RESEARCH METHODOLOGYRESEARCH METHODOLOGY

Dr. Garima MathurDr. Garima Mathur

UNIT-1UNIT-1

WHAT IS RESEARCH ?WHAT IS RESEARCH ? The facts are discovered in the light of problem. Research may be

defined as a method of studying problems whose solutions are to be derived partly or wholly from facts. It is problem-centered.

or Research is simply a systematic and refined technique of thinking, employing specialized tools, instruments, and procedures in order to obtain a more adequate solution of a problem than would be possible under ordinary means.

It is a systematic process of collecting and analyzing information (data) in order to increase our understanding of the phenomenon about which we are concerned or interested.

orIt is not merely a search for truth, but an extended, intensive, purposeful search or should contribute new knowledge in that field.

It is a point of view, an attitude of inquiry or a frame of mind. It asks questions which have not been asked, and it seeks to answer them by following a fairly definite procedure.

or

It is a systematized effort to gain new knowledge.

“Research is an endeavour to discover answers to intellectual and practical problems through the application of scientific method”

 “Research is a systematized effort to gain new knowledge”.      -Redman and Mory.

“Research is the systematic process of collecting and analyzing information (data) in order to increase our understanding of the phenomenon about which we are concerned or interested”

DEFINITIONS OF RESEARCHDEFINITIONS OF RESEARCH

“Research is an ORGANIZED and SYSTEMATIC way of FINDING ANSWERS to QUESTIONS”.

1. SYSTEMATIC because there is a definite set of procedures and steps which you will follow. There are certain things in the research process which are always done in order to get the most accurate results.2. ORGANIZED in that there is a structure or method in going about doing research. It is a planned procedure, not a spontaneous one. It is focused and limited to a specific scope.3. FINDING ANSWERS is the end of all research. Whether it is the answer to a hypothesis or even a simple question, research is successful when we find answers. Sometimes the answer is no, but it is still an answer.4. QUESTIONS are central to research. If there is no question, then the answer is of no use. Research is focused on relevant, useful, and important questions. Without a question, research has no focus, drive, or purpose.

OBJECTIVES OF RESEARCHOBJECTIVES OF RESEARCH

The purpose of research is to discover answers through the application of scientific procedures. The objectives are:-

1.To gain familiarity with a phenomenon or to achieve new insights into it – Exploratory or Formulative Research.

2.To portray accurately the characteristics of a particular individual, situation or a group – Descriptive Research.

3.To determine the frequency with which something occurs or with which it is associated with something else – Diagnostic Research.

4.To test a hypothesis of a causal relationship between variables – Hypothesis-Testing Research.

CHARACTERISTICS OF RESEARCHCHARACTERISTICS OF RESEARCH

1. Research is directed towards the solution of a problem.2. Research is based upon observable experience or empirical evidence.3. Research demands accurate observation and description.4. Research involves gathering new data from primary sources or using

existing data for a new purpose.5. Research activities are characterized by carefully designed

procedures.6. Research requires expertise i.e., skill necessary to carryout

investigation, search the related literature and to understand and analyze the data gathered.

7. Research is objective and logical – applying every possible test to validate the data collected and conclusions reached.

8. Research involves the quest for answers to unsolved problems.9. Research requires courage.10. Research is characterized by patience and unhurried activity.11. Research is carefully recorded and reported.

SCIENTIFIC METHOD OF RESEARCHSCIENTIFIC METHOD OF RESEARCH

‘Science’ refers to the body of systematic and organized knowledge which makes use of scientific method to acquire knowledge in a particular field of enquiry.

“Scientific method is the systematic collection of data (facts) and their theoretical treatment through proper observation, experimentation and interpretation”.

“Scientific method refers to a body of techniques for investigating phenomena, acquiring new knowledge, or correcting and integrating previous knowledge. To be termed scientific, a method of inquiry must be based on gathering observable, empirical and measurable evidence subject to specific principles of reasoning.

A scientific method consists of the collection of data through

observation and experimentation, and the formulation and testing of hypotheses”.

Why should be Research Scientific type?Why should be Research Scientific type?

1. In simple terms, science can be defined as a methodological and systematic approach to the acquisition of new knowledge.

2. Scientists attempt to gain new knowledge by making careful observations and using systematic, controlled, and methodical approaches. By doing so, scientists are able to draw valid and reliable conclusions about what they are studying.

3. Scientific knowledge is not based on the opinions, feelings, or intuition of the scientist.

4. Instead, scientific knowledge is based on objective data that were reliably obtained in the context of a carefully designed research study.

5. Scientific knowledge is based on the accumulation of empirical evidence and the scientific method is the means by which researchers are able to make conclusive statements about their studies with a minimum of bias.

6. The biggest benefit of the scientific method is that it provides a set of clear and agreed upon guidelines for gathering, evaluating, and reporting information in the context of a research study.

7. The scientific is a set of research principles and methods that help researchers obtain valid results from their research studies. Because the scientific method deals with the general approach to research rather than the content of specific research studies, it is used by researchers in all different scientific disciplines.

BUSINESS RESEARCHBUSINESS RESEARCH

“Business research is a systematic inquiry that provides information to guide managerial decisions. It is a process of planning acquiring, analyzing and disseminating relevant data information and insight to decision makers in a ways that mobilize the organization to take appropriate actions that in turn, maximize business performance”.

The research information is neither intuitive nor haphazardly gathered. It need careful look at data to discover all that can be known about the subject study. The data and information collected and analyzed should be accurate.The business research must be objective. The role of researcher is to be detached and impersonal rather than engaging in a biased attempt to prove preconceived ideas. The objective of business research is to facilitate the managerial decision making process for all aspects of a business: finance, marketing, personnel and so on.Research reduces the risk of making wrong decisions by reducing the uncertainty of decision.

Purpose clearly defined. Research process detailed. Research design thoroughly planned. High ethical standards applied. Limitations frankly revealed. Adequate analysis for decision maker’s needs. Findings presented unambiguously. Conclusions justified. Researcher’s experience reflected.

CRITERIA OF A GOOD RESEARCH

QUALITIES OF A GOOD RESEARCH

• Systematic• Logical• Empirical• Replicable• Creative• Use of multiple methods

NEED FOR RESEARCH

• EXPLORATION• DESCRIBE• DIAGNOSE• HYPOTHESIS• INDUCTIONS AND DEDUCTIONS

INDUCTIONS• Inductive reasoning works the other way, moving

from specific observations to broader generalizations and theories. Involves a degree of uncertainty.

• In inductive reasoning, we begin with specific observations and measures, begin to detect patterns and regularities, formulate some tentative hypotheses that we can explore, and finally end up developing some general conclusions or theories.

DEDUCTIONS• Deductive reasoning works from the more general

to the more specific. • We might begin with thinking up a theory about

our topic of interest. We then narrow that down into more specific hypotheses that we can test. We narrow down even further when we collect observations to address the hypotheses. This ultimately leads us to be able to test the hypotheses with specific data -- a confirmation (or not) of our original theories.

Business research covers a wide range of phenomena. For managers the purpose of research is to fulfill the need for knowledge of the organization, the market, the economy or other area of uncertainty.

A Financial Manager may ask, “Will the environment for long term financing be better 2 years from now?

A Personnel Manager may ask “what kind of training is necessary for production employee? Or what is the reason for the company’s high employee turnover.

A Marketing Manager may ask “how can I monitor my retail sales and retail trade activities.

Each of these questions requires information about how the environment, employees, customers or the economy will respond to executives’ decisions. And research may be one of the principal tools for answering these practical questions.

TOPICS IN RESEARCHTOPICS IN RESEARCH

General Business Condition and Corporate Research Short term forecasting Long term forecasting Business and industry trend Global environment Inflation and pricing Plant and warehouse locationFinancial and Accounting Research For casting of interest rate trend Stock bond and commodity value prediction Capital formation alternatives Merger and acquisition Risk return trade offs Acquisition Impact of tax Portfolio analysis Research on financial institution Expected rate of return

Management and Organizational Behavior Leadership style Employee productivity Organizational effectiveness Absenteeism and turnover Organizational climate Time and motion Labour union trend

Sales and Marketing Research Market potential Market share Market segmentation Sales analysis Distribution channel New product concept Buyer behavior Customer satisfaction

Information System Research Knowledge and information needs assessment Computer information system use and evaluation Technical support satisfaction Database analysis Data mining Customer relationship management system

Corporate Responsibility Research Legal constraints on advertising and promotion Social values and ethics Ecological impact

MANAGERIAL VALUE OF BUSINESS MANAGERIAL VALUE OF BUSINESS RESEARCHRESEARCH

1. Identifying problems or opportunities: Business research can help managers to plan strategies

by determining the nature and situations or by identifying the existence of problems or opportunities presence in the organization.(Alternative or business research)

2. Diagnosing and assessing problems or opportunities: After identifying the problem the next important aspect of business research is the diagnose the information that clarifies the situation(What happened and why?). Identifying the opportunity and explore, clarify and refine the nature of it.

3. Selecting and implementing a course of action: After the alternative course of action have been clarified

the business research may be conducted to set priorities and to obtain specific information that will aid in evaluating the alternatives and in selecting the best course of action.

4. Evaluating the course of action: After a course of action has been implemented, business

research may serve as a tool to inform managers whether planned activities were properly executed and whether they accomplished what they were expected to accomplished. Or the managers may use evaluation research to provide feedback for evaluation and control of strategies and tactics.

Purpose clearly defined.

Research process detailed. Research design thoroughly planned. High ethical standards applied. Limitations frankly revealed. Adequate analysis for decision maker’s needs. Findings presented unambiguously. Conclusions justified.

Researcher’s experience reflected.

CRITERIA OF A GOOD RESEARCHCRITERIA OF A GOOD RESEARCH

QUALITIES OF A GOOD RESEARCHQUALITIES OF A GOOD RESEARCH

Systematic

Logical

Empirical

Replicable

Creative

Use of multiple methods

SCOPE / SIGNIFICANCE OF RESEARCHSCOPE / SIGNIFICANCE OF RESEARCH

Throws light on risks and uncertainty Identify alternative courses of action Helps in economic use of resources Helps in project identification Solves investment problems Solves pricing problems Solves allocation problems Solves decision making issues in HR Solves various operational and planning problems

of business and industry.

Provides the basis for all Government policies in our economic system.

Helps social scientists in studying social relationships and in seeking answers to various social problems.

For students, research means a careerism or a way to attain a high position in the social structure.

For professionals in research, it may mean a source of livelihood.

For philosophers and thinkers, research means the outlet for new ideas and insights.

For literary men and women, research means development of new styles and creative work.

For analysts and intellectuals, research means generalizations of new theories.

CERTAINTY UNCERTAINTYABSOLUTEAMBIGUITY

DESCRIPTIVE

EXPLORATORY

Decision Making SituationsDecision Making Situations

1. Certainty: The decision maker has all the information that he or she needs. The decision maker knows the exact nature of the business problem or opportunity, and he has to chose among the alternatives.

2. Uncertainty: Managers grasp the general nature of the objectives they wish to achieve, but the information about alternatives is incomplete. Under conditions of uncertainty, effective managers recognize potential value in spending additional time gathering information to clarify the nature of the decision.

3. Ambiguity: The nature of the problem to be solved is unclear. The objectives are unclear and the alternatives are difficult to define. This is by far the most difficult decision situation.

CAUSAL

Types of Business ResearchTypes of Business Research

1. Exploratory Initial research conducted to clarify and better understanding

of the nature of a problem or ambiguous problems (Why). Management may have discovered general problem, but

research is needed to gain better understanding of the dimension of the problem.

Does not provide definite indication but provide significant insight into a given situation.

It is conducted with the expectation that Subsequent research will be required to provide conclusive evidence.

First exploratory research is conducted to crystallize a problem and identify information need for the further research.

2. Descriptive It is conducted to Describes characteristics of a

population or phenomenon. Some understanding of the nature of the problem. Undertaken to provide answers to questions of who,

what, where, when, and how – but not why.

3. Causal/Experimental Conducted to identify cause and effect relationships. After exploratory and descriptive research the causal

study is conducted.

Exploratory Research Descriptive Research Causal Research(Unaware of Problem) (Aware of Problem) (Problem Clearly Defined)

“Our sales are declining and What kind of people are buying “Will buyers purchase more of

we don’t know why.” our product? Who buys our our products in a new package?competitor’s product?”

Employee productivity is “Which of two advertising Decreasing . “What features do buyers prefer campaigns is more effective?”

in our product?”

Degree of Problem DefinitionDegree of Problem DefinitionP

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Basic (Fundamental) Vs Applied ResearchBasic (Fundamental) Vs Applied Research

Basic or Fundamental Research or pure research is undertaken for the sake of knowledge without any intention to apply it in practice or to verify the acceptability of a given theory or to discover more about a certain concept.

Applied Research or Action Research is carried out to find solution to a real life problem requiring an action or policy decision. It is conducted when a decision must be made about a specific real life problem.

Classification of ResearchClassification of Research

Quantitative vs Qualitative ResearchQuantitative vs Qualitative ResearchQuantitative Research

Employed for measuring the quantity or amount of a particular phenomena by the use of statistical analysis.

involves analysis of numerical data Researcher uses tools, such as questionnaires or equipment

to collect numerical data.Qualitative Research

Explores attitudes, behavior and experiences through such methods as interviews or focus groups.

It attempts to get an in-depth opinion from participants and it takes long time

Non-quantitative type of analysis which is aimed at finding out the quality of a particular phenomenon.

Researcher is the data gathering instrument. Involves analysis of data such as words (e.g., from

interviews), pictures (e.g., video), or objects (e.g., an artifact).

Conceptual vs Empirical ResearchConceptual vs Empirical Research

Conceptual Research is generally used by philosophers and thinkers to develop new concepts or to reinterpret existing ones.

Empirical Research is a data based research which depends on experience or observation alone. It is aimed at coming up with conclusions without due regard for system and theory.

Based on TimeBased on Time

One-time Research/ Cross-sectional Research – Research confined to a single time period.

Longitudinal Research – Research carried on over several time periods.

Some other kinds of Research……...Some other kinds of Research……... Diagnostic Research – It is also called clinical research

which aims at identifying the causes of a problem, frequency with which it occurs and the possible solutions for it.

Experimental Research – It is designed to assess the effect of one particular variable on a phenomenon or another variable by keeping the other variables constant or controlled.

Historical Research – It is the study of past records and other information sources, with a view to find the origin and development of a phenomenon and to discover the trends in the past, in order to understand the present and to anticipate the future.

RESEARCH PROCESSRESEARCH PROCESS

Define ResearchProblem

Review Concepts

And theories

Review PreviousResearchfindings

Setting Objectives

Formulatehypothesis

DesignResearch(Including

SampleDesign)

CollectData

(Execution)

Data Analysis

F

F F

I

II

III IV V VI VII

F Feed Back

Review the Literature

Interpretand

report

VIII

DEFINITION DEFINITION OF THE OF THE

RESEARCH PROBLEMRESEARCH PROBLEM

STEP-1

Prelude

The formulation of a problem is often more essential than its solution which may be merely a matter of skills.

(Albert Einstein)

An approximate answer to the right question is worth a great deal more than a precise answer to the wrong question.

RESEARCH PROBLEMRESEARCH PROBLEM

What is a research problem?

The term ‘problem’ means a question or issue to be examined.

Research Problem refers to some difficulty /need which a researcher experiences in the context of either theoretical or practical situation and wants to obtain a solution for the same.

Can think of process as an hour glass?

Source: http://trochim.human.cornell.edu/kb/strucres.htm

HOW DO WE KNOW WE HAVE A RESEARCH HOW DO WE KNOW WE HAVE A RESEARCH PROBLEM?PROBLEM?

Customer complaints Conversation with company employees Observation of inappropriate behavior or conditions

in the firm Deviation from the business plan Success of the firm’s competitor’s Relevant reading of published material (trends,

regulations) Company records and reports

The first step in the research process – definition of the problem involves two activities:

Identification / Selection of the Problem

Formulation of the Problem

IDENTIFICATION / SELECTION OF THE IDENTIFICATION / SELECTION OF THE RESEARCH PROBLEMRESEARCH PROBLEM

This step involves identification of few problems and selection of one out of them, after evaluating the alternatives against certain selection criteria.

SOURCES OF PROBLEMSSOURCES OF PROBLEMS

Reading Academic Experience Daily Experience Exposure to Field Situations Consultations Brainstorming Research Intuition

CRITERIA OF SELECTIONCRITERIA OF SELECTION

The selection of one appropriate researchable problem out of the identified problems requires evaluation of those alternatives against certain criteria. They are:

Internal / Personal Criteria – Researcher’s Interest, Researcher’s Competence, Researcher’s own Resource: finance and time.

External Criteria or Factors – Researchability of the problem, Importance and Urgency, Novelty of the Problem, Feasibility, Facilities, Usefulness and Social Relevance, Research Personnel.

DEFINITION / FORMULATION OF THE DEFINITION / FORMULATION OF THE RESEARCH PROBLEMRESEARCH PROBLEM

Formulation is the process of refining the research ideas into research questions and objectives.

Formulation means translating and transforming the selected research problem/topic/idea into a scientifically researchable question. It is concerned with specifying exactly what the research problem is.

Problem definition or Problem statement is a clear, precise and succinct statement of the question or issue that is to be investigated with the goal of finding an answer or solution.

There are two ways of stating a problem:

1) Posting question / questions

2) Making declarative statement / statements

Management Research Question HierarchyManagement Research Question Hierarchy

1. Management Dilemma: This is usually a symptom of an actual problem. Eg. Rising Cost

2. Management Question: The management question restates the dilemma in question form. Eg. What should be done to reduce cost?

3. Research Questions: what probable courses of action are available to management to correct the problem or take advantage of the opportunity. Eg. Should management use new methods of production to reduce costs?

Management Research Question HierarchyManagement Research Question Hierarchy

4. Investigative Questions: What does the manager need to know to choose the best alternative from the available courses of action. Eg. What can be different methods which can help to reduce cost?

5. Measurement Questions : What should be asked or observed to obtain the information the manager needs. Eg. Which of the method in your opinion can be most suitable for cutting cost?

a.__________________ b. _____________________

6. Management Decision: What is the recommended course of action, given the research findings? Eg. Option a is better and should be used.

CRITERIA OF A GOOD RESEARCH PROBLEMCRITERIA OF A GOOD RESEARCH PROBLEM

Clear and Unambiguous Empirical Verifiable Interesting Novel and Original Availability of Guidance

REVIEW REVIEW OF OF

LITERATURELITERATURE

STEP-2

REVIEW OF LITERATUREREVIEW OF LITERATURE

Literature Review is the documentation of a comprehensive review of the published and unpublished work from secondary sources of data in the areas of specific interest to the researcher.

The main aim is to find out problems that are already investigated and those that need further investigation.

It is an extensive survey of all available past studies relevant to the field of investigation.

It gives us knowledge about what others have found out in the related field of study and how they have done so.

PURPOSE OF REVIEW PURPOSE OF REVIEW

To gain a background knowledge of the research topic.

To identify the concepts relating to it, potential relationships between them and to formulate researchable hypothesis.

To identify appropriate methodology, research design, methods of measuring concepts and techniques of analysis.

To identify data sources used by other researchers.

To learn how others structured their reports.

How to conduct the Literature How to conduct the Literature Survey? Survey?

Identify the relevant sources.

Extract and Record relevant information.

Write-up the Literature Review.

SOURCES OF LITERATURESOURCES OF LITERATURE

Books and Journals Electronic Databases

• Bibliographic Databases• Abstract Databases• Full-Text Databases

Govt. and Industry Reports Internet Research Dissertations / Thesis

How to write the review?How to write the review?

There are several ways of presenting the ideas of others within the body of the paper.

For Example; If you are referring the major influencing factors in the Sheth’s model of Industrial Buying Behaviour, it can be written as,

Sheth (1973, p-50) has suggested that, there are a number of influencing factors ……..

According to Sheth (1973) model of industrial buying behaviour, there are a number of influencing factors……..

How to write the review?How to write the review?

In some models of industrial buying behaviour, there are a number of influencing factors (Sheth, 1973).

In some models of industrial buying behaviour, there are a number of influencing factors1.

QUOTING REFERENCESQUOTING REFERENCES

Journals

Sheth, J.N (1973), A Model of Industrial Buying Behaviour, Journal of Marketing, 37(4), 50-56.

Sheth, J. N., Sharma, Sumit (1973), A Model of Industrial Buying Behaviour, Journal of Marketing, 37(4), 50-56.

Sheth, J. N., Sharma, Sumit & Pandey, P. N. (1973), A Model of Industrial Buying Behaviour, Journal of Marketing, 37(4), 50-56.

Article from a database

Schredl, M., Brenner, C., & Faul, C. (2002). Positive attitude toward dreams: Reliability and stability of ten-item scale. North American Journal of Psychology, 4, 343-346. Retrieved December 16,2004, from Academic Search Premier database.

Non-periodical documents on the Internet

Library and Archives Canada. (2002). Celebrating Women’s Achievements: Women Artists in Canada. Retrieved December 16, 2004, from http://www.collectionscanada.ca/women/h12-500-e.html

Article in an Internet-only journal

Pelling, N. (2002, May). The use of technology in career counseling. Journal of Technology in Counseling, 2(2). Retrieved December 16, 2004, from http://jtc.colstate.edu/vol2_2/pelling.htm

Article in a newspaper or magazine

Semenak, S. (1995, December 28). Feeling right at home: Government residence eschews traditional rules. Montreal Gazette, p. A4.

Driedger, S. D. (1998, April 20). After divorce. Maclean’s, 111(16), 38-43.

Book with one author

Bernstein, T.M. (1965). The careful writer: A modern guide to English usage (2nd ed.). New York: Atheneum.

Two or more books by the same author

Postman, N. (1985). Amusing ourselves to death: Public discourse in the age of show business. New York: Viking.

Postman, N. (1985). The disappearance of childhood. New York: Vintage.

Points to be kept in mind while Points to be kept in mind while reviewing literature..reviewing literature..

Read relevant literature. Refer original works. Read with understanding. Read in time. Index the literature.

Formulate Formulate ObjectivesObjectives

STEP-3

ESTABLISHMENT OF RESEARCH ESTABLISHMENT OF RESEARCH OBJECTIVESOBJECTIVES

Research Objectives are the specific components of the research problem, that you’ll be working to answer or complete, in order to answer the overall research problem. - Churchill, 2001

The objectives refers to the questions to be answered through the study. They indicate what we are trying to get from the study or the expected results / outcome of the study.

ESTABLISHMENT OF RESEARCH ESTABLISHMENT OF RESEARCH OBJECTIVESOBJECTIVES

Research Objectives should be clear and achievable, as they directly assist in answering the research problem.

The objectives may be specified in the form of either statements or questions.

Generally, they are written as statements, using the word “to”. (For example, ‘to discover …’, ‘to determine …’, ‘to establish …’, etc. )

FORMULATION FORMULATION OF OF

HYPOTHESISHYPOTHESIS

STEP-4

HYPOTHESISHYPOTHESIS

A hypothesis is an assumption about relations between variables.

Hypothesis can be defined as a logically conjectured relationship between two or more variables expressed in the form of a testable statement.

Relationships are conjectured on the basis of the network of associations established in the theoretical framework formulated for the research study.

VARIABLESVARIABLES

Anything that can vary can be considered as a variable.

A variable is anything that can take on differing or varying values.

For example; Age, Production units, Absenteeism, Sex, Motivation, Income, Height, Weight etc.

The values can differ at various times for the same object or person (or) at the same time for different objects or persons.

Variable / AttributeVariable / Attribute

A variable is a characteristic that takes on two or more values whereas, an attribute is a specific value on a variable (qualitative).

For example; The variable SEX/GENDER has 2 attributes - Male

and Female. The variable AGREEMENT has 5 attributes –

Strongly Agree, Agree, Neutral, Disagree, Strongly Disagree.

Types of VariablesTypes of Variables

Explanatory vs Extraneous VariableExplanatory vs Extraneous Variable

The variables selected for analysis are called explanatory variables and all other variables that are not related to the purpose of the study but may affect the dependant variable are extraneous.

Dependant vs Independent VariableDependant vs Independent VariableThe variable that changes in relationship to changes in another variable(s) is called dependant variable.The variable whose change results in the change in another variable is called an independent variable.

ORAn independent variable is the one that influences the dependant variable in either a positive or negative way.

HYPOTHESISHYPOTHESIS

Research Hypothesis is a predictive statement that Research Hypothesis is a predictive statement that relates an relates an independent variable independent variable to a to a dependant dependant variable.variable.

Hypothesis must contain atleast one Hypothesis must contain atleast one independent variable and one dependant variable.independent variable and one dependant variable.

HYPOTHESISHYPOTHESIS

Hypothesis are tentative, intelligent guesses as to the solution of the problem.

Hypothesis is a specific statement of prediction. It describes in concrete terms what you expect to happen in the study.

Hypothesis is an assumption about the population of the study.

It delimits the area of research and keeps the researcher on the right track.

CHARACTERISTICS OF HYPOTHESISCHARACTERISTICS OF HYPOTHESIS

Conceptual Clarity - It should be clear and precise.

Specificity - It should be specific and limited in scope.

Consistency - It should be consistent with the objectives of research.

Testability - It should be capable of being tested.

Expectancy - It should state the expected relationships between variables.

CHARACTERISTICS OF HYPOTHESISCHARACTERISTICS OF HYPOTHESIS

Simplicity - It should be stated as far as possible in simple terms.

Objectivity - It should not include value judgments, relative terms or any moral preaching.

Theoretical Relevance - It should be consistent with a substantial body of established or known facts or existing theory.

Availability of Techniques – Statistical methods should be available for testing the proposed hypothesis.

Discussions with colleagues and experts about the problem, its origin and objectives in seeking a solution.

Examination of data and records for possible trends, peculiarities.

Review of similar studies. Exploratory personal investigation / Observation. Logical deduction from the existing theory. Continuity of research. Intuition and personal experience.

SOURCES OF HYPOTHESISSOURCES OF HYPOTHESIS

Descriptive HypothesisThese are assumptions that describe the

characteristics (such as size, form or distribution) of a variable. The variable may be an object, person, organisation, situation or event.

Examples: “Public enterprises are more amenable for centralized

planning”.

TYPES OF HYPOTHESIS

Relational Hypothesis [Explanatory Hypothesis]These are assumptions that describe the relationship

between two variables. The relationship suggested may be positive, negative or causal relationship.

Examples: “Families with higher incomes spend more for recreation”.

Causal Hypothesis state that the existence of or change in one variable causes or leads to an effect on another variable. The first variable is called the independent variable and the latter is the dependant variable.

Null Hypothesis

When a hypothesis is stated negatively, it is called null hypothesis. It is a ‘no difference’, ‘no relationship’ hypothesis. ie., It states that, no difference exists between the parameter and statistic being compared to or no relationship exists between the variables being compared.

It is usually represented as HO or H0 .

Example: H0: There is no relationship between a family’s income and

expenditure on recreation.

Alternate Hypothesis It is the hypothesis that describes the researcher’s

prediction that, there exist a relationship between two variables or it is the opposite of null hypothesis. It is represented as HA or H1.

Example:HA: There is a definite relationship between

family’s income and expenditure on recreation.

FORMS OF RELATIONSHIPS

NON-DIRECTIONALNON-DIRECTIONAL

• There IS a relationship There IS a relationship betweenbetween

• X & YX & Y

• X….linked….YX….linked….Y

Vs DIRECTIONALVs DIRECTIONAL

• If X goes up, Y ….If X goes up, Y …. oror• As X increases, Y…As X increases, Y…• X = Independent X = Independent

variablevariable• Y = Dependent variableY = Dependent variable

DIRECTIONAL HYPOTHESES- “X” causes “Y” to change

• If X changes (increases or decreases)If X changes (increases or decreases)• thenthen• Y will ______Y will ______• (increase or decrease)(increase or decrease)• a causal linka causal link

DIRECTION OF RELATIONSHIP

• If X increases, Y increasesIf X increases, Y increases• A A POSITIVEPOSITIVE relationship relationship• If X increase, Y decreasesIf X increase, Y decreases• A A NEGATIVE NEGATIVE or or INVERSE INVERSE

relationshiprelationship• As X changes, Y does NOT change...>As X changes, Y does NOT change...>• No Change...>No Change...>NO RELATIONSHIPNO RELATIONSHIP

NON-DIRECTIONAL HYPOTHESES - the weakest form

• There IsThere Is• a relationshipa relationship• between X & Ybetween X & Y

– non-causalnon-causal– correlational correlational

statementstatement– X…..YX…..Y

Positive correlation

• When the values of When the values of • TWO variablesTWO variables• ““go together”go together”• oror• values on X & Yvalues on X & Y• change in SAMEchange in SAME• DIRECTIONDIRECTION 0

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CORRELATIONAL RELATIONSHIPCORRELATIONAL RELATIONSHIP

Negative Correlation

• When the values of When the values of two variablestwo variables

• CO-VARY CO-VARY • in Opposite directionin Opposite direction

• (as one goes up,(as one goes up,• the other goes down)the other goes down)

0

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FUNCTIONS OR ROLE OF HYPOTHESISFUNCTIONS OR ROLE OF HYPOTHESIS

It gives a definite point to the investigation and provides direction to the study.

It determines the data needs. It specifies the sources of data. It suggests which type of research is likely to be more

appropriate. It determines the most appropriate technique of

analysis. It contributes to the development of theory.