only few areas revealed inconsistent findings. Finally, in the ‘Future Prospects’ section, we provide suggestions for future research based on East Asian cultural perspectives.【Keywords】creativity, innovative behavior, individual creativity, team creativity

摘 要

創造力相關研究近年來已受到學者的廣泛關注,然而截至目前為止,多數研究係基於西方的理論或研究樣本,尚未充分考慮東亞地區的員工特色,以及這些特色如何影響其在創造力上的表現。本研究旨在回顧過去十五年間 (2000-2015),國內外重要管理期刊之中,以臺灣和其他東亞國家為樣本之創造力實證研究,並討論上述研究結果與西方研究的相似或差異之處。回顧結果發現,雖然許多東亞研究採取源於西方的理論與研究構念,但近年來出現了東亞國家之本土取向研究。此外,在實證研究結果上,多數東西方研究結果一致,呈現了部分之文化普同性,但亦有少數研究呈現不同結果之現象。最後,在未來展望部分,本文基於東亞國家之本土文化觀點,提出未來研究方向建議。

【關鍵字】 創造力、創新行為、個人創造力、團隊創造力

Aichia Chuang, Department of Business Administration, National Taiwan University莊璦嘉 / 國立臺灣大學工商管理學系暨商學研究所

Chun-Yang Lee, School of Management, Putian University李均揚 / 莆田學院管理學院

Yu-Syuan Chen, Department of Business Administration, National Taiwan University陳宇軒 / 國立臺灣大學工商管理學系暨商學研究所

Kuo-Ching Yen, Graduate School of Resources Management and Decision Science, National Defense University

嚴國晉 / 國防大學資源管理及決策研究所Received 2015/9, Final revision received 2017/8

NTU Management ReviewVol. 29 No. 3 Dec. 2019, 39-82

Page 2: Research on Employee Creativity in Taiwan and East Asian …review.management.ntu.edu.tw/paper/6276-P.pdf · Research on Employee Creativity in Taiwan and East Asian Countries: Findings

Research on Employee Creativity in Taiwan and East Asian Countries: Findings and Implications

40

壹、緒論

創造力 (Creativity) 是由員工或工作團體所產生之「新穎 (Novel),且潛在有用的 (Useful) 想法 1 (Amabile, 1983, 1988; Zhou and George, 2001)。而創造力也代表著組織變革中的重要成分,其能回應未預見之挑戰、主動地發展新的能力,並能增進

組織的效能 (Woodman, Sawyer, and Griffin, 1993; Zhou and Hoever, 2014)。創造力相關研究近年來也受到了學者的廣泛關注,如從 2002年開始,以創造力或創新為主題的研究數量,呈現了指數的成長 (Anderson, Potočnik, and Zhou, 2014)。學術上對於創造力的興趣也反映出產業經濟體系的轉變,在快速變動的產業環境中生存,當

代的工商組織需要激發員工以及團隊的創造力,以獲得在產業中長期的競爭優勢 (Amabile, 1988; Oldham and Cummings, 1996)。因此,不論對於組織中的個人、團隊乃至於組織整體,創造力研究對其均有相當的重要性。然而截至目前為止,多數研

究係基於西方的理論或研究樣本,尚未充分考慮東亞地區的員工特色,以及這些特

色如何影響其在創造力上的表現。例如在近期的文獻回顧 (i.e., Anderson et al., 2014) 顯示,2002至 2011年間的創造力研究樣本來源以美國為最多,其文章篇數佔了所有文章的 34%;以東亞國家(中國大陸、臺灣、韓國、日本)為樣本之研究,僅佔12.6%。而在東亞之中,多數國家的勞動人口比重已居世界領先地位 (The World Bank, 2014),此外,近年來東亞地區快速的經濟成長(如 2014年開發中東亞與太平洋地區的 GDP成長 6.9%)(The World Bank, 2015)以及東亞經濟合作體系的誕生(如東協等)(中華經濟研究院,2014),讓東亞地區的組織更是需要瞭解如何激發東亞員工的創造力,以協助組織在當前的產業環境中延續成功經驗。尤其是東亞

文化提供不同的文化脈絡,可能會造成西方理論無法完全適用於東亞員工的創造

力。目前有許多學者們呼籲,後續研究應關注文化差異與創造力關係的議題 (e.g., Anderson, De Dreu, and Nijstad, 2004; Shalley, Zhou, and Oldham, 2004; Zhou and Shalley, 2003),尤其是在東西方創造力研究之比較上 (Morris and Leung, 2010)。本研究旨在回顧過去十五年間 (2000-2015),國內外重要管理期刊之中,以東亞

國家為樣本之創造力的研究成果,除了聚焦於個人與團隊創造力前因之相關研究的

蒐集與整理,亦針對上述研究提出一個整合性模型。其次,本研究針對東西方研究

取向與結果之異同處進行比較,並提出對未來研究的展望。本文以下將先說明本研

究的研究方法,包含了選擇樣本國家及原因、回顧的期刊說明、文獻搜尋方式、文

1 本文之創造力 (Creativity) 範圍涵蓋創造力及創意行為,文獻上另一個與創造力十分接近的概念為創新 (Innovation),若該創新概念牽涉具體產品或流程之創新後端階段,則不列入本文的範疇,但若其概念為創新前端,如:構想產生等,則納入本文範疇。

Page 3: Research on Employee Creativity in Taiwan and East Asian …review.management.ntu.edu.tw/paper/6276-P.pdf · Research on Employee Creativity in Taiwan and East Asian Countries: Findings

41

NTU Management Review Vol. 29 No. 3 Dec. 2019

獻篩選方法。而後依序說明創造力衡量與統計分析方法、東亞國家研究成果以及東

西方研究成果比較。其中,在東亞國家研究成果的部分,我們以臺灣與其他東亞國

家為樣本的實證研究進行回顧,並於「東西方研究成果比較」一節中,討論東亞研

究結果與西方研究的相似或差異之處。最後,在未來展望部分,本文基於東亞國家

之本土文化觀點,對未來研究方向提出建議。

貳、研究方法

一、樣本國家

本研究主要關注的對象是東亞地區國家,包含以中國大陸、臺灣、韓國、日本、

新加坡等屬於東亞地區國家為樣本之創造力研究 (e.g., Kim, 2007)。

二、回顧的期刊說明

在所回顧的西文期刊方面,本文選擇了科技部人文司管理一學門組織與管理領

域所列之第一級學術期刊名單,並剔除了其中較為理論導向的期刊 (e.g., Academy of Management Review)。在上述標準下,我們選擇了以下 14個期刊:Academy of Management Journal, Administrative Science Quarterly, Human Relations, Journal of Applied Psychology, Journal of Management, Journal of Organizational Behavior, Journal of International Business Studies, Journal of Management Studies, Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology, Journal of Vocational Behavior, Organization Science, Organization Studies, Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, and Personnel Psychology。為了避免遺漏在組織與管理領域中的重要期刊,本文根據期刊與「組織行為與人力資源管理」議題之相關程度、包含創

造力主題的程度、是否具較佳的影響係數 (Impact Factor)、是否考量亞洲文化等四個標準,另外選擇了 Asia Pacific Journal of Management, Applied Psychology: An International Review, Group and Organization Management, Journal of Business Research, Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, Leadership Quarterly, and Management and Organization Review等 7個 SSCI期刊。在所回顧之國內 TSSCI期刊方面,本文則納入了科技部人文司管理-學門組織與管理領域所列之 9個推薦中文期刊:管理學報、臺大管理論叢、交大管理學報、中山管理評論、科技管理學刊、組織與管理、

產業與管理論壇、管理評論、管理與系統。

Page 4: Research on Employee Creativity in Taiwan and East Asian …review.management.ntu.edu.tw/paper/6276-P.pdf · Research on Employee Creativity in Taiwan and East Asian Countries: Findings

Research on Employee Creativity in Taiwan and East Asian Countries: Findings and Implications

42

三、文獻搜尋方式

在英文文章的搜尋方面,我們以 creativity, creative behavior, creative performance, innovative behavior, innovative job performance, innovative performance, innovation, team innovation, team innovativeness, group innovation, group innovativeness等關鍵字搜尋Web of Science資料庫;而在中文文章的搜尋上,我們選擇「創造力」、「創意」、「創造力績效」、「創意表現」、「創新」、「創新行為」等關鍵字,並以「華藝

線上圖書館」資料庫作搜尋。文章的回顧範圍係從 2000至 2015年,篩選原則為該研究以中國大陸、臺灣、韓國、日本、新加坡等東亞地區國家為主要樣本,若為同

一研究包含多國樣本,則須至少含括到一個前述之主要樣本國家。

四、文獻篩選方法

在文獻的篩選上,係經由本研究的作者群檢視所有文章。由於本文旨在回顧以

東亞國家為樣本之創造力實證研究,並據此建立一個整合性模型,因此,我們僅保

留量化實證資料分析,並排除了質性研究、統合分析或理論建構文章。除此之外,

由於目前在創造力的衡量上,研究最常引用之量表係由 Zhou and George (2001) 所發展 (Anderson et al., 2014),其題項中涵蓋了部分 Scott and Bruce (1994)之創新行為題項,意即創造力除了包含「構想產生」階段之外,亦含括部分之構想實踐階段。

因此,為能更全面地檢視現有的創造力文獻,本文之創造力範疇涵蓋了衡量上屬於

「構想產生」(Idea Generation)、「構想推展」(Idea Promotion) 以及「構想實踐」(Idea Realization) 等三個階段 (Janssen, 2001)。關於創新 (Innovation) 相關研究,屬於「構想產生」、「構想推展」以及「構想實踐」的創新前端階段會予以納入,但是若衡

量上已將創造力成功地轉換為具體的產品或流程之創新後端階段(例如:新產品數

或專利數),則為本文所排除。經由上述標準,本文共篩選出 69篇研究,其中以中國大陸為樣本之研究佔 33篇,次之為以臺灣為樣本之研究,佔 20篇。上述研究依期刊別與國家別之分類結果,請分別參考表 1與表 2。

Page 5: Research on Employee Creativity in Taiwan and East Asian …review.management.ntu.edu.tw/paper/6276-P.pdf · Research on Employee Creativity in Taiwan and East Asian Countries: Findings

43

NTU Management Review Vol. 29 No. 3 Dec. 2019

表 1 創造力及創新行為於各期刊之東亞研究發表數量:2000-2015期刊名稱 研究數量

Academy of Management Journal 11

Applied Psychology: An International Review 2

Asia Pacific Journal of Management 3

Group and Organization Management 1

Human Relations 1

Journal of Applied Psychology 8

Journal of Business Research 5

Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology 2

Journal of Management 3

Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology 3

Journal of Organizational Behavior 12

Leadership Quarterly 4

Management and Organization Review 1

Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes 2

Personnel Psychology 2

管理學報 5

臺大管理論叢 1

交大管理學報 1

科技管理學刊 2

表 2 創造力及創新行為之東亞樣本國家彙整表SSCI期刊/ TSSCI期刊 樣本國家 研究數量

TSSCI期刊 臺灣 9

SSCI期刊

臺灣 11

中國大陸 33

韓國 8

日本 1

香港 1

新加坡 1

同一研究多國樣本 5

Page 6: Research on Employee Creativity in Taiwan and East Asian …review.management.ntu.edu.tw/paper/6276-P.pdf · Research on Employee Creativity in Taiwan and East Asian Countries: Findings

Research on Employee Creativity in Taiwan and East Asian Countries: Findings and Implications

44

參、創造力的衡量與統計分析方法

在以下的文獻回顧中,本文首先針對衡量方式及統計方法進行統整。其中,若

是以臺灣為樣本的研究,我們在後面的參考文獻列表中將以「*」作標示;若是同時包含臺灣或其他國家的樣本,我們則以「+」作標示,以期能讓讀者清楚了解以臺灣為樣本之研究的發展現況。

一、衡量方式

經本研究回顧發現,大多數創造力或創新行為之研究皆是以問卷調查法探討,

而在這些文章之中,涵蓋了各種不同產業與職業之樣本。在本研究回顧之 69篇文章中,無論個人層次或團隊層次之研究,創造力或創新行為多數由主管進行評量 (e.g., Chang, Jia, Takeuchi, and Cai, 2014; Chen, Leung, Li, and Ou, 2015; Gong, Cheung, Wang, and Huang, 2012; Leung, Chen, and Chen, 2014; Zhang and Bartol, 2010a, 2010b; Zhang, Tsui, and Wang, 2011),其次是員工自評(e.g., 林明杰與李信達,2011;林明杰、陳基祥與許純嘉,2007;徐聯恩與樊學良,2011;蔡啟通,2008;蔡啟通與高泉豐,2004;Choi, 2007; Matsuo, 2006; Wang, Rode, Shi, Luo, and Chen, 2013)。此外,少數研究以專家 (e.g., Kurman, Liem, Ivancovsky, Morio, and Lee, 2015; Nouri, Erez, Lee, Liang, Bannister, and Chiu, 2015)、顧客 (e.g., Dong, Liao, Chuang, Zhou, and Campbell, 2015)、同儕 (e.g., Ng and Feldman, 2009) 或其他方式進行衡量,詳見表 3。

表 3 不同層次創造力及創新行為之衡量方式彙整表分析層次 衡量方式 研究數量 % 研究數量合計

個人層次

自評 8 14%

57

主管評 40 70%

同儕評 1 2%

專家評 4 7%

顧客評 1 2%

檔案資料 1 2%

混合式評量 2 4%

團隊層次

自評 2 23%

12主管評 8 62%

專家評 2 15%

Page 7: Research on Employee Creativity in Taiwan and East Asian …review.management.ntu.edu.tw/paper/6276-P.pdf · Research on Employee Creativity in Taiwan and East Asian Countries: Findings

45

NTU Management Review Vol. 29 No. 3 Dec. 2019

二、統計分析方法

在統計分析方法的運用上,多數以東亞國家為樣本之創造力或創新研究,仍以

階層線性模式 (Hierarchical Linear Modeling; HLM) 及階層式迴歸 (Hierarchical Regression) 之分析方法為主,次之為結構方程模式 (Structural Equation Modeling; SEM),但近年開始出現以較新的多階層結構方程模式 (Multilevel Structural Equation Modeling) 之分析方法,即結合 SEM與 HLM模型之分析方法進行創造力或創新之研究 (e.g., Gong et al., 2012; Sun, Zhang, Qi, and Chen, 2012; Zhang, LePine, Buckman, and Wei, 2014),此外,也有少部分研究以變異數分析的方法探討創造力在各類別(不同文化特性、家庭背景等)之差異,詳見表 4。

表 4 創造力及創新行為之統計分析方法彙整表統計分析方法 研究數量

階層線性模式 (Hierarchical Linear Modeling) 26

階層式迴歸分析 (Hierarchical Regression) 24

結構方程模式 (Structural Equation Modeling) 10

多階層結構方程模式 (Multilevel Structural Equation Modeling) 3

變異數分析與共變數分析 (ANOVA & ANCOVA) 2

T-test 1

多變量變異數分析 (MANOVA) 1

多種方法 2

肆、東亞國家研究成果

本節我們將介紹以東亞國家為樣本之常用理論,以及創造力與創新行為研究成

果,並將文章中所提到之所有前因、中介變項以及調節變項(包含前因之調節變項

與中介之調節變項)進行歸納整理,據以提出一個整合性模型(見圖 1與圖 2)。建立此模型的意義在於針對希望了解東亞創造力研究現況或有志投入創造力議題之

研究者,提供一個較為全面的東亞研究現況整理。此外,由於我們回顧的研究中,

絕大部分均將創造力作為結果變項,因此,本節我們將專注於創造力前因之回顧,

而少數探究創造力後果之研究將一併於未來展望中作闡述與討論。以下將分別依東

亞研究之常用理論、創造力之個人前因、創造力之社會互動前因、創造力之情境前

因、以及整合性模型之其它部分來作闡述:

一、東亞研究之常用理論

本節我們將介紹「個人創造力與創新行為」以及「團隊創造力」相關研究之常

用理論,並歸納區分為個人內在因素、社會互動及情境因素等三類分別闡述:

Page 8: Research on Employee Creativity in Taiwan and East Asian …review.management.ntu.edu.tw/paper/6276-P.pdf · Research on Employee Creativity in Taiwan and East Asian Countries: Findings

Research on Employee Creativity in Taiwan and East Asian Countries: Findings and Implications

46

(一)個人內在因素之相關理論

在所有組織行為的理論當中,個人差異一直扮演相當重要的影響因素。經由回

顧發現,最常用來解釋創造力或創新行為,且與個人差異有關之理論為創造力成份

理論 (Componential Theory of Creativity) 及調節焦點理論 (Regulatory Focus Theory)。Amabile (1983) 提出創造力成份理論,指出有三個主要的構成要素會使個人或

團隊產生創造力及創新行為:該領域的專業知識 (Domain-relevant Skills)、與創意有關的技能 (Creativity-relevant Techniques) 及執行任務的內在動機 (Intrinsic Motivation)。在兩篇以臺灣為樣本之研究中,皆以此理論解釋個人對工作之專業知識及內在動機會使其產生創造力(i.e., Chiang, Hsu, and Hung, 2014;蔡啟通,2008)。而也有研究指出調節焦點理論中的促進焦點 (Promotion Focus)及預防焦點 (Prevention Focus) 對於創造力的產生具不同影響,前者專注於個人成長、獲得成就,也較容易承擔具挑戰性、高風險性的工作,並刺激創造力及創新行為的產生,後者

專注於避免失敗、增加安全保障 (Higgins, 1998)。因此,過去研究皆假設促進焦點對於創造力具正向影響,預防焦點則會抑制創造力的產生 (e.g., Dong et al., 2015; Kurman et al., 2015; Zhou, Hirst, and Shipton, 2012a)。

(二)社會互動之相關理論

社會互動包含人與各種社會角色或團體之互動。根據回顧,我們將與社會互動

有關之理論依據領導情境、人際互動過程、及社會群體多樣性分別重點闡述之。

1. 領導情境領導者對於個人產生創造力或創新行為之影響力,是在組織行為領域時常被探

討的重要議題。如:以社會交換理論 (Social Exchange Theory) 及領導者與部屬交換 (Leader-member Exchange; LMX) 理論來解釋,若與主管維持高關係品質的員工較容易從事具挑戰性的工作任務,及獲得較多的支持及有用的資源 (Graen and Cashman, 1975),因此會願意投入較多的努力於工作上,並可能產生較多的創造力及創新行為,以回報領導者(e.g., 蔡啟通,2006; Wang, Fang, Qureshi, and Janssen, 2015)。此外,當領導者展現轉換型領導風格時,也能使部屬產生正向的工作態度及行為 (Basu and Green, 1997),且更願意挑戰較困難的工作任務,進而正向影響部屬的創造力績效 (e.g., Gilmore, Hu, Wei, Tetrick, and Zaccaro, 2013; Li, Zhao, and Begley, 2015; Zhang and Zhou, 2014; Zhang et al., 2011)。2. 人際互動過程在領導情境以外的人際互動,對於個人產生創造力或創新行為也具有重要影

響。根據社會資訊處理程序理論 (Social Information Processing Theory) (Salancik and Pfeffer, 1978),當個人可感受到他人對於其產生創造力行為的期待,或感受到組織對於支持創造力之氛圍,這些資訊都將提高員工之創造力行為的展現 (e.g., Gong,

Page 9: Research on Employee Creativity in Taiwan and East Asian …review.management.ntu.edu.tw/paper/6276-P.pdf · Research on Employee Creativity in Taiwan and East Asian Countries: Findings

47

NTU Management Review Vol. 29 No. 3 Dec. 2019

Kim, Lee, and Zhu, 2013; Wang, Leung, and Zhou, 2014)。也有學者從角色認定理論 (Role Identity Theory) 解釋他人對自身角色的創造力期望,會影響個人的創造力或創新行為 (e.g., Farmer, Tierney, and Kung-Mcintyre, 2003; Qu, Janssen, and Shi, 2015; Wang and Cheng, 2010)。而社會資本理論 (Social Capital Theory) (Nahapiet and Ghoshal, 1998) 也被用來解釋個人可從與他人的互動與溝通過程之中,獲得相關知識、資源及資訊,進而提升個人的創造力 (e.g., Han, Han, and Brass, 2014; Jia, Shaw, Tsui, and Park, 2014)。3. 社會群體多樣性經由回顧發現,許多學者關注以社會認定理論 (Social Identity Theory)、自我分

類理論 (Self-categorization Theory) 及相似-吸引理論 (Similarity-attraction Theory),共同解釋個人層次的異質性及團隊多樣性對創造力或創新的影響。當團隊多樣性越

低時,團隊成員越容易彼此吸引,且越能認同團隊,有助於整體團隊創新績效之提

高(e.g., 黃櫻美、林淑姬與林月雲,2009)。相反的,若與他人異質性越高(如:年齡、性別、教育程度),或團隊多樣性越高時,將不利於彼此分享有用的資源及

想法,進而降低員工的創造力行為或團隊的創造力績效 (e.g., Choi, 2007; Nouri, Erez, Rockstuhl, Ang, Leshem-Calif, and Rafaeli, 2013; Shin, Kim, Lee, and Bian, 2012; Tse and Chiu, 2014; Wang et al., 2013)。除了人口統計變數的異質性外,也有學者以意見多樣性,即兩方持不同意見並產生衝突的情況 (e.g., Matsuo, 2006),或是探討文化多樣性 (e.g., Chang, Hsu, Shih, and Chen, 2014; Nouri et al., 2015) 對創造力的影響。

(三)情境因素之相關理論

組織制度或環境對於個人產生創造力或創新行為之影響,相對來說,仍是較少

被探討的部分。過去研究以激發理論 (Activation Theory) 解釋當環境因素與個體的特質相近時,會激發個人的(人格)特質,且致力於展現符合該(人格)特質的行為,

但每個人都有適當的激發水準,過多或過少的環境因素都會對個人導致負面影響 (Gardner and Cummings, 1988),如:組織官僚特性對創造力的抑制效果 (Hirst, Van Knippenberg, Chen, and Sacramento, 2011)、高績效工作系統對創造力的正向效果 (Chiang, Hsu, and Shih, 2015)、壓力對創造力的倒 U型激發效果(徐聯恩與樊學良,2011; Leung, Huang, Su, and Lu, 2011),及不當督導對創造力的倒U型激發效果 (Lee, Yun, and Srivastava, 2013)。

二、創造力之個人前因

(一)個人創造力之個人前因

以東亞為樣本的研究中,個人創造力的個人前因大致可分為目標導向、動機、

人格、自我概念、以及其他重要因素。在目標導向方面的研究指出,學習目標導向

Page 10: Research on Employee Creativity in Taiwan and East Asian …review.management.ntu.edu.tw/paper/6276-P.pdf · Research on Employee Creativity in Taiwan and East Asian Countries: Findings

Research on Employee Creativity in Taiwan and East Asian Countries: Findings and Implications

48

(黃家齊與黃荷婷,2006;Gong, Huang, and Farh, 2009; Hirst et al., 2011; Leung et al., 2014; Liu, Wang, and Wayne, 2015)或自主性導向 (Liu, Chen, and Yao, 2011),均能夠增進創造力或創新行為的產生。如:Gong et al. (2009) 基於社會認知理論,發現員工的學習導向 (Employee Learning Orientation) 能經由提升創意自我效能進而增進員工創造力。而內在動機與外在動機則對創造力有正面助益(蔡啟通與高泉豐,

2004)。此外,主動性人格與創造力人格均為創造力的前因(王精文、陳心懿、林怡君、林栢章與李珍玫,2011; Gong et al., 2012)。在自我概念方面的研究指出,創造力行為自我評價 (Farmer et al., 2003)、核心

自我評估 (Chiang et al., 2014)、促進焦點 (Zhou et al., 2012a) 為創造力的前因。此外,由於維持人際間的和諧為華人文化之核心 (Hwang, 1987),兩篇以華人為樣本之研究亦開始以人際和諧的動機為前因進行探討,研究結果顯示「人際和諧的增進」動機

對於員工創造力或創新行為有正面助益,作者的論點為當員工具有「人際和諧的增

進」特性,其會認為多元觀點有益於發展和他人之間的關係,因此,其對於多元的

觀點會抱持著正面的態度,員工會認為與他人溝通是很正面且安全的,進而能促進

創新績效的產生 (Chen et al., 2015; Wang et al., 2014)。而其他創造力的前因則包括了知覺顧客授權行為 (Dong et al., 2015)、關係導向 (Leung, Chen, Zhou, and Lim, 2014)、員工對改變的抗拒 (Hon, Bloom, and Crant, 2014)、創造力過程的投入 (Zhang and Bartol, 2010b)、父母親文化背景 (Chang, Hsu, et al., 2014)等。

(二)團隊創造力之個人前因

在團隊創造力的個人前因方面,目前只有一篇研究指出,個人創造力會透過支

持創造力之氣候,進一步影響團隊創造力 (Gong et al., 2013)。係基於社會資訊處理程序理論的觀點 (Salancik and Pfeffer, 1978),認為當個人展現了創造力,其同時也傳達了創造性績效的期待給其他的團隊成員,使他們得以從事相似的行為,透過上

述社會影響的過程,支持創造力之氣候 (Supportive Climate for Creativity)得以產生,並能進而提高團隊創造力。

三、創造力之社會互動前因

(一)個人創造力之社會互動前因

在影響個人創造力或創新行為之社會互動前因部分,大概可簡化區分為團隊組

成、團隊目標導向、工作環境支持、以及領導模式等幾類主要的影響因素。首先,

在團隊組成方面,採多樣性價值 (Value-in-diversity) 觀點的研究發現,當成員具有較高的創意自我效能時,由於會較傾向認同團隊多樣性可能帶來的優勢,而使員工

個人的團隊多樣性認知能對其創造力表現產生正向的影響 (Shin et al., 2012)。而以社會分類 (Social Categorization) 及相似-吸引 (Similarity-attraction) 理論觀點的研究

Page 11: Research on Employee Creativity in Taiwan and East Asian …review.management.ntu.edu.tw/paper/6276-P.pdf · Research on Employee Creativity in Taiwan and East Asian Countries: Findings

49

NTU Management Review Vol. 29 No. 3 Dec. 2019

指出,工作團隊成員彼此之間在性別與職務階級的差異性,會使成員的創新行為產

生負向的影響,然而在年齡、績效和團隊專業背景等人口統計變項的差異性,則會

對成員的創新行為有正向的影響 (Choi, 2007)。團隊目標導向方面,學習型目標或是績效型目標的團隊 (Gong et al., 2013) 對於其成員的創造力均有正向影響。另外,在工作環境支持方面,由於在創意的發展過程中,往往伴隨著有可能失

敗的風險,因此需要有組織、主管與同事的支持;例如,主管的關懷性支持或同事

的尊重性支持(林明杰等,2007)、同理心式 (Empathetic) 與方向指引式 (Direction-giving) 的激勵語言(王精文等,2011)、同事對創造力期待 (Farmer et al., 2003)、組織對於員工的授權 (林明杰與李信達,2011; Chen and Aryee, 2007)、工作自主性的支持 (Gong et al., 2013)、主管支持行為 (Chen, Li, and Leung, 2016),以及當員工與團隊其他成員有較好的社會交換關係品質時等 (Liao, Liu, and Loi, 2010),對於個人的創造力或創新行為都具有正向的影響。相反的,若主管展現過度的「任務性

支持」及同事們過度的「專業性支持」行為(林明杰等,2007),或成員在社會網絡人際互動上有關係衝突時 (Chen, Sharma, Edinger, Shapiro, and Farh, 2011),則會不利於個人創造力或創新行為的產生。

最後,在領導模式方面,強調領導者藉由提升部屬的目標及個別關懷以激勵部

屬,透過增強部屬的自信心,使部屬展現出超越規範的工作表現的轉換型領導模式 (Basu and Green, 1997),最受到臺灣及東亞國家學者的關注;而轉換型領導對於員工創造力或創新行為的正向關係,亦已從許多實證研究中獲得了驗證(蔡啟通,

2008, 2011; Gilmore et al., 2013; Gong et al., 2009; Li et al., 2015; Qu et al., 2015; Shin and Zhou, 2003; Sun et al., 2012; Tse and Chiu, 2014; Wang et al., 2013);在其他領導模式部分,具華人概念的仁慈領導 (Wang and Cheng, 2010)、真誠領導 (Li, Yu, Yang, Qi, and Fu, 2014) 及高品質的 LMX(蔡啟通,2008)對於部屬的創造力亦會有正向影響;然而,主管的不當督導會降低部屬對於工作的內在動機,而抑制了員工的創

造力表現 (Zhang, Kwan, Zhang, and Wu, 2014)。

(二)團隊創造力之社會互動前因

另一方面,在影響團隊創造力的社會互動前因部分,團隊成員之間教育專業異

質性 (Shin and Zhou, 2007)、知識多樣性 (Han et al., 2014)、及團隊的目標導向 (Gong et al., 2013)、情感氛圍 (Tsai, Chi, Grandey, and Fung, 2012)、知識運用 (Sung and Choi, 2012) 等,皆會對團隊創造力具正向影響;然而當任務的明確性 (Task Specificity) 越高的情境下,團隊內部之文化多樣性會造成團隊成員之間有較少溝通釐清的機會,反而會降低團隊創造力績效 (Nouri et al., 2013);特別的是,任務衝突對團隊創造力影響則會呈現曲線倒 U的關係 (De Dreu, 2006; Farh, Lee, and Farh, 2010)。在領導模式方面,轉換型領導會經由增加團隊成員的集體效能與知識分享,

Page 12: Research on Employee Creativity in Taiwan and East Asian …review.management.ntu.edu.tw/paper/6276-P.pdf · Research on Employee Creativity in Taiwan and East Asian Countries: Findings

Research on Employee Creativity in Taiwan and East Asian Countries: Findings and Implications

50

進而提升團隊創造力績效,但華人概念的威權領導則會透過降低其團隊成員集體效

能與知識分享之中介機制,進而對團隊創造力產生負向影響 (Zhang et al., 2011)。

四、創造力之情境前因

(一)個人創造力之情境前因

影響個人創造力或創新行為的情境前因部分,首先在文化與氣候方面,有組織

創新氣候(蔡啟通與高泉豐,2004;Leung, Huang, et al., 2011)、組織創新活力(徐聯恩與樊學良,2011)、組織社會化(林明杰與李信達,2011)、程序正義氣候等 (Lin and Leung, 2014) 等,上述變數皆對創造力或創新行為具正向影響,然而,員工的集體主義文化特性會透過較高程度的預防焦點,避免失敗,進而降低員工創造力 (Kurman et al., 2015),除非曾身處美國文化的員工(意即曾接觸過不只一種文化),對於創造力的影響才會是正向影響 (Farmer et al., 2003)。

另外,在管理制度方面,組織高績效工作系統 (Chiang et al., 2015) 及高承諾工作系統 (Chang, Jia, et al., 2014) 對於員工創造力都能具正向影響,但要注意的是,人力資源管理制度和工作制度設計同等重要,因為,在工作上所產生之妨礙型工作壓

力(如:角色模糊性、人際衝突)會降低創造力行為 (Zhang, LePine, et al., 2014),除非該職務需要員工解決問題的程度很高,才會透過員工自身的創意自我效能,進

而提升創造力 (Zhou, Hirst, and Shipton, 2012b)。

(二)團隊創造力之情境前因

若組織能提供員工從事創新行為相關的誘因 (Jia et al., 2014)、或是接受創新的相關訓練 (Choi, Sung, Lee, and Cho, 2011),皆對於團隊創造力或創新績效具正面影響。另一方面,發生在團隊內的衝突對於團隊創新行為的影響,取決於衝突的本質,

若屬於任務衝突,其實能提升團隊整體創新行為,若屬於關係衝突或工作流程衝突,

則會不利於團隊整體創新行為 (Matsuo, 2006)。

五、整合性模型之其它部分

(一)前因之調節變項

上述前因對於個人創造力或創新行為之影響,亦可能會受到許多個人差異的影

響,如:自我概念(一般自我效能、創意自我效能、核心自我評估、內外控)(Chen et al., 2016; Gong et al., 2009; Shin et al., 2012; Zhang, Kwan, et al., 2014)、角色認定(Wang and Cheng, 2010; Zhang and Bartol, 2010a)、人格(外向型、創造力人格、正負向情感特質)(王精文等,2011;Chiang et al., 2015; Gilmore et al., 2013; Ng and Feldman, 2009)、價值觀(華人傳統型、保守性、符合性價值)(Li et al., 2014; Shin and Zhou, 2003; Chen and Aryee, 2007; Zhou, Shin, Brass, Choi, and Zhang, 2009)、動

Page 13: Research on Employee Creativity in Taiwan and East Asian …review.management.ntu.edu.tw/paper/6276-P.pdf · Research on Employee Creativity in Taiwan and East Asian Countries: Findings

51

NTU Management Review Vol. 29 No. 3 Dec. 2019

機(內在動機、外在動機)(蔡啟通與高泉豐,2004;Zhou et al., 2012b)、及其他重要因素(印象管理策略、規避不確定性與信任、學習目標導向與表現目標導向)

(蔡啟通,2011;Liu et al., 2015; Zhang and Zhou, 2014)等個人因素調節。在與同事、主管或團隊成員的互動、以及相關管理制度或文化方面,亦皆會調

節上述前因對於個人創造力或創新行為之影響,如:同事支持行為 (Hon et al., 2014)、主管領導模式(轉換型領導、交易型領導、授權式領導、智力啟迪)(Dong et al., 2015; Hon et al., 2014; Zhang, LePine, et al., 2014; Zhou et al., 2012a)、團隊組成(團隊成員交換關係品質、領導者與部屬交換關係品質)(蔡啟通,2006;Liao et al., 2010; Wang et al., 2015)、團隊氣候(團隊凝聚力)(Chang, Jia, et al., 2014)、團隊過程(團隊學習行為)(Huang and Luthans, 2015)、及與團隊主管的信任關係 (Gong et al., 2013)。此外,也會被部分情境因素所調節,如:管理相關因素(工作自主性、個人參與)(Liu et al., 2011; Zhou et al., 2012a)、獎勵創造力 (Chen et al., 2015)、組織特性(中心化、正式化)(Hirst et al., 2011)、工作複雜度 (Chang, Jia, et al., 2014)、時間壓力(徐聯恩與樊學良,2011)、及文化與氣候(創新氣候、心理安全氣候、現代性氣候)(林明杰等,2007;Hon et al., 2014; Leung, Chen, Zhou, et al., 2014)等變數。

最後是上述前因對於團隊創造力或團隊創新行為之影響,會受到團隊組成(知

識不均等、團隊年資、認知風格)(Han et al., 2014; Shin and Zhou, 2007; Sung and Choi, 2012)、與團隊領導者之信任關係 (Gong et al., 2013)、負向團隊情感氛圍 (Tsai et al., 2012)、專案團隊生命週期階段 (Farh et al., 2010)、組織提供的誘因 (Jia et al., 2014)、轉換型領導 (Shin and Zhou, 2007)、及環境不確定性 (Sung and Choi, 2012)等調節影響。

(二)中介變項

根據上述臺灣與其他東亞國家樣本的研究,部分前因會透過中介變項的間接效

果,進而影響個體或團隊創造力,而這些中介變項大致可區分為個人、社會互動與

情境因素等三類。在個人因素方面,包含了和自我概念、認定與人格特質有關的自

我效能(黃家齊與黃荷婷,2006;Liao et al., 2010)、創意自我效能 (Gong et al., 2009; Zhang and Zhou, 2014)、促進焦點 (Dong et al., 2015)、組織內的自我價值評價與內部地位知覺 (Chen and Aryee, 2007)、部屬的關係認定 (Qu et al., 2015)、創造力角色認定 (Farmer et al., 2003)、心理資本 (Huang and Luthans, 2015)、及工作和諧熱情 (Liu et al., 2011);與動機有關的內在動機(蔡啟通,2008;Chen et al., 2016; Shin and Zhou, 2003; Zhang, Kwan, et al., 2014)和挑戰型內在動機 (Leung, Chen, and Chen, 2014);與心理狀態有關的害怕失敗感 (Leung, Chen, Zhou, et al., 2014) 和工作安全感 (Lin and Leung, 2014);此外,還包含了個人差異化知覺 (Tse and Chiu,

Page 14: Research on Employee Creativity in Taiwan and East Asian …review.management.ntu.edu.tw/paper/6276-P.pdf · Research on Employee Creativity in Taiwan and East Asian Countries: Findings

Research on Employee Creativity in Taiwan and East Asian Countries: Findings and Implications

52

2014)、心理賦權 (Sun et al., 2012)、領域知識 (Chiang et al., 2014)、創意投入 (Chen et al., 2015)、及顧客導向行為(林明杰與李信達,2011)等其他重要個人因素。在社會互動因素方面,會間接影響個體創造力的中介變項包含領導者部屬交換

關係 (Wang et al., 2015)、師父的指導 (Liu et al., 2015)、創新氣候 (Gong et al., 2013)、溝通安全心理氣候 (Wang et al., 2014)、信任 (Gong et al., 2012)、與他人資訊交換 (Chiang et al., 2015; Gong et al., 2012)、及互動正義知覺 (Li et al., 2014) 等因素。另外,會間接影響到團隊創造力績效的中介變項,則包含了與團隊過程或團隊結構

組成有關的團隊資訊交換 (Gong et al., 2013)、溝通密度 (Jia et al., 2014)、溝通澄清 (Nouri et al., 2013)、團隊外部社會資本 (Han et al., 2014)、認知評估 (Choi et al., 2011)、知識分享 (Zhang et al., 2011);或與團隊氣候有關的團隊正、負向情緒 (Choi et al., 2011)、集體效能(黃家齊與黃荷婷,2006; Zhang et al., 2011)、創新氣候 (Wang et al., 2013)、及團隊創意效能 (Shin and Zhou, 2007) 等中介變項。最後,在情境因素方面,則會透過結構式授權 (Sun et al., 2012)、知覺組織的慈

愛、誠信 (Lin and Leung, 2014)、及組織正義 (蔡啟通,2006; Zhang, LePine, et al., 2014)等中介變項的效果,間接影響到個體的創造力表現。

(三)中介之調節變項

然而,上述透過中介變項進而對個體或團隊創造力產生間接影響之中介歷程,

則會進一步受到領域相關技能(蔡啟通,2008)、互動正義(蔡啟通,2008)、內團體的強連結 (Wang et al., 2015)、團隊內部社會資本 (Han et al., 2014)、團體內知識分離 (Separation) 程度 (Han et al., 2014)、領導者的創造力期待 (Qu et al., 2015)、以及主管的授權領導 (Dong et al., 2015)等因素的調節。除此之外,也會受到組織重視創造力程度 (Farmer et al., 2003)、創新氣候 (Leung, Chen, Zhou, et al., 2014)、以及組織特性(蔡啟通,2006)等情境因素的調節影響。

伍、東西方研究成果比較

本節我們將比較東亞與西方研究的相似或差異之處。在西方研究的實證成果的

整理與呈現上,我們主要參考的是 Anderson et al. (2014) 的回顧文章,該文回顧2002-2011所有發表於組織管理領域頂尖期刊之創造力或創新相關研究,可算是目前最新及最完整之創造力研究回顧文章,因此,這篇文章具有參考之代表性,然而,

該文回顧架構之主軸並非以強調創造力研究成果在文化概念上的比較。本節希望能

藉由回顧刊登於西方及臺灣重要本土期刊,以增補創造力於東亞國家之研究成果,

並探討東亞國家與西方國家在不同前因之研究取向上的差異,呈現較完整與系統性

之創造力在東亞國家與西方國家之研究成果比較,進而提出可能的未來研究方向。

Page 15: Research on Employee Creativity in Taiwan and East Asian …review.management.ntu.edu.tw/paper/6276-P.pdf · Research on Employee Creativity in Taiwan and East Asian Countries: Findings

53

NTU Management Review Vol. 29 No. 3 Dec. 2019

一、創造力之個人前因

(一)個人創造力之個人前因

在個人創造力的個人前因部分,以臺灣、其他東亞國家、以及西方國家為樣本

的研究中,均關注學習目標導向與創造力或創新行為之間的關係(黃家齊與黃荷婷,

2006;Gong et al., 2009; Hirst et al., 2011; Hirst, Van Knippenberg, and Zhou, 2009; Huang and Luthans, 2015)。此外,在探討人格與創造力的關係時,以臺灣為樣本的研究探討了員工主動性人格或創造性人格所造成的正面影響,例如,研究發現對同

事與主管的信任為主動性人格與創造力關係間的中介因子 (Gong et al., 2012),結果反映出員工與其同事或主管之間的互動,對員工而言有相當的重要性,具主動性人

格的員工,透過與他人的交流能增進彼此間的信任關係,進而展現出良好的創造性

績效。西方研究則從交互作用的觀點,探討背景因素 (Contextual Factors) 如何調節五大人格 (Big Five Personality) 與創造力間之關係 (George and Zhou, 2001; Raja and Johns, 2010)。另一方面,在探討自我概念、動機與創造力或創新行為的研究上,除了內在動

機一直是西方研究所重視的主題外 (Amabile, 1996),創意自我效能亦為所探究的前因之一 (Tierney and Farmer, 2002, 2011)。而近期以其他東亞國家為樣本的研究則開始以本土概念出發,例如,兩篇以中國大陸為樣本的研究基於人際和諧動機的觀點

來探討其與創造力之關係,也說明了東亞國家對於人際互動之著重 (Chen et al., 2015; Wang et al., 2014)。

(二)團隊創造力之個人前因

在我們的回顧文章之中,大多數探討團隊創造力的前因多為來自團隊層次的前

因,但 Gong et al. (2013) 的研究則探討了個人層次的前因,基於社會資訊處理程序理論的觀點 (Salancik and Pfeffer, 1978),他們認為個人創造力能夠透過社會影響的過程,產生支持創造力之氣候,進而增進團隊創造力。此外,不論是以西方或東亞

國家為樣本的研究,均鮮少探究團隊創新績效的個人層次前因。

二、創造力之社會互動前因

(一)個人創造力之社會互動前因

在探討影響個體創造力的社會互動前因部分,東亞國家樣本的研究多數與西方

研究結果呈現一致,例如:轉換型領導 (Bono and Judge, 2003) 以及主管賦權行為 (Zhang and Bartol, 2010a),都會對個體的創造力或創新行為具有正向的影響。然而,也有部分的研究呈現了不太一致的結果,例如:雖然已有西方研究結果指出,主管

的支持行為會正向的影響員工創造力 (Madjar, Oldham, and Pratt, 2002);然而,臺灣樣本研究則進一步探究了該理論界線 (Boundary),發現到若是過度的主管「任務性

Page 16: Research on Employee Creativity in Taiwan and East Asian …review.management.ntu.edu.tw/paper/6276-P.pdf · Research on Employee Creativity in Taiwan and East Asian Countries: Findings

Research on Employee Creativity in Taiwan and East Asian Countries: Findings and Implications

54

支持」或同事的「專業性支持」時,其實反而並不利於員工創造力表現(林明杰等,

2007)。除此之外,在心理賦權方面,東西方從不同的型態作探討,西方研究顯示當員工有較高的心理賦權時,則交易型領導 (Transactional Leadership) 會負向影響員工的創新行為 (Pieterse, Van Knippenberg, Schippers, and Stam, 2010),而東亞國家研究則發現,轉換型領導會透過增加員工的心理賦權,進而提高員工的創造力 (Sun et al., 2012)。

(二)團隊創造力之社會互動前因

進一步比較發現,東西方研究相似之處為團隊組成與團隊創造力的正向關係是

受到了調節因素的影響。例如,東亞國家研究發現團隊成員教育背景的異質性會在

轉換型領導程度較高時 (Shin and Zhou, 2007),有利於團隊創造力的產生。西方研究發現,只有在當團隊成員有知覺到彼此多樣性程度高時,團隊的多樣性才會對團隊

創造力有顯著正向影響;反之當知覺程度低時,則上述關係無法產生效果 (Hoever, Van Knippenberg, Van Ginkel, and Barkema, 2012)。此外,東西方亦從不同的研究取向探討團隊組成對於團隊創造力的影響。例如,東亞國家研究顯示,知識多樣性與

團隊創造力具有正向的關係 (Han et al., 2014),但西方研究則指出,團隊成員的文化多樣性反而會降低了團隊創造力的產生 (Nouri et al., 2013)。在領導模式方面,東亞國家研究除發現了轉換型領導對於團隊創造力有正向影響之外,同時也發現到華人

威權領導會不利於團隊創造力的產生 (Zhang et al., 2011)。

三、創造力之情境前因

(一)個人創造力之情境前因

無論以東亞國家或西方國家為樣本之研究,皆發現組織創新氣候及知覺程序正

義對創造力具正向影響(蔡啟通與高泉豐,2004;Leung, Huang, et al., 2011; Lin and Leung, 2014; Pirola-Merlo and Mann, 2004; Simmons, 2011)。然而,在驗證壓力對創造力的影響效果上,東、西方研究則從不同的型態來探

討,如:研究發現每日工作的時間壓力,對於以西方國家為樣本之員工之每日創造

力具正向影響 (Ohly and Fritz, 2010),或呈現倒 U的影響 (Baer and Oldham, 2006);但以東亞國家為樣本之研究發現,挑戰型壓力(包含時間壓力)對於創造力之正向

影響需透過知覺組織正義傳遞,且在轉換型領導的情境下方能成立此效果 (Zhang, LePine, et al., 2014)。

(二)團隊創造力之情境前因

經由回顧可發現,人力資源管理制度對於創新的影響,在以其他東亞國家與西

方國家為樣本之研究皆呈現一致的結果,如:提供員工進行創新相關的訓練、績效

獎酬設計等,皆對於提升團隊創新有幫助 (Choi et al., 2011; Jia et al., 2014; Martínez-

Page 17: Research on Employee Creativity in Taiwan and East Asian …review.management.ntu.edu.tw/paper/6276-P.pdf · Research on Employee Creativity in Taiwan and East Asian Countries: Findings

55

NTU Management Review Vol. 29 No. 3 Dec. 2019

Sánchez, Vela-Jiménez, Pérez-Pérez, and De-Luis-Carnicer, 2011; Shipton, West, Parkes, Dawson, and Patterson, 2006)。至於團隊內任務衝突與團隊創造力或團隊創新行為之關係,至今仍無一致的研

究成果,無論以東亞或西方國家為樣本之研究均發現適當的任務衝突對於團隊創造

力或團隊創新有最佳的倒 U效果 (De Dreu, 2006; Farh et al., 2010);然而,有西方研究發現任務衝突對創新影響不大 (Jehn, Rispens, and Thatcher, 2010),有東方的研究則發現任務衝突對團隊整體創新行為產生正向影響 (Matsuo, 2006)。由於上述關係間之實證結果有限,尚待後續更多的實證研究累積,方能釐清上述關係是否存在著

東西方的差異。

最後,由於尚未有以臺灣為樣本之研究探討團隊創造力與創新之情境前因,因

此,在此部分無法加入臺灣之團隊創造力研究成果進行比較。

四、總結

(一)個人創造力之前因

個人前因部分,在探討員工的學習目標導向與創造力或創新行為的關係上,以

東亞為樣本的研究與西方研究結果相似,即員工的學習目標導向能夠增進其創造力

或創新行為(黃家齊與黃荷婷,2006;Gong et al., 2009; Hirst et al., 2011; Hirst et al., 2009; Huang and Luthans, 2015)。而在東亞研究的個人前因方面,有兩篇研究以具儒家文化特色之「人際和諧」

概念進行探討 (Chen et al., 2015; Wang et al., 2014)。過去學者認為和諧限制了創造力的產生 (Kim, 2007),原因為創造力的產生過程中,為了激盪出不同的觀點,可能牽涉到人際之間的衝突,造成個人人際關係上的風險,因此在團體之中重視和諧的個

人會較於猶豫從事創造力的活動 (Chen et al., 2015)。然而,學者們提出當員工具有「人際和諧的增進動機」時,其渴望與他人建立長期正面的關係,也特別關注與他

人的合作機會,並且認為對立、爭論與異議有益於人際關係 (Wang et al., 2014);另一方面,其亦能整合不同的觀點、意見與想法,因而促使員工主動地尋求與學習新

的資訊和想法,同時能夠持續地搜尋資訊,並探索新穎且實用的方法 (Chen et al., 2015)。透過上述兩種不同的機制,其能增進創造力或創新行為的產生。雖然人際和諧的動機在儒家文化之中特別明顯,但過去以澳洲為樣本的研究也

發現到,「人際和諧的增進動機」與衝突風格中的整合 (Integrating) 與問題解決 (Problem Solving) 有所關連;而「人際瓦解的避免動機」則與衝突風格中的逃避 (Avoidance) 有關 (Leung, Brew, Zhang, and Zhang, 2011)。上述結果意味著人際和諧動機可能概化至其他文化之中,也值得未來研究繼續深究。

社會互動前因部分,在臺灣樣本研究中較特別的是,華人家長式領導模式中的

Page 18: Research on Employee Creativity in Taiwan and East Asian …review.management.ntu.edu.tw/paper/6276-P.pdf · Research on Employee Creativity in Taiwan and East Asian Countries: Findings

Research on Employee Creativity in Taiwan and East Asian Countries: Findings and Implications

56

仁慈領導能激勵員工,使他們在工作上有較好的創造力表現 (Wang and Cheng, 2010);另外,透過不同方式的激勵語言,對於不同性格的個體在創造力績效上會有不同的影響,像是同理心或方向導引式激勵語言,都能各別顯著提升創新型或適應

型人格成員在創意上的構想量(王精文等,2011);而高品質的領導者部屬交換關係則對於員工的創新行為能產生正向影響(蔡啟通,2008)。總結來說,有關影響個人創造力的社會互動前因,臺灣和其他東亞國家樣本研究多聚焦在團隊組成、團

隊目標導向、「組織、主管與同事支持」、社會網絡、領導模式及團隊氣候等因素;

反觀在西方國家樣本研究方面,除了探討前述影響個體創造力或創新行為的社會互

動因素外,其研究文獻範圍更已經擴展到顧客影響、主管與同事的回饋、外部評估 (External Evaluation)、組織正義 (Organizational Justice) 及資訊隱私權等其他社會互動因素 (Anderson et al., 2014)。在情境前因部分,東西方研究皆發現,知覺組織創新氣候及程序正義對創造力

具正向影響。然而,關於職場工作壓力對創造力的影響,東西方研究選以不同的構

面衡量壓力,如:西方研究目前僅探討時間壓力對創造力的影響,但東亞國家研究

發現,挑戰型壓力源(工作要求、時間壓力)對創造力為正向但不顯著之效果,而

妨礙型壓力源(角色模糊性、人際衝突) 對於創造力呈現顯著負向效果,此種研究取向的差異可能在於集體主義文化特性的影響。而上述關係在東亞國家也可能較為

顯著,因為抑制創造力產生的主要因素為害怕失敗 (Mostafa, 2005),由於我們所在的集體主義文化屬於關係導向,此種關係導向會導致個人害怕失敗,而關係導向與

重視面子有關,面子會影響個人在組織中的權力和成就(黃光國,1985),所以重視關係導向的特性會使個人避免失敗,失敗會導致面子損失 (Brown, 1990),因此,重視關係導向的集體主義文化特性可能對於創造力具抑制效果,而此效果在西方國

家之個人主義文化可能較不顯著。

(二)團隊創造力之前因

除了少數研究外 (e.g., Gong et al., 2013),以個人前因為創造力前因之探討較為少見。另外,在社會互動前因方面,其他東亞或西方國家研究中,探討影響團隊創

造力之社會互動前因主要區分團隊組成、團隊結構、團隊氣候、團隊過程和其他管

理因素等面向;相較之下,臺灣目前則僅探究了團隊的情感氛圍 (Tsai et al., 2012) 與團隊目標導向(黃家齊與黃荷婷,2006)對於團隊創造力績效的影響。在情境前因方面,公司之人力資源管理制度若能提供員工進行創新相關訓練,

或是以創新為基礎之績效和薪酬設計,皆有助於東西方國家員工提升團隊創新績

效。另一方面,在西方研究中,團隊內部衝突對於團隊創新較無影響,但由於人際

關係及保持和諧於儒家文化中佔有重要的角色 (Hwang, 2001; Kim, 2007),除了任務衝突之外,若團隊內部發生之衝突屬關係或工作流程之衝突,則不利於團隊創新。

Page 19: Research on Employee Creativity in Taiwan and East Asian …review.management.ntu.edu.tw/paper/6276-P.pdf · Research on Employee Creativity in Taiwan and East Asian Countries: Findings

57

NTU Management Review Vol. 29 No. 3 Dec. 2019

前因之調節變項

社會互動因素

– 團隊組成﹝知識不均等

(Dis

parit

y)、團隊年資﹞

– 領導模式(轉換型領導)

– 其他重要因素(與團隊領導者之信任關係)

情境因素

– 管理相關因素(組織提供的誘因) 中介變項

社會互動因素

– 團隊過程(與工作相關之溝通密度、溝通澄清、團

隊資訊交換、知識分享、認知評估)

– 團隊結構與組成﹝團隊-外部連結

(B

ridg

ing)社會

資本﹞

– 團隊氣候(支持創造力之氣候、團隊創意效能、集

體效能、正負向情緒)

前因

社會互動因素

– 團隊氣候(正向團隊情感氛圍、任務衝突)

– 團隊過程(團隊知識管理)

情境因素

– 文化與氣候(任務衝突、關係衝突、流程衝突)

調節變項

社會互動因素

– 團隊組成(認知風格)

– 團隊氣候(負向團隊情感氛圍)

– 其他因素(專案團隊生命週期階段、

團隊信任

*負向團隊情感氛圍)

情境因素

– 外部環境(環境不確定性)

中介之調節變項

社會互動因素

– 團隊組成(團隊-內部連結社會資本、知識

分離)

團隊創造力

前因

個人因素

– 個人創造力

社會互動因素

– 團隊目標導向(團隊目標導向、團隊

表現導向)

– 團隊組成(知識多樣性、教育背景異

質性、文化多樣性)

– 領導模式(轉換型領導、威權領導)

– 管理相關因素(主管的創新投入)

情境因素

– 工作目標與要求(知覺組織所期待的

員工貢獻)

– 管理相關因素(員工的創新訓練)

圖1 團隊創造力之整合性模型

Page 20: Research on Employee Creativity in Taiwan and East Asian …review.management.ntu.edu.tw/paper/6276-P.pdf · Research on Employee Creativity in Taiwan and East Asian Countries: Findings

Research on Employee Creativity in Taiwan and East Asian Countries: Findings and Implications

58

前因之調節變項

個人因素

– 自我概念(核心自我評估、內/外控、自我效能) – 認定(授權角色認定) – 人格特質(外向型人格) – 價值觀(華人傳統性、保守性) – 其他重要因素(印象管理策略、規避不確定性 *信任)社會互動因素

– 團隊組成(團隊成員交換關係品質、領導者與部屬交換關係品質)

– 團隊過程(團隊學習行為) – 領導模式(轉換型領導、交易型領導、授權式領導、智力啟迪)

– 其他重要因素(與團隊主管的信任關係)情境因素

– 文化與氣候(創新氣候) – 管理相關因素(工作自主性) – 工作目標與要求(獎勵創造力)

中介變項

個人因素

– 自我概念(自我效能、創意自我效能、促進焦點、內部地位知覺、組織內自我價值

評價、工作和諧式熱情)

– 認定(部屬的關係認定、創造力角色認定) – 動機(內在動機、挑戰型內在動機) – 人格特質(心理資本) – 心理狀態(害怕失敗感、工作安全感) – 其他重要因素(心理賦權、領域知識、創意投入、顧客導向行為、個人差異化知覺)

社會互動因素

– 領導模式(領導者部屬交換關係、師父指導) – 團隊氣候(創新氣候、溝通安全心理氣候) – 其他重要因素(信任關係、與他人資訊交換、互動正義知覺)

情境因素

– 管理相關因素(結構式授權) – 其他重要因素(知覺組織仁慈、知覺組織誠信、組織正義)

前因

個人因素

– 自我概念(創造力行為自我評價、核心自我評估) – 動機(人際和諧增進動機、人際瓦解避免動機) – 人格特質(主動性人格) – 目標導向(個人學習導向、團隊成員自主性導向) – 其他重要因素(員工知覺顧客授權行為、關係導向)

社會互動因素

– 團隊目標導向 – 同事影響(知覺同事對創造力角色期望、社會交換關係品質、關係衝突)

– 團隊氣候(團隊自主性支持) – 社會網絡(外團體之弱連結) – 領導模式(授權賦能、領導者部屬交換關係、轉換型領導、不當督導、真誠領導、授權領導、主

管支持)

情境因素

– 工作目標與要求(妨礙型壓力源、解決問題需求程度)

– 管理相關因素(高績效工作系統) – 文化與氣候(曾身處美國文化、集體主義文化特性、程序正義氣候、組織社會化)

圖 2 個人創造力與創新行為之整合性模型

Page 21: Research on Employee Creativity in Taiwan and East Asian …review.management.ntu.edu.tw/paper/6276-P.pdf · Research on Employee Creativity in Taiwan and East Asian Countries: Findings

59

NTU Management Review Vol. 29 No. 3 Dec. 2019

前因

個人因素

– 自我概念(促進焦點、預防焦點) – 人格特質(創造力人格) – 目標導向(目標導向) – 動機(內在動機、外在動機) – 其他重要因素(抗拒改變、創造力過程投入、父母親文化背景)

社會互動因素

– 團隊組成(團隊多樣性、人口統計變項) – 團隊氣候(工作自主性的支持) – 社會網絡(弱連結) – 同事影響(同事支持行為) – 領導模式(主管支持行為、仁慈領導、轉換型領導、領導激勵語言、不當督導)

情境因素

– 文化與氣候(曾身處美國文化、組織創新氣候、組織創新活力)

– 管理相關因素(高承諾工作系統) – 其他重要因素(職業鑲嵌程度)

調節變項

個人因素

– 自我概念(創意自我效能) – 認定(創意角色認定) – 人格特質(正向情感特質、負向情感特質、創造力人格)

– 動機(內在動機、外在動機) – 價值觀(符合性價值) – 其他重要因素(學習目標導向 *表現目標導向)社會互動因素

– 同事影響(同事支持行為) – 團隊氣候(團隊凝聚力) – 領導模式(轉換型領導、授權式領導、智力啟迪)情境因素

– 工作複雜度(團隊工作複雜度、時間壓力) – 組織特性(中心化、正式化) – 文化與氣候(現代性氣候、組織創新氣候、心理安全氣候)

– 管理相關因素(個人參與、工作自主性) – 其他重要因素(外在動機 *組織創新氣候)

中介之調節變項

個人因素

– 領域相關技能社會互動因素

– 團隊組成(內團體強連結) – 領導模式(主管對員工之創造力期望、授權式領導) – 其他重要因素(互動正義)情境因素

– 管理相關因素(組織重視創造力之程度) – 文化與氣候(創新氣候) – 工作目標與要求﹝組織特性(中心化、正式化)﹞

個人

創造力與創新行為

圖 2 個人創造力與創新行為之整合性模型

Page 22: Research on Employee Creativity in Taiwan and East Asian …review.management.ntu.edu.tw/paper/6276-P.pdf · Research on Employee Creativity in Taiwan and East Asian Countries: Findings

Research on Employee Creativity in Taiwan and East Asian Countries: Findings and Implications

60

陸、未來展望

從前述的文獻回顧及東西方研究成果比較中,可以得知部分創造力的研究於東

西方結果一致,說明了具有部分之文化普同性。然而,在部分以東亞為樣本的研究

之中,也發現到研究者納入了「和諧」、「面子與人情」、「仁慈領導」等東亞國

家之本土概念。因此,本節將以上述於西方及東亞國家進行之創造力實證研究成果

比較為基礎,並從東亞文化特性的角度,提出未來可能的研究問題(關於創造力前

因與後果之系統性的研究問題整理,請參考表 5)。

一、個人層面

在創造力個人前因方面,目前以東亞為樣本的研究,在觀點方面仍以西方理論

為主,而選用特定理論時也往往與其所選擇探討的前因相關,例如,在探討學習目

標導向前因時,所選用的理論多基於社會認知理論或社會學習理論的觀點 (e.g., Gong et al., 2009; Huang and Luthans, 2015)。而除了少數研究外 (e.g., Chen et al., 2015; Wang et al., 2014),以東亞國家本土概念進行探討的研究亦相當有限。

另一方面,學者認為部分儒家文化價值觀(如:和諧、順從長上)可能限制了

創造力的產生 (Kim, 2007)。然而在深入闡述和諧的內涵之後,Chen et al. (2015)發現「人際和諧的增進動機」反而對創造力是有幫助的。因此,建議後續以東亞國家

為樣本之研究可繼續深入探究儒家文化的概念,並探究是否在特定概念之中具有能

促進創造力或創新行為之核心元素。此外,當個人重視對長上的順從,可能在組織

之中過於尊重長官或資深同事的建議,同時也減低了其提出不同構想之動機,因此,

後續研究者可探討有哪些背景因素能讓具順從長上價值觀之員工,產生出良好的創

造力。

此外,Leung, Chen, Zhou, et al. (2014) 發現關係導向(包含了面子與人情)會增加員工對失敗的恐懼,但員工對失敗的恐懼並未對關係導向與員工創造力的關係有

顯著的中介效果。有鑑於面子與人情在華人社會的重要性,其是否可能透過其他的

過程影響創造力或創新行為,值得研究者繼續探討。舉例來說,人情可視為一種特

別的社會交換 (Leung, Chen, Zhou, et al., 2014),當員工的人情導向較高,可能較願意幫助他人或與他人發展良好的關係,透過經常與他人的資訊交換,能夠讓員工有

較佳的創造力。在團隊創造力的個人前因方面,目前的相關研究有限,未來研究可

以探討有哪些個人因素能夠影響團隊創造力,而個人創造力與團隊創造力的關係可

透過何種背景因素來增強,亦為值得探究的方向。

Page 23: Research on Employee Creativity in Taiwan and East Asian …review.management.ntu.edu.tw/paper/6276-P.pdf · Research on Employee Creativity in Taiwan and East Asian Countries: Findings

61

NTU Management Review Vol. 29 No. 3 Dec. 2019

二、社會互動層面

在探討影響創造力的社會互動前因中,組織中的領導模式儼然已被視為影響員

工或團隊創造力產生之關鍵因素 (Anderson et al., 2014; Rosing, Frese, and Bausch, 2011),從東、西方許多實證研究中得知,像是轉換型與交易型領導這二種不同領導模式,對於創造力初期構想產生與後期實踐運用階段各有顯著的正向影響;而部分

研究也顯示主管對於創造力所表現出的支持行為、期望或典範、賦權領導、真誠領

導、甚至不當督導等模式,則會透過增加或抑制員工本身內在動機與自我效能,最

後對員工在職場中的創新行為表現產生影響;然而,個人前因與領導模式前因交互

影響,究竟在何種模式的組合下,能激發出組織中員工最大程度的創造力,應值得

後續研究進一步探討。

其次,回顧目前臺灣與東亞國家有關創造力的研究,仍多採用西方理論客位化 (Etic) 方式探討,僅少數研究從文化本位 (Emic) 研究途徑出發,例如在探討領導模式時,樊景立與鄭伯壎 (2000) 即考量華人文化社會脈絡因素而提出家長式領導 (Paternalistic Leadership),說明華人家族企業領導者常透過展現出威權領導、仁慈、與德行等不同領導模式,相對應影響其部屬表現出敬畏順從、感恩圖報以及認同效

法;在我們所彙整的研究之中,已發現到仁慈領導及威權領導對創造力分別具有正

面與負面的影響。其中,在威權領導方面,已有研究指出威權領導的內涵可以再進

一步區分出控制人的「專權」成份,以及控制事的「尚嚴」成份(周婉茹、周麗芳、

鄭伯壎與任金剛,2010)。換句話說,威權領導可分為操控部屬的專權領導以及監控部屬、要求達成目標及遵守規範的尚嚴領導(周婉茹等,2010)。實證研究已發現專權領導對於心理賦能次向度的意義度、自決感及影響力有負向影響;而尚嚴領

導則對於意義度、效能及影響力有正向影響(周婉茹等,2010)。有鑑於威權領導與創造力的關係,以及威權領導之不同面向所能帶來之正負面影響,研究者後續可

再進一步探究專權領導是否會透過減弱心理賦能而降低員工的創造力,同時尚嚴領

導是否經由增強心理賦能而提高員工的創造力。

此外,在德行領導方面,其領導行為包括了公私分明與以身作則的行為(鄭伯

壎、周麗芳與樊景立,2000)。近期的研究發現,德行領導經由增進部屬對領導者的認同,進而促進領導者部屬交換關係,最後使員工創造力得以提升 (Gu, Tang, and Jiang, 2015)。基於單位主管的領導行為可能會為單位塑造了整體性的氛圍,我們認為高度的德行領導可能會經由塑造了程序公正氣候,並進一步透過促進員工對單位

的信任或增進員工的心理安全感,進而提升員工的創造力。而上述關係值得後續研

究進一步驗證。

Page 24: Research on Employee Creativity in Taiwan and East Asian …review.management.ntu.edu.tw/paper/6276-P.pdf · Research on Employee Creativity in Taiwan and East Asian Countries: Findings

Research on Employee Creativity in Taiwan and East Asian Countries: Findings and Implications

62

最後,在其他社會互動因素前因方面,近年已有部分西方研究開始針對實際工

作場域中,主管或同事之間的意見回饋 (Feedback)、組織中的績效評量 (Performance Evaluation) 制度、員工在組織結構中的社會網絡 (Social Network) 角色、對組織的認同 (Organizational Identification) 或是當在進行創意構想發展階段時,組織資訊運用的隱匿性 (Information Privacy) 等因素,是否有助於員工或團隊創造力的產生,由於相關實證研究結果仍較有限,亦應值得未來研究進一步探討。

三、情境因素

在組織情境前因之中,目前文獻僅探討人力資源管理制度對於創造力之正向效

果(如:提供訓練、薪酬設計),但現今臺灣及東亞國家面臨的市場環境相當競爭,

許多組織為了生存及營利,皆以降低人事成本為考量,如:要求員工額外加班或採

無薪假,然而注意力容量理論 (Attention Capacity Theory) 指出每個人能回應週遭環境或活動的能力有限,在組織中會有許多影響或轉移創造力產生的因素及活動,進

而抑制創造力的產生 (Van de Ven, 1986),因此,當員工身處工作量大、工時長、薪資低的環境中,是否會使產生創造力的注意力遭轉移或被影響,進而抑制創意產生

的時間及心力,因此會有較少的創造力或創新行為,此點是值得未來研究進行的方

向。另外,員工在工作中休息之時間 (Within-day Work Breaks)、頻率及品質,是否也能對於提升創造力有幫助,亦有待進一步探討。

由於臺灣及東亞國家較屬於集體文化特性,較注重人際關係,及在意自己在他

人眼中的看法,因此,組織氛圍對員工行為及態度的影響在臺灣及東亞國家應相當

明顯,過去的實證研究已證實組織創新氛圍對創造力具正向影響 (e.g., Leung, Huang, et al., 2011),然而,外商企業(非亞洲國家)及臺灣或東亞國家企業所塑造之組織文化及氛圍,是否對員工個人或團隊創造力及創新行為具有影響差異,值得

未來研究進一步探討。

四、創造力的後果

雖然在本節的回顧之中,絕大多數文章為探討創造力之前因,近年來研究者開

始將焦點放在員工創造力的後果。例如,在個人創造力研究方面,以臺灣為樣本之

研究發現,創造力對於銷售人員之營業額及主管評核之績效皆有正向影響 (Gong et al., 2009),且對髮型設計師來說,創造力也會正向影響其顧客滿意度 (Dong et al., 2015),而以中國為樣本之研究也發現創造力對於提升資訊人員之整體績效有正向影響 (Zhang and Bartol, 2010b)。而在團隊創造力方面,以韓國保險公司業務員為樣本之研究發現,團隊創造力

對團隊的財務績效 (Financial Performance) 具正向影響 (Sung and Choi, 2012),

Page 25: Research on Employee Creativity in Taiwan and East Asian …review.management.ntu.edu.tw/paper/6276-P.pdf · Research on Employee Creativity in Taiwan and East Asian Countries: Findings

63

NTU Management Review Vol. 29 No. 3 Dec. 2019

Matsuo (2006) 以日本為樣本的研究也發現,部門創新行為對部門營利 (Profitability of the Department) 及整體績效都具正向影響。從上述回顧中可知,目前不論個人或團隊創造力之後果,均著重於探討其對績

效層面的影響。因此,關於個人或團隊創造力是否會影響員工的態度或行為,以及

係透過何種機制,均為值得期待的未來研究方向。

五、對未來研究採用或建立理論觀點之建議

在我們的回顧中,發現大多數實證研究係以量表作為衡量方式。根據創造力的

定義,其具有新穎性 (Novelty) 與有用性 (Usefulness) 兩種元素,而現有量表通常將上述元素整合為單一構面。然而,新穎性與有用性的前因與後果卻可能有所不同,

例如,近期研究發展了將新穎性與有用性作區分之創造力量表 (Sue-Chan and Hempel, 2016),他們的研究結果發現,給予員工創造力的獎勵能夠增進新穎性與績效之間的關係,但卻減弱了有用性與績效間的關係。不僅如此,新穎性與有用性的

重要程度在東西方亦可能有所不同,例如,Morris and Leung (2010) 認為西方的社會規範將新穎性視為優先,而東亞國家則著重於有用性。因此,我們認為關於東西方

文化差異是經由何種過程導致專注在創造力之不同面向,或是在什麼情境下會增強

或減弱東西方文化差異對創造力之不同面向的影響,均值得未來研究作進一步探討。

另一方面,以東亞國家樣本之創造力或創新研究在理論採用時,多數研究皆採

用人際交往與社會互動之理論觀點,如:探討與領導者、同事或整個團隊成員互動

過程中,獲得創造力的資源、支援或期待,進而產生創造力;但從 Anderson et al. (2014) 對於不同國家的創造力及創新回顧文章發現,西方國家對於創造力的產生過程似乎較著重獲得相關資源,而較少探討社會群體他人的支援或期待對於個人創造

力之影響。然而,根據現有研究結果,我們似乎仍無法了解影響東亞國家在創造力

研究的取向,是否深受華人文化(或儒家文化)特性所影響,因為目前僅有 Chen et al. (2015)、Leung, Chen, Zhou, et al. (2014)、Kurman et al. (2015) 及Wang and Cheng (2010) 等四篇實證研究以華人文化特性的角度探討創造力。第一篇 Chen et al. (2015) 發現增進人際和諧的動機對於創造力具有幫助,為了能與他人建立長期的和諧關

係,人們會試著搜集與整合多方的意見、觀點與想法,促使個人能主動學習和探索

新的資訊及想法;第二篇 Leung, Chen, Zhou, et al. (2014)驗證關係導向(像是面子與人情)是否會增加員工對於失敗的恐懼,並進而降低創造力的產生,結果發現員

工對失敗的恐懼,並未對關係導向與員工創造力的關係產生中介效果;第三篇

Kurman et al. (2015) 發現集體主義文化特性會透過較高程度的預防焦點,進而降低員工創造力;第四篇Wang and Cheng (2010)發現華人家長式領導中的仁慈領導能激勵員工,使他們在工作中有較好的創造力表現。由於目前所累積的相關研究結果甚

Page 26: Research on Employee Creativity in Taiwan and East Asian …review.management.ntu.edu.tw/paper/6276-P.pdf · Research on Employee Creativity in Taiwan and East Asian Countries: Findings

Research on Employee Creativity in Taiwan and East Asian Countries: Findings and Implications

64

少,仍不足以形成文化特性對於創造力影響之整合性觀點或概念性觀點。然而,我

們可以基於這四篇實證研究之討論,在未來進行更深遠的探討,如:在集體主義特

性的東亞國家,個人在創造力產生的過程中可能需要很多與他人的互動,並先充分

了解他人對自身角色的期望,以確保在不違反團體規範或他人的角色期望之情況

下,才會進行創造力思考或開始投入創新;然而,較屬於個人主義的國家文化,則

可能會將創造力產生的過程視為個人的事情或任務。建議未來學者可試以文化特性

之觀點,探討深受儒家文化涵養之國家,是否在創造力的產生過程及展現會受到文

化特性影響,如:從角色認定理論 (Role Identity Theory) 探討華人社會對角色產生創造力的期望是否與西方國家文化不同,進而影響創造力產生過程之差異,或展現

創造力行為表現之差異。 另外,研究發現雖然創造力會使績效或客戶滿意度提升,但也可能伴隨著高失

敗風險,這樣的風險在臺灣、中國大陸及新加坡等個人較重視面子的國家,可能會

因此失去個人的聲望,甚或失去在社會群體中的資源及支援。根據黃光國 (1985) 所提之面子 (Mianzi) 理論,面子在華人社會中代表聲望,華人會主動爭取面子,但不會主動甚至會避免做任何威脅自身面子及聲望的事情,目前僅有 Leung, Chen, Zhou, et al. (2014)進行實證研究驗證此結果,未來研究值得進一步探討重視面子的文化特性對於創造力是否有直接或間接的抑制效果,並建立富有東亞國家之意涵理論。

六、研究方法

在創造力的分析層次方面,我們的回顧範圍之中發現在 2010年之前,只有 2篇跨層次研究 (Choi, 2007; Liao et al., 2010)。然而,2011年之後至今的跨層次研究篇數,已迅速增長至 20篇之多,顯示近年以東亞為樣本之創造力研究中,跨層次研究已受到學者的重視。其中大多為探討團隊或單位層次變項對個人創造力或創新

行為的影響。然而,在依變項為個人內層次 (Within-individual Level)創造力或團隊層次創造力之跨層次研究,均各只有 1篇,例如,Dong et al. (2015) 以臺灣樣本之研究指出,個人間層次 (Between-person Level) 的顧客授權行為可經由個人內層次之狀態性促進焦點 (State Promotion Focus),進而影響個人內層次之創造力。Sung and Choi (2012) 以韓國為樣本之研究發現,當分公司層次 (Branch-level) 的環境不確定性越大時,團隊知識利用與團隊創造力的關係越為正向。建議後續研究可考量以重

複測量方式探究員工創造力的個人內變異,並探索其潛在之個人或團隊層次前因。

此外,以跨層次觀點探討團隊創造力,例如可納入組織或產業層次的前因,亦為值

得探究的方向。

Page 27: Research on Employee Creativity in Taiwan and East Asian …review.management.ntu.edu.tw/paper/6276-P.pdf · Research on Employee Creativity in Taiwan and East Asian Countries: Findings

65

NTU Management Review Vol. 29 No. 3 Dec. 2019

表 5 未來研究方向:主題與相關研究問題

創造力的

前因

動機、價值觀以及關係導向

1. 人際和諧的增進動機與創造力的關係,在集體主義與個人主義文化的國家之中,是否會存在著不同的效果?

2. 具順從長上價值觀之員工,是否會受到授權式領導、轉換型領導或團隊創新氣候等因素之正面影響,而產生良好的創造力?

3. 關係導向是否能透過與他人的資訊交換而增進員工的創造力?

團隊創造力的個人前因

1. 學習目標導向對於團隊創造力是否有影響?機制為何?2. 人際和諧的增進動機對於團隊創造力是否有影響?機制為何?3. 哪些個人因素能夠促進個人創造力與團隊創造力之關係?如:主動性人格、創意自我效能以及內在動機。

領導模式

1. 在個人前因與領導模式前因交互影響下,究竟何種模式的組合能激發出員工較高的創造力?

2. 在威權領導中,專權領導是否會減弱員工心理賦權,進而降低其創造力?而尚嚴領導是否會增強心理賦權而提高員工的創造力?

3. 德行領導是否會透過程序公正氣候、員工對單位的信任、或員工的心理安全感等中介機制,進而提升員工的創造力?

4. 仁慈領導模式是否亦會對個人或團隊創造力產生影響?可能影響中介機制為何?

工作場域特性

1. 主管或同事之間的意見回饋、或組織中的績效評量制度,對於個人創造力或創新行為的影響為何?

2. 員工在組織結構中的社會網絡角色、或對於組織的認同,對於個人創造力或創新行為的影響為何?

3. 當在進行創意構想發展階段時,組織資訊運用的隱匿性,是否有助於員工或團隊創造力的產生?

管理制度設計

1. 工作負荷與工作時間對於個人創造力或創新行為的影響為何?2. 工作中的休息時間、休息頻率及休息品質對於個人創造力或創新行為的影響為何?

組織文化與氣候

1. 集體主義文化特性如何影響創造力的產生?如:重視面子。2. 集體主義文化與個人主義文化特性在創造力的產生過程是否有差異?3. 外商企業及臺灣本土企業是否會因組織文化的差異,進而影響員工創造力或創新行為?

創造力的

後果

創造力的後果

1. 創造力是否會改變個人的促進焦點及預防焦點?如何改變?2. 創造力對於個人幸福感或工作滿意度是否有影響?如何影響?3. 創造力是否會對員工產生負面效果,如:情緒耗竭或工作績效?

Page 28: Research on Employee Creativity in Taiwan and East Asian …review.management.ntu.edu.tw/paper/6276-P.pdf · Research on Employee Creativity in Taiwan and East Asian Countries: Findings

Research on Employee Creativity in Taiwan and East Asian Countries: Findings and Implications

66

Research on Employee Creativity in Taiwan and East Asian Countries: Findings and Implications

1. IntroductionCreativity may refer to as novel and useful ideas generated by employees or work

groups (Amabile, 1983, 1988; Zhou and George, 2001). Creativity is a key element in organizational change that can be used to respond to unforeseen challenges, develop new abilities, and increase organizational effectiveness (Woodman, Sawyer, and Griffin, 1993; Zhou and Hoever, 2014). Studies in creativity have garnered much attention in recent years, with research on topics such as “creativity” or “innovation” increasing exponentially. Up until now, research has focused on academic theories or research samples of the Western world and has not considered employee characteristics in East Asia or how these characteristics influence employee creativity. Many researchers have called for more research on the relationship between cultural differences and creativity (e.g., Anderson, De Dreu, and Nijstad, 2004; Shalley, Zhou, and Oldham, 2004; Zhou and Shalley, 2003), particularly on differences in creativity in the Eastern and Western worlds (Morris and Leung, 2010), which have distinct cultural contexts. The main purpose of this study is to review findings of creativity research studies conducted over the past 15 years (2000-2015) that have used East Asian samples, and propose an integrative model based on these findings. A secondary purpose of this study is to provide a comparison of differences in research approaches and findings between Eastern and Western world studies. Finally, we provide suggestions for future research based on the cultural perspectives of East Asian countries.

2. Sample and Study ProcedureOur study samples include top-tier journals in the organization and management

fields suggested by the Ministry of Science and Technology. Theory-oriented journals were excluded. Based on this criterion, we selected the following 14 journals: Academy of Management Journal, Administrative Science Quarterly, Human Relations, Journal of

Aichia Chuang, Department of Business Administration, National Taiwan University

Chun-Yang Lee, School of Management, Putian University

Yu-Syuan Chen, Department of Business Administration, National Taiwan University

Kuo-Ching Yen, Graduate School of Resources Management and Decision Science, National Defense University

Page 29: Research on Employee Creativity in Taiwan and East Asian …review.management.ntu.edu.tw/paper/6276-P.pdf · Research on Employee Creativity in Taiwan and East Asian Countries: Findings

67

NTU Management Review Vol. 29 No. 3 Dec. 2019

Applied Psychology, Journal of Management, Journal of Organizational Behavior, Journal of International Business Studies, Journal of Management Studies, Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology, Journal of Vocational Behavior, Organization Science, Organization Studies, Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, and Personnel Psychology.

In order to fully encompass all significant journal articles published in the organization and management fields, we selected an additional 7 journals (Asia Pacific Journal of Management, Applied Psychology: An International Review, Group and Organization Management, Journal of Business Research, Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, Leadership Quarterly, and Management and Organization Review) based on the following criteria: (1) relevance to organizational behavior and human resource management, (2) relevance to creativity, (3) level of impact factor, and (4) consideration of Asian culture.

Additionally, we selected 9 journals from the Taiwan Social Science Citation Index (TSSCI) based on a recommendation list of organization and management journals published by the Ministry of Science and Technology.

Using appropriate keywords (e.g., creativity, creative performance, innovative behavior), we filtered out a number of articles in the above journals by conducting searches on the Web of Science and Airiti Library (Chinese) databases. Quantitative research was included in our study while qualitative research, meta-analyses, and theory-construction research were excluded. In addition, we excluded studies where creativity measures include “successfully transforming creativity into new products or processes”. A total of 69 studies were selected based on the above criteria. Of these, 33 studies were from China and 11 studies were from Taiwan.

3. ResultsOur study reviews theories applied in our selected studies in the categories of

individual factors (e.g., componential theory of creativity and regulatory focus theory), social interaction (e.g., social exchange theory and social information processing theory), and contextual factors (e.g., activation theory). In terms of individual creativity, we find that antecedents include individual factors (goal orientation, motivation, personality, self-concept, and other important factors), social interaction factors (team composition, team goal orientation, supportive work environment, and leadership style), and contextual factors (“culture and climate” and management institution). In terms of team creativity,

Page 30: Research on Employee Creativity in Taiwan and East Asian …review.management.ntu.edu.tw/paper/6276-P.pdf · Research on Employee Creativity in Taiwan and East Asian Countries: Findings

Research on Employee Creativity in Taiwan and East Asian Countries: Findings and Implications

68

antecedents include individual factors (individual creativity), social interaction factors (educational specialization heterogeneity, knowledge variety, team goal orientation, group affective tone, and knowledge utilization), and contextual factors (incentives on innovative behavior, training for innovation, and organizational conflict).

4. Future Prospects4.1 Individual Aspect

In terms of individual factors, the articles chosen by this study all applied theories proposed by academics from the Western world. Moreover, the theories chosen were often highly related to antecedents the researchers focused on. For example, when discussing the influence of learning goal orientation, researchers generally adopted social cognitive theory or social learning theory to explain their perspectives (e.g., Gong, Huang, and Farh, 2009; Huang and Luthans, 2015). Very few studies used native concepts to conduct research. (e.g., Chen, Leung, Li, and Ou, 2015; Wang, Leung, and Zhou, 2014)

4.2 Social Interaction AspectAmong social interaction antecedents of creativity, leadership style has been viewed

as a key factor on influencing employee creativity and team creativity (Anderson, Potočnik, and Zhou, 2014; Rosing, Frese, and Bausch, 2011). Empirical findings show that transformational leadership and transactional leadership have positive effects on idea generation (the initial stage of innovation) and idea implementation (the post stage of innovation). Some studies also indicate that supportive behavior on employee creativity, empowering leadership, and abusive supervision could influence employee innovative behavior by increasing or decreasing intrinsic motivation and self-efficacy of employees.

4.3 Contextual FactorsIn terms of contextual factors, we find that implementation of human resource

management measures (employee training, compensation planning) have a positive influence on employee creativity.

As Taiwan and other Eastern Asian countries have more collectivist cultures where interpersonal relations and focus on the opinions of others are salient, the positive effect of organizational atmosphere on employee attitudes and behaviors is obvious.

Page 31: Research on Employee Creativity in Taiwan and East Asian …review.management.ntu.edu.tw/paper/6276-P.pdf · Research on Employee Creativity in Taiwan and East Asian Countries: Findings

69

NTU Management Review Vol. 29 No. 3 Dec. 2019

4.4 Consequence of CreativityMost articles in our study discussed the antecedent of creativity, but recent

researchers have focused more on the consequences of employee creativity (Dong, Liao, Chuang, Zhou, and Campbell, 2015; Gong et al., 2009; Zhang and Bartol, 2010b).

4.5 Suggestions for Theory Adoption or Theory BuildingIn our review, we find that most empirical studies measure creativity using scaled

items. The definition of creativity includes both elements of novelty and usefulness, and current scales generally integrate these items into a single dimension. However, antecedents and consequences of novelty and usefulness tend to be different. For example, Morris and Leung (2010) argue that social rules of the Western world focus more on novelty while East Asian countries place more emphasis on usefulness. It is recommended that future researchers discuss the processes that make different cultures focus on different dimensions of creativity. In addition, more research is needed on what contexts increase or decrease the influence of cultural differences on different dimensions of creativity.

Furthermore, when adopting theories, studies with samples from East Asian countries often use theoretical perspectives of interpersonal exchanges and social interactions. For example, we find a number of studies discussing how employees generated creativity by acquiring resources, support or expectation of creativity from their interaction with leaders, coworkers, and team members. However, a review article by Anderson et al. (2014) find that the process of creativity generation in Western countries placed more emphasis on obtaining relevant resources than on supporting or meeting expectations of others.

4.6 Research MethodsIn terms of creativity analysis, our review finds only two cross-level studies (Choi,

2007; Liao, Liu, and Loi, 2010) conducted before 2010, but more than 20 studies had been conducted since 2011, showing that cross-level creativity research on samples from East Asian countries have garnered much academic attention in recent years.

Page 32: Research on Employee Creativity in Taiwan and East Asian …review.management.ntu.edu.tw/paper/6276-P.pdf · Research on Employee Creativity in Taiwan and East Asian Countries: Findings

Research on Employee Creativity in Taiwan and East Asian Countries: Findings and Implications

70

References2

中華經濟研究院,2014,東協發展簡介,http://www.aseancenter.org.tw/ASEANintro.aspx,搜尋日期:2015年 6月 21日。(Chung-Hua Institution for Economic Research. 2014. About ASEAN. http://www.aseancenter.org.tw/ASEANintro.aspx. Accessed Jun. 21, 2015.)

*王精文、陳心懿、林怡君、林栢章與李珍玫,2011,從領導與成員創造力人格觀點探討虛擬團隊的創造力績效,交大管理學報,31卷 1期:135-168。(Wang, Ching-Wen, Chen, Angela Shin-Yih, Lin, Yi-Chun, Lin, Po-Chang, and Lee, Chen-Mei. 2011. Exploring the creativity performance of virtual teams from the perspectives of leadership and creative personality. Chiao Da Management Review, 31 (1): 135-168.)

周婉茹、周麗芳、鄭伯壎與任金剛,2010,專權與尚嚴之辨:再探威權領導的內涵與恩威並濟的效果,本土心理學研究,34期:223-284。(Chou, Wan-Ju, Chou, Li-Fang, Cheng, Bor-Shiuan, and Jen, Chin-Kang. 2010. Juan-chiuan and shang-yan: The components of authoritarian leadership. Indigenous Psychological Research in Chinese Societies, 34: 223-284.)

*林明杰與李信達,2011,組織社會化程度、授權賦能認知對個人創新行為影響之研究:顧客導向行為的中介效果,科技管理學刊,16卷 2期:53-80。(Lin, Ming-Ji, and Lee, Hsin-Ta. 2011. A study of the relationships between organizational socialization, empowerment and individual innovative behavior: The mediating effect of customer-oriented behaviors. Journal of Technology Management, 16 (2): 53-80.)

*林明杰、陳基祥與許純嘉,2007,組織內工作夥伴支持行為與員工創造力之研究,科技管理學刊,12卷 2期:29-63。(Lin, Ming-Ji, Chen, Chi-Hsiang, and Hsu, Chun-Chia. 2007. The supportive behavior of supervisor and coworker on employee creativity. Journal of Technology Management, 12 (2): 29-63.)

*徐聯恩與樊學良,2011,組織創新活力及其效果:時間壓力干擾之探討,臺大管理論叢,21卷 2期:391-421。(Hsu, Michael, and Fan, Hsueh-Liang. 2011. Organizational innovation vitality and its outcomes: Exploring the moderating effect of time pressure. NTU Management Review, 21 (2): 391-421.)

2 若是以臺灣為樣本的研究,我們將以「*」作標示;若是同時包含臺灣或其他國家的樣本,我 們則以「+」作標示,以期能讓讀者清楚了解以臺灣為樣本之研究的發展現況。

Page 33: Research on Employee Creativity in Taiwan and East Asian …review.management.ntu.edu.tw/paper/6276-P.pdf · Research on Employee Creativity in Taiwan and East Asian Countries: Findings

71

NTU Management Review Vol. 29 No. 3 Dec. 2019

黃光國,1985,人情與面子:中國人的權力遊戲,收錄於現代化與中國化論集,李亦園、楊國樞與文崇一(編),125-153,臺北,臺灣:桂冠圖書公司。(Hwang, Kwang-Kuo. 1985. Face and favor: The Chinese power game. In Li, Yih-Yuan, Yang, Kuo-Shu, Wen, Chung-I. (Eds.), Modernization and Chineseization: 125-153. Taipei, Taiwan: Lauréat Publications.)

*黃家齊與黃荷婷,2006,團隊成員目標導向對於自我與集體效能及創新之影響一個多層次研究,管理學報,23卷 3期:327-346。(Huang, Jia-Chi, and Huang, Her-Ting. 2006. The effect of team member goal orientation on self-efficacy, collective efficacy and innovation: A multilevel study. Journal of Management, 23 (3): 327-346.)

*黃櫻美、林淑姬與林月雲,2009,團隊多元化與團隊創新績效之關聯性研究:以團隊外部活動與團隊凝聚力為中介歷程,中山管理評論,17卷 4期:847-882。(Huang, Yin-Mei, Lin, Shu-Chi, and Lin, Yeh-Yun. 2009. The relationships of team diversity and innovative performance: The mediating effects of external activity and team cohesiveness. Sun Yat-Sen Management Review, 17 (4): 847-882.)

樊景立與鄭伯壎,2000,華人組織的家長式領導:一項文化觀點的分析,本土心理學研究,13期:126-180。(Farh, Jiing-Lih, and Cheng, Bor-Shiuan. 2000. A cultural analysis of paternalistic leadership in Chinese organization. Indigenous Psychological Research in Chinese Societies, 13: 126-180.)

*蔡啟通,2006,領導者部屬交換與員工創新行為:組織正義之中介效果及組織特性之干擾效果,管理學報,23卷 2期:171-193。(Tsai, Chi-Tung. 2006. Leader member exchange and employee innovative behavior: The mediation effects of organizatonal justice and moderation effects of organizational characteristics. Journal of Management, 23 (2): 171-193.)

* ,2008,內在動機與員工創新行為之關係:Amabile三元交互效果及 Shin中介效果之驗證,管理學報,25卷 5期:549-575。(Tsai, Chi-Tung. 2008. Intrinsic motivation and employee creativity: Tests of Amabile’s three-way interaction effect and Shin’s mediation effect. Journal of Management, 25 (5): 549-575.)

* ,2011,轉型領導、學習式目標導向、表現式目標導向、與員工角色行為之關係,管理學報,28 卷 5 期:493-520。(Tsai, Chi-Tung. 2011. The relationships among transformational leadership, learning goal orientation, performance goal orientation, and employee role behaviors. Journal of Management, 28 (5): 493-520.)

Page 34: Research on Employee Creativity in Taiwan and East Asian …review.management.ntu.edu.tw/paper/6276-P.pdf · Research on Employee Creativity in Taiwan and East Asian Countries: Findings

Research on Employee Creativity in Taiwan and East Asian Countries: Findings and Implications

72

蔡啟通與高泉豐,2004,動機取向、組織創新氣候與員工創新行為之關係:Amabile動機綜效模型之驗證,管理學報,21卷 5期:571-592。(Tsai, Chi-Tung, and Kao, Chuan-Feng. 2004. The relationships among motivational orientations, climate for organization innovation, and employee innovative behavior: A test of Amabile’s motivational synergy model. Journal of Management, 21 (5): 571-592.)

鄭伯壎、周麗芳與樊景立,2000,家長式領導:三元模式的建構與測量,本土心理學研究,14期:3-64。(Cheng, Bor-Shiuan, Chou, Li-Fang, and Farh, Jiing-Lih. 2000. A triad model of paternalistic leadership: Constructs and Measurement. Indigenous Psychological Research in Chinese Societies, 14: 3-64.)

Amabile, T. M. 1983. The social psychology of creativity: A componential conceptualization. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 45 (2): 357-376.. 1988. A model of creativity and innovation in organizations. Research in Organizational Behavior, 10 (1): 123-167.. 1996. Creativity in Context: Update to the Social Psychology of Creativity. Boulder, CO: Westview Press.

Anderson, N., De Dreu, C. K., and Nijstad, B. A. 2004. The routinization of innovation research: A constructively critical review of the state-of-the-science. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 25 (2): 147-173.

Anderson, N., Potočnik, K., and Zhou, J. 2014. Innovation and creativity in organizations: A state-of-the-science review, prospective commentary, and guiding framework. Journal of Management, 40 (5): 1297-1333.

Baer, M., and Oldham, G. R. 2006. The curvilinear relation between experienced creative time pressure and creativity: Moderating effects of openness to experience and support for creativity. Journal of Applied Psychology, 91 (4): 963-970.

Basu, R., and Green, S. G. 1997. Leader-member exchange and transformational leadership: An empirical examination of innovative behaviors in leader-member dyads. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 27 (6): 477-499.

Bono, J. E., and Judge, T. A. 2003. Self-concordance at work: Toward understanding the motivational effects of transformational leaders. Academy of Management Journal, 46 (5): 554-571.

Page 35: Research on Employee Creativity in Taiwan and East Asian …review.management.ntu.edu.tw/paper/6276-P.pdf · Research on Employee Creativity in Taiwan and East Asian Countries: Findings

73

NTU Management Review Vol. 29 No. 3 Dec. 2019

Brown, R. 1990. Politeness theory: Exemplar and exemplary. In Rock, I. (Ed.), The Legacy of Solomon Asch: Essays in Cognition and Social Psychology: 23-38. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

Chang, J. H., Hsu, C. C., Shih, N. H., and Chen, H. C. 2014. Multicultural families and creative children. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 45 (8): 1288-1296.

Chang, S., Jia, L., Takeuchi, R., and Cai, Y. 2014. Do high-commitment work systems affect creativity? A multilevel combinational approach to employee creativity. Journal of Applied Psychology, 99 (4): 665-680.

Chen, G., Sharma, P. N., Edinger, S. K., Shapiro, D. L., and Farh, J. L. 2011. Motivating and demotivating forces in teams: Cross-level influences of empowering leadership and relationship conflict. Journal of Applied Psychology, 96 (3): 541-557.

Chen, T., Leung, K., Li, F., and Ou, Z. 2015. Interpersonal harmony and creativity in China. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 36 (5): 648-672.

Chen, T., Li, F., and Leung, K. 2016. When does supervisor support encourage innovative behavior? Opposite moderating effects of general self-efficacy and internal locus of control. Personnel Psychology, 69 (1): 123-158.

Chen, Z. X., and Aryee, S. 2007. Delegation and employee work outcomes: An examination of the cultural context of mediating processes in China. Academy of Management Journal, 50 (1): 226-238.

*Chiang, Y. H., Hsu, C. C., and Hung, K. P. 2014. Core self-evaluation and workplace creativity. Journal of Business Research, 67 (7): 1405-1413.

*Chiang, Y. H., Hsu, C. C., and Shih, H. A. 2015. Experienced high performance work system, extroversion personality, and creativity performance. Asia Pacific Journal of Management, 32 (2): 531-549.

Choi, J. N. 2007. Group composition and employee creative behaviour in a Korean electronics company: Distinct effects of relational demography and group diversity. Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology, 80 (2): 213-234.

Choi, J. N., Sung, S. Y., Lee, K., and Cho, D. S. 2011. Balancing cognition and emotion: Innovation implementation as a function of cognitive appraisal and emotional reactions toward innovation. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 32 (1): 107-124.

Page 36: Research on Employee Creativity in Taiwan and East Asian …review.management.ntu.edu.tw/paper/6276-P.pdf · Research on Employee Creativity in Taiwan and East Asian Countries: Findings

Research on Employee Creativity in Taiwan and East Asian Countries: Findings and Implications

74

De Dreu, C. K. 2006. When too little or too much hurts: Evidence for a curvilinear relationship between task conflict and innovation in teams. Journal of Management, 32 (1): 83-107.

*Dong, Y., Liao, H., Chuang, A., Zhou, J., and Campbell, E. M. 2015. Fostering employee service creativity: Joint effects of customer empowering behaviors and supervisory empowering leadership. Journal of Applied Psychology, 100 (5): 1364-1380.

Farh, J. L., Lee, C., and Farh, C. I. 2010. Task conflict and team creativity: A question of how much and when. Journal of Applied Psychology, 95 (6): 1173-1180.

*Farmer, S. M., Tierney, P., and Kung-Mcintyre, K. 2003. Employee creativity in Taiwan: An application of role identity theory. Academy of Management Journal, 46 (5): 618-630.

Gardner, D. G., and Cummings, L. L. 1988. Activation theory and task design: Review and reconceptualization. In Staw, B. M., and Cummings, L. L. (Eds.), Research in Organizational Behavior, 10: 81-122. Greenwich, CT: JAI Press.

George, J. M., and Zhou, J. 2001. When openness to experience and conscientiousness are related to creative behavior: An interactional approach. Journal of Applied Psychology, 86 (3): 513-524.

Gilmore, P. L., Hu, X., Wei, F., Tetrick, L. E., and Zaccaro, S. J. 2013. Positive affectivity neutralizes transformational leadership’s influence on creative performance and organizational citizenship behaviors. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 34 (8): 1061-1075.

*Gong, Y., Cheung, S. Y., Wang, M., and Huang, J. C. 2012. Unfolding the proactive process for creativity: Integration of the employee proactivity, information exchange, and psychological safety perspectives. Journal of Management, 38 (5): 1611-1633.

*Gong, Y., Huang, J. C., and Farh, J. L. 2009. Employee learning orientation, transformational leadership, and employee creativity: The mediating role of employee creative self-efficacy. Academy of Management Journal, 52 (4): 765-778.

Gong, Y., Kim, T. Y., Lee, D. R., and Zhu, J. 2013. A multilevel model of team goal oriention, information exchange, and creativity. Academy of Management Journal, 56 (3): 827-851.

Page 37: Research on Employee Creativity in Taiwan and East Asian …review.management.ntu.edu.tw/paper/6276-P.pdf · Research on Employee Creativity in Taiwan and East Asian Countries: Findings

75

NTU Management Review Vol. 29 No. 3 Dec. 2019

Graen, G., and Cashman, J. F. 1975. A role-making model of leadership in formal organizations: A developmental approach. In Hunt, J., and Larson, L. (Eds.), Leadership Frontiers: 143-165. Kent, OH: Kent State University Press.

Gu, Q., Tang, T. L. P., and Jiang, W. 2015. Does moral leadership enhance employee creativity? Employee identification with leader and leader–member exchange (LMX) in the Chinese context. Journal of Business Ethics, 126 (3): 513-529.

Han, J., Han, J., and Brass, D. J. 2014. Human capital diversity in the creation of social capital for team creativity. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 35 (1): 54-71.

Higgins, E. T. 1998. Promotion and prevention: Regulatory focus as a motivational principle. In Zanna, M. P. (Ed.), Advances in Experimental Social Psychology: 30: 1-46. San Diego, CA: Academic Press.

*Hirst, G., Van Knippenberg, D., Chen, C. H., and Sacramento, C. A. 2011. How does bureaucracy impact individual creativity? A cross-level investigation of team contextual influences on goal orientation-creativity relationships. Academy of Management Journal, 54 (3): 624-641.

Hirst, G., Van Knippenberg, D., and Zhou, J. 2009. A cross-level perspective on employee creativity: Goal orientation, team learning behavior, and individual creativity. Academy of Management Journal, 52 (2): 280-293.

Hoever, I. J., Van Knippenberg, D., Van Ginkel, W. P., and Barkema, H. G. 2012. Fostering team creativity: Perspective taking as key to unlocking diversity’s potential. Journal of Applied Psychology, 97 (5): 982-996.

Hon, A. H., Bloom, M., and Crant, J. M. 2014. Overcoming resistance to change and enhancing creative performance. Journal of Management, 40 (3): 919-941.

Huang, L., and Luthans, F. 2015. Toward better understanding of the learning goal orientation–creativity relationship: The role of positive psychological capital. Applied Psychology, 64 (2): 444-472.

Hwang, K. K. 1987. Face and favor: The Chinese power game. American Journal of Sociology, 92 (4): 944-974.

. 2001. The deep structure of Confucianism: A social psychological approach. Asian Philosophy, 11 (3): 179-204.

Janssen, O. 2001. Fairness perceptions as a moderator in the curvilinear relationships between job demands, and job performance and job satisfaction. Academy of Management Journal, 44 (5): 1039-1050.

Page 38: Research on Employee Creativity in Taiwan and East Asian …review.management.ntu.edu.tw/paper/6276-P.pdf · Research on Employee Creativity in Taiwan and East Asian Countries: Findings

Research on Employee Creativity in Taiwan and East Asian Countries: Findings and Implications

76

Jehn, K. A., Rispens, S., and Thatcher, S. M. 2010. The effects of conflict asymmetry on work group and individual outcomes. Academy of Management Journal, 53 (3): 596-616.

Jia, L., Shaw, J. D., Tsui, A. S., and Park, T. Y. 2014. A social-structural perspective on employee-organization relationships and team creativity. Academy of Management Journal, 57 (3): 869-891.

Kim, K. H. 2007. Exploring the interactions between Asian culture (Confucianism) and creativity. The Journal of Creative Behavior, 41 (1): 28-53.

Kurman, J., Liem, G. A., Ivancovsky, T., Morio, H., and Lee, J. 2015. Regulatory focus as an explanatory variable for cross-cultural differences in achievement-related behavior. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 46 (2): 171-190.

Lee, S., Yun, S., and Srivastava, A. 2013. Evidence for a curvilinear relationship between abusive supervision and creativity in South Korea. The Leadership Quarterly, 24 (5): 724-731.

Leung, K., Brew, F. P., Zhang, Z. X., and Zhang, Y. 2011. Harmony and conflict: A cross-cultural investigation in China and Australia. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 42 (5): 795-816.

Leung, K., Chen, T., and Chen, G. 2014. Learning goal orientation and creative performance: The differential mediating roles of challenge and enjoyment intrinsic motivations. Asia Pacific Journal of Management, 31 (3): 811-834.

Leung, K., Chen, Z., Zhou, F., and Lim, K. 2014. The role of relational orientation as measured by face and renqing in innovative behavior in China: An indigenous analysis. Asia Pacific Journal of Management, 31 (1): 105-126.

+Leung, K., Huang, K. L., Su, C. H., and Lu, L. 2011. Curvilinear relationships between role stress and innovative performance: Moderating effects of perceived support for innovation. Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology, 84 (4): 741-758.

Li, C., Zhao, H., and Begley, T. M. 2015. Transformational leadership dimensions and employee creativity in China: A cross-level analysis. Journal of Business Research, 68 (6): 1149-1156.

Li, F., Yu, K. F., Yang, J., Qi, Z., and Fu, J. H. Y. 2014. Authentic leadership, traditionality, and interactional justice in the Chinese context. Management and Organization Review, 10 (2): 249-273.

Page 39: Research on Employee Creativity in Taiwan and East Asian …review.management.ntu.edu.tw/paper/6276-P.pdf · Research on Employee Creativity in Taiwan and East Asian Countries: Findings

77

NTU Management Review Vol. 29 No. 3 Dec. 2019

Liao, H., Liu, D., and Loi, R. 2010. Looking at both sides of the social exchange coin: A social cognitive perspective on the joint effects of relationship quality and differentiation on creativity. Academy of Management Journal, 53 (5): 1090-1109.

Lin, X., and Leung, K. 2014. What signals does procedural justice climate convey? The roles of group status, and organizational benevolence and integrity. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 35 (4): 464-488.

Liu, D., Chen, X. P., and Yao, X. 2011. From autonomy to creativity: A multilevel investigation of the mediating role of harmonious passion. Journal of Applied Psychology, 96 (2): 294-309.

Liu, D., Wang, S., and Wayne, S. J. 2015. Is being a good learner enough? An examination of the interplay between learning goal orientation and impression management tactics on creativity. Personnel Psychology, 68 (1): 109-142.

Madjar, N., Oldham, G. R., and Pratt, M. G. 2002. There’s no place like home? The contributions of work and non-work creativity support to employees’ creative performance. Academy of Management Journal, 45 (4): 757-767.

Martínez-Sánchez, A., Vela-Jiménez, M. J., Pérez-Pérez, M., and De-Luis-Carnicer, P. 2011. The dynamics of labour flexibility: Relationships between employment type and innovativeness. Journal of Management Studies, 48 (4): 715-736.

Matsuo, M. 2006. Customer orientation, conflict, and innovativeness in Japanese sales departments. Journal of Business Research, 59 (2): 242-250.

Morris, M. W., and Leung, K. 2010. Creativity East and West: Perspectives and parallels. Management and Organization Review, 6 (3): 313-327.

Mostafa, M. 2005. Factors affecting organisational creativity and innovativeness in Egyptian business organisations: An empirical investigation. Journal of Management Development, 24 (1): 7-33.

Nahapiet, J., and Ghoshal, S. 1998. Social capital, intellectual capital, and the organizational advantage. Academy of Management Review, 23 (2): 242-266.

Ng, T. W., and Feldman, D. C. 2009. Occupational embeddedness and job performance. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 30 (7): 863-891.

Nouri, R., Erez, M., Lee, C., Liang, J., Bannister, B. D., and Chiu, W. 2015. Social context: Key to understanding culture’s effects on creativity. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 36 (7): 899-918.

Page 40: Research on Employee Creativity in Taiwan and East Asian …review.management.ntu.edu.tw/paper/6276-P.pdf · Research on Employee Creativity in Taiwan and East Asian Countries: Findings

Research on Employee Creativity in Taiwan and East Asian Countries: Findings and Implications

78

Nouri, R., Erez, M., Rockstuhl, T., Ang, S., Leshem-Calif, L., and Rafaeli, A. 2013. Taking the bite out of culture: The impact of task structure and task type on overcoming impediments to cross-cultural team performance. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 34 (6): 739-763.

Ohly, S., and Fritz, C. 2010. Work characteristics, challenge appraisal, creativity, and proactive behavior: A multi-level study. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 31 (4): 543-565.

Oldham, G. R., and Cummings, A. 1996. Employee creativity: Personal and contextual factors at work. Academy of Management Journal, 39 (3): 607-634.

Pieterse, A. N., Van Knippenberg, D., Schippers, M., and Stam, D. 2010. Transformational and transactional leadership and innovative behavior: The moderating role of psychological empowerment. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 31 (4): 609-623.

Pirola-Merlo, A., and Mann, L. 2004. The relationship between individual creativity and team creativity: Aggregating across people and time. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 25 (2): 235-257.

Qu, R., Janssen, O., and Shi, K. 2015. Transformational leadership and follower creativity: The mediating role of follower relational identification and the moderating role of leader creativity expectations. The Leadership Quarterly, 26 (2): 286-299.

Raja, U., and Johns, G. 2010. The joint effects of personality and job scope on in-role performance, citizenship behaviors, and creativity. Human Relations, 63 (7): 981-1005.

Rosing, K., Frese, M., and Bausch, A. 2011. Explaining the heterogeneity of the leadership-innovation relationship: Ambidextrous leadership. The Leadership Quarterly, 22 (5): 956-974.

Salancik, G. R., and Pfeffer, J. 1978. A social information processing approach to job attitudes and task design. Administrative Science Quarterly, 23 (2): 224-253.

Scott, S. G., and Bruce, R. A. 1994. Determinants of innovative behavior: A path model of individual innovation in the workplace. Academy of Management Journal, 37 (3): 580-607.

Shalley, C. E., Zhou, J., and Oldham, G. R. 2004. The effects of personal and contextual characteristics on creativity: Where should we go from here?. Journal of Management, 30 (6): 933-958.

Page 41: Research on Employee Creativity in Taiwan and East Asian …review.management.ntu.edu.tw/paper/6276-P.pdf · Research on Employee Creativity in Taiwan and East Asian Countries: Findings

79

NTU Management Review Vol. 29 No. 3 Dec. 2019

*Shin, S. J., Kim, T. Y., Lee, J. Y., and Bian, L. 2012. Cognitive team diversity and individual team member creativity: A cross-level interaction. Academy of Management Journal, 55 (1): 197-212.

Shin, S. J., and Zhou, J. 2003. Transformational leadership, conservation, and creativity: Evidence from Korea. Academy of Management Journal, 46 (6): 703-714.

. 2007. When is educational specialization heterogeneity related to creativity in research and development teams? Transformational leadership as a moderator. Journal of Applied Psychology, 92 (6): 1709-1721.

Shipton, H. J., West, M. A., Parkes, C. L., Dawson, J. F., and Patterson, M. G. 2006. When promoting positive feelings pays: Aggregate job satisfaction, work design features, and innovation in manufacturing organizations. European Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology, 15 (4): 404-430.

Simmons, A. L. 2011. The influence of openness to experience and organizational justice on creativity. Creativity Research Journal, 23 (1): 9-23.

Sue-Chan, C., and Hempel, P. S. 2016. The creativity-performance relationship: How rewarding creativity moderates the expression of creativity. Human Resource Management, 55 (4): 637-653.

Sun, L. Y., Zhang, Z., Qi, J., and Chen, Z. X. 2012. Empowerment and creativity: A cross-level investigation. The Leadership Quarterly, 23 (1): 55-65.

Sung, S. Y., and Choi, J. N. 2012. Effects of team knowledge management on the creativity and financial performance of organizational teams. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 118 (1): 4-13.

The World Bank. 2014. East Asia Pacific at work: Employment, enterprise, and well-being. https://www.worldbank.org/en/region/eap/publication/east-asia-pacific-at-work. Accessed Jun. 10, 2015.

. 2015. East Asia Pacific update, April 2015: Adjusting to a changing world. http://www.worldbank.org/en/region/eap/publication/east-asia-pacific-economic-update. Accessed Jun. 21, 2015.

Tierney, P., and Farmer, S. M. 2002. Creative self-efficacy: Its potential antecedents and relationship to creative performance. Academy of Management Journal, 45 (6): 1137-1148.

. 2011. Creative self-efficacy development and creative performance over time. Journal of Applied Psychology, 96 (2): 277-293.

Page 42: Research on Employee Creativity in Taiwan and East Asian …review.management.ntu.edu.tw/paper/6276-P.pdf · Research on Employee Creativity in Taiwan and East Asian Countries: Findings

Research on Employee Creativity in Taiwan and East Asian Countries: Findings and Implications

80

*Tsai, W. C., Chi, N. W., Grandey, A. A., and Fung, S. C. 2012. Positive group affective tone and team creativity: Negative group affective tone and team trust as boundary conditions. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 33 (5): 638-656.

Tse, H. H. M., and Chiu, W. C. K. 2014. Transformational leadership and job performance: A social identity perspective. Journal of Business Research, 67 (1): 2827-2835.

Van de Ven, A. H. 1986. Central problems in the management of innovation. Management Science, 32 (5): 590-607.

*Wang, A. C., and Cheng, B. S. 2010. When does benevolent leadership lead to creativity? The moderating role of creative role identity and job autonomy. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 31 (1): 106-121.

Wang, J., Leung, K., and Zhou, F. 2014. A dispositional approach to psychological climate: Relationships between interpersonal harmony motives and psychological climate for communication safety. Human Relations, 67 (4): 489-515.

Wang, P., Rode, J. C., Shi, K., Luo, Z., and Chen, W. 2013. A workgroup climate perspective on the relationships among transformational leadership, workgroup diversity, and employee creativity. Group and Organization Management, 38 (3): 334-360.

Wang, X. H., Fang, Y., Qureshi, I., and Janssen, O. 2015. Understanding employee innovative behavior: Integrating the social network and leader-member exchange perspectives. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 36 (3): 403-420.

Woodman, R. W., Sawyer, J. E., and Griffin, R. W. 1993. Toward a theory of organizational creativity. Academy of Management Review, 18 (2): 293-321.

Zhang, A. Y., Tsui, A. S., and Wang, D. X. 2011. Leadership behaviors and group creativity in Chinese organizations: The role of group processes. The Leadership Quarterly, 22 (5): 851-862.

Zhang, H., Kwan, H. K., Zhang, X., and Wu, L. Z. 2014. High core self-evaluators maintain creativity: A motivational model of abusive supervision. Journal of Management, 40 (4): 1151-1174.

Zhang, X., and Bartol, K. M. 2010a. Linking empowering leadership and employee creativity: The influence of psychological empowerment, intrinsic motivation, and creative process engagement. Academy of Management Journal, 53 (1): 107-128.

Page 43: Research on Employee Creativity in Taiwan and East Asian …review.management.ntu.edu.tw/paper/6276-P.pdf · Research on Employee Creativity in Taiwan and East Asian Countries: Findings

81

NTU Management Review Vol. 29 No. 3 Dec. 2019

. 2010b. The influence of creative process engagement on employee creative performance and overall job performance: A curvilinear assessment. Journal of Applied Psychology, 95 (5): 862-873.

Zhang, X., and Zhou, J. 2014. Empowering leadership, uncertainty avoidance, trust, and employee creativity: Interaction effects and a mediating mechanism. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 124 (2): 150-164.

Zhang, Y., LePine, J. A., Buckman, B. R., and Wei, F. 2014. It’s not fair... Or is it? The role of justice and leadership in explaining work stressor-job performance relationships. Academy of Management Journal, 57 (3): 675-697.

Zhou, J., and George, J. M. 2001. When job dissatisfaction leads to creativity: Encouraging the expression of voice. Academy of Management Journal, 44 (4): 682-696.

Zhou, J., and Hoever, I. J. 2014. Research on workplace creativity: A review and redirection. Annual Review of Organizational Psychology and Organizational Behavior, 1 (1): 333-359.

Zhou, J., and Shalley, C. E. 2003. Research on employee creativity: A critical review and directions for future research. In Martocchio, J. J., and Ferris, G. R. (Eds.), Research in Personnel and Human Resources Management, 22: 165-217. Oxford, UK: Elsevier Science.

Zhou, J., Shin, S. J., Brass, D. J., Choi, J., and Zhang, Z. X. 2009. Social networks, personal values, and creativity: Evidence for curvilinear and interaction effects. Journal of Applied Psychology, 94 (6): 1544-1552.

Zhou, Q., Hirst, G., and Shipton, H. 2012a. Context matters: Combined influence of participation and intellectual stimulation on the promotion focus-employee creativity relationship. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 33 (7): 894-909.. 2012b. Promoting creativity at work: The role of problem-solving demand. Applied Psychology, 61 (1): 56-80.

Page 44: Research on Employee Creativity in Taiwan and East Asian …review.management.ntu.edu.tw/paper/6276-P.pdf · Research on Employee Creativity in Taiwan and East Asian Countries: Findings

Research on Employee Creativity in Taiwan and East Asian Countries: Findings and Implications

82

Author Biography*Aichia Chuang

Aichia Chuang is Fu-Bon Endowed Chair in Management at the National Taiwan University, where she is a professor of Organizational Behavior and Human Resource Management in the Department of Business Administration. She holds her doctorate in Human Resources and Industrial Relations from the University of Minnesota. Chuang’s research interests include leadership, multilevel theories and methods, cross-cultural management, inclusion (person-environment fit and diversity), service climate and service performance, and creativity.

Chun-Yang LeeChun-Yang Lee is an assistant professor at the School of Management, Putian

University. He received his Ph. D. degree from the Department of Business Administration, National Taiwan University. His research interests are leadership, positive psychology, and creativity.

Yu-Syuan ChenYu-Syuan Chen is a Ph.D. of the Graduate Institute of Business Administration at the

National Taiwan University. He was a visiting scholar at the School of Labor & Employment Relations, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign. His research areas include technology usage in workplace, leadership, identity and identification, Chinese organizational behavior.

Kuo-Ching YenKuo-Ching Yen is an assistant professor at the Graduate School of Resources

Management and Decision Science, National Defense University. His current research interests include creativity, leadership, voice behavior and team process issues.

*E-mail: [email protected]