English Language Teaching Methodology

ED 535

Unit Tow

Current Teaching Approaches and Models

Introduction

Current trends also emphasize effective teaching and reflective teachers. Teachers are considered good or bad depending on how effective his/her teaching is and whether he/she promotes their profession by reflection.

Current classroom research has focused on producing high standard practices with the aim of producing optimal learning achievement.

The main emphasis is on getting the learner actively involved in classroom activities. This entails motivating learners and encouraging personal initiative to suggest some classroom tasks and activities.

The Communicative The Communicative ApproachApproach

One of the major developments in current One of the major developments in current linguistic is the notion of linguistic is the notion of communicative communicative competencecompetence proposed by Hymes (1971). proposed by Hymes (1971).

Communicative competence is language Communicative competence is language knowledge (such as the sound system and knowledge (such as the sound system and grammar) and the social context of language usgrammar) and the social context of language use.e.

What is communicative competence? What is communicative competence?

General Characteristics:General Characteristics:• It focuses on all of the components of It focuses on all of the components of communicative competence, not only communicative competence, not only grammatical or linguistic competence.grammatical or linguistic competence.

• It engages learners in actual functional use of It engages learners in actual functional use of language for meaningful purposes.language for meaningful purposes.

• It treats fluency and accuracy as It treats fluency and accuracy as complementary principles underpinning complementary principles underpinning communicative techniques. communicative techniques.

• It uses language in unrehearsed context.It uses language in unrehearsed context.

Does Communicative Approach provide a better environment for learning?

Research showed that complex problem-solving Research showed that complex problem-solving tasks were completed successfully by subjects tasks were completed successfully by subjects who interacted with others about what they who interacted with others about what they were doing as they went along.were doing as they went along.

The communicative approach, an application of The communicative approach, an application of communicative competence, in language communicative competence, in language teaching emphasizes interaction and group teaching emphasizes interaction and group learning. learning.

Many (EFL) researchers believe that learners Many (EFL) researchers believe that learners understand problem-solving tasks better when understand problem-solving tasks better when they think about these tasks and discuss their they think about these tasks and discuss their actions with others. Communication actions with others. Communication (interaction and negotiation with others) (interaction and negotiation with others)

promotes learning.promotes learning.

So, communicative tasks provide opportunity So, communicative tasks provide opportunity for meaningful interaction, thus creating a for meaningful interaction, thus creating a suitable situation for learning. suitable situation for learning.

What is the learning goal of the Communicative Approach?

It mainly aims at enabling foreign language learners to communicate effectively in the foreign language. In other words, the learner has to be able to understand what other people say and write, and has to be able to express her/himself fluently when speaking and writing to others in different situations. Communicative Approach emphasizes all language skills - listening, speaking, reading and writing.

What does a syllabus based on communicative approach consist of? Functions

* Greeting* Greeting *Making a date

* * Suggestion *Describing people

* * Introducing people to one another * * Describing places

* Requesting * * Agreeing

* * Giving information * * Refusing

* * Talking about yourself * * Comparing

* * Talking about feelings * * Telling a story

* * Starting conversation

What are the typesWhat are the types of tasksof tasks used in such used in such syllabusessyllabuses??

A communicative syllabus should include A communicative syllabus should include communicative communicative taskstasks. These tasks should be presented in . These tasks should be presented in the form of problems calling for solutions. the form of problems calling for solutions.

The range of exercises and materials presented to the The range of exercises and materials presented to the learners should make it necessary to engage in learners should make it necessary to engage in communication; e.g. information sharing and communication; e.g. information sharing and negotiation of meaning. negotiation of meaning.

Examples of exercises:Examples of exercises:

1. Diagrams and formations.1. Diagrams and formations.

2. Drawing2. Drawing

The Role of LearnersThe Role of Learners : :

The learner is as a The learner is as a cooperative elementcooperative element ( (negotiatornegotiator , , listener, speaker, reader, writerlistener, speaker, reader, writer))

The Communicative Approach adopts classroom The Communicative Approach adopts classroom activities that encourage activities that encourage group workgroup work and and cooperationcooperation among the members of the class. This implies a among the members of the class. This implies a different role for the learner from the traditional role different role for the learner from the traditional role of just repeating or doing some sentence-based of just repeating or doing some sentence-based exercises.exercises.

The Role of TeachersThe Role of Teachers : :

organizerorganizer, , instructor, participant,instructor, participant, guide and guide and helper,helper, friend.friend.

The teacher plays a minimum role in the process of The teacher plays a minimum role in the process of presenting materials. The teacher in the Communicative presenting materials. The teacher in the Communicative Approach has the following roles:Approach has the following roles:

Classroom Practices:Classroom Practices: Pre- task stage.Pre- task stage.

Task stage.Task stage.

Post- task stage.Post- task stage.

The Natural ApproachThe Natural Approach

The natural approach is based on The natural approach is based on KrashenKrashen’s ’s theory of second language learning. Stephen theory of second language learning. Stephen KrashenKrashen’s theory has a great influence on ’s theory has a great influence on EFL/ESL research and pedagogy.EFL/ESL research and pedagogy.

His theories were proposed 20 years ago but they His theories were proposed 20 years ago but they are still debated and widely discussed. His theory are still debated and widely discussed. His theory (with Tracy Terrell) was published in 1983 in (with Tracy Terrell) was published in 1983 in The Natural Approach, The Natural Approach, which includes a which includes a comprehensive second language acquisition comprehensive second language acquisition theory with a curriculum for language theory with a curriculum for language classrooms.classrooms.

The influence of the Natural Approach can be The influence of the Natural Approach can be seen in current EFL/ESL textbooks and teacher seen in current EFL/ESL textbooks and teacher development books such as development books such as The Lexical The Lexical Approach.Approach.

Krashen’s Five Hypotheses:Krashen’s Five Hypotheses:

a. The natural order hypothesis:a. The natural order hypothesis:

means that the rules of a second language means that the rules of a second language are acquired in a predictable manner in a are acquired in a predictable manner in a way that is similar to first language way that is similar to first language acquisition. acquisition.

b. The Acquisition/Learning Hypothesis:b. The Acquisition/Learning Hypothesis:

KrashenKrashen assumed that adults can develop assumed that adults can develop competences in second languages by competences in second languages by acquisition, that is by using language for acquisition, that is by using language for real communication, and by learning real communication, and by learning “knowing about” language.“knowing about” language.

Both ways (Both ways (acquisition and learningacquisition and learning) can ) can improve different aspects of second improve different aspects of second language competence.language competence.

He suggests that this conscious linguistic knowledge He suggests that this conscious linguistic knowledge acts as a ‘monitor’ that changes the output of the acts as a ‘monitor’ that changes the output of the acquired system when time and conditions permit. acquired system when time and conditions permit. Therefore, when a student is asked to use his/her Therefore, when a student is asked to use his/her linguistic knowledge (implicit rules), he/she will use linguistic knowledge (implicit rules), he/she will use his/her conscious linguistic knowledge as a monitor if his/her conscious linguistic knowledge as a monitor if given enough time. One of the studies confirms that the given enough time. One of the studies confirms that the subjects made hardly any errors when they were able subjects made hardly any errors when they were able to monitor their production, yet in casual speech they to monitor their production, yet in casual speech they made many errors.made many errors.

KrashenKrashen stated that conscious learning can only be stated that conscious learning can only be used as a monitor or an editor.used as a monitor or an editor.

c. The Monitor Hypothesis:c. The Monitor Hypothesis:

d.d. The Input Hypothesis:The Input Hypothesis:

This hypothesis states that humans acquire language in This hypothesis states that humans acquire language in only one way - by understanding messages or by only one way - by understanding messages or by receiving “receiving “comprehensible inputcomprehensible input”. Here Krashen claims ”. Here Krashen claims that successful “that successful “acquisitionacquisition” occurs by simply ” occurs by simply understanding input that is a little beyond the learner’s understanding input that is a little beyond the learner’s present level.present level.

he defined that present “level” as i and the ideal level of he defined that present “level” as i and the ideal level of input as i +1. In the development of oral fluency, new input as i +1. In the development of oral fluency, new words and grammar are unconsciously worked out words and grammar are unconsciously worked out through the use of context, rather than through direct through the use of context, rather than through direct instruction.instruction.

e. The Affective Filter Hypothesis:e. The Affective Filter Hypothesis:

This hypothesis is also supported by the fact that the This hypothesis is also supported by the fact that the first second language utterances of adult learners are first second language utterances of adult learners are very similar to those of infants in their first language. very similar to those of infants in their first language. However, it is the results of methods such as Asher’s However, it is the results of methods such as Asher’s Total Physical Response that provide the most Total Physical Response that provide the most convincing evidence. convincing evidence.

Krashen thought that a mental block, caused by Krashen thought that a mental block, caused by affective factors that prevents input from reaching the affective factors that prevents input from reaching the language acquisition device. language acquisition device.

He states that “attitudinal variables relate directly to He states that “attitudinal variables relate directly to language acquisition but not language learning.” language acquisition but not language learning.”

He cites several studies that examine the link between He cites several studies that examine the link between motivation and self-image, arguing that an motivation and self-image, arguing that an “integrative” motivation (the learner wants to “be like” “integrative” motivation (the learner wants to “be like” the native speakers of a language) is necessary. the native speakers of a language) is necessary.

He postulates an “affective filter” that acts before the He postulates an “affective filter” that acts before the Language Acquisition Device and restricts the desire to Language Acquisition Device and restricts the desire to seek input if the learner does not have such motivation. seek input if the learner does not have such motivation. Krashen also says that at puberty, this filter increases Krashen also says that at puberty, this filter increases dramatically in strength.dramatically in strength.

KrashenKrashen seems to imply that teaching children, who seems to imply that teaching children, who don’t have this filter, is somehow easier, since ‘given don’t have this filter, is somehow easier, since ‘given sufficient exposure, most children reach native-like sufficient exposure, most children reach native-like levels of competence in second languages. levels of competence in second languages.

Pedagogical Applications of the Pedagogical Applications of the Natural Approach:Natural Approach:

a. General Foundations:a. General Foundations:

• • The goal is ‘the ability to communicate with The goal is ‘the ability to communicate with native speakers of the target language’ native speakers of the target language’ Comprehension precedes production — the Comprehension precedes production — the Silent Period. Silent Period.

• • Production begins (emerges) naturally. Production begins (emerges) naturally.

• • Acquisition activities are central, though some Acquisition activities are central, though some monitoring may be useful for some people monitoring may be useful for some people

sometimes. sometimes.

• • If the learners’ affective barrier is too high If the learners’ affective barrier is too high (e.g. lack of motivation and low self-image), the (e.g. lack of motivation and low self-image), the learners will achieve low. learners will achieve low. Speech comes about in stages.Speech comes about in stages.

• • Group work encourages speech. Group work encourages speech.

• • Speech emergence is characterized by Speech emergence is characterized by grammatical errors.grammatical errors.

b. Classroom Techniques:b. Classroom Techniques:

* dialogues interviews — pair work.* dialogues interviews — pair work.

* opinion polls.* opinion polls.

* Problem-solving activities. * Problem-solving activities.

Content-based Instruction (CBI)Content-based Instruction (CBI)

Origins and Definitions:Origins and Definitions:

Content-Based Instruction is generally linked to the Content-Based Instruction is generally linked to the beginning of language immersion education in Canada beginning of language immersion education in Canada in in 1965.1965.

CBI is not immersion in which subjects are taught CBI is not immersion in which subjects are taught entirely in the foreign language. It is a method of entirely in the foreign language. It is a method of teaching foreign languages when language instruction teaching foreign languages when language instruction is integrated with teaching the content areas. is integrated with teaching the content areas. Therefore, the foreign language serves as the medium Therefore, the foreign language serves as the medium for teaching subject content from the regular for teaching subject content from the regular classroom curriculum. classroom curriculum.

CBI is specifically defined as “the integration of CBI is specifically defined as “the integration of particular content with language teaching aims the particular content with language teaching aims the concurrent teaching of academic subject matter and concurrent teaching of academic subject matter and second language skills. second language skills.

CBI approaches view the target language as the tool CBI approaches view the target language as the tool through which content is learned rather than as the through which content is learned rather than as the immediate object of study. CBI aims at using a immediate object of study. CBI aims at using a language.language.

A more accurate definition that distinguishes this A more accurate definition that distinguishes this approach from immersion programs is that CBI is approach from immersion programs is that CBI is “...“...an approach to language instruction that integrates an approach to language instruction that integrates the presentation of topics or tasks from subject matter the presentation of topics or tasks from subject matter classes (e.g., math, social studies) within the context of classes (e.g., math, social studies) within the context of teaching a second or foreign languageteaching a second or foreign language”. ”.

The integration of language and content in early The integration of language and content in early language programs puts language into a larger, more language programs puts language into a larger, more meaningful context and provides situations that meaningful context and provides situations that require real language use. CBI puts the domains of require real language use. CBI puts the domains of cognitive, academic, and social development together cognitive, academic, and social development together in a meaningful situation. in a meaningful situation.

Why CBI?Why CBI? Learners do not learn a language and then use it. They Learners do not learn a language and then use it. They

start using it as they are learning it.start using it as they are learning it.

Requirements of "content" in CBI:Requirements of "content" in CBI:

1. Content has to be from the learner’s curriculum; 1. Content has to be from the learner’s curriculum; what the learners actually study.what the learners actually study.

2. Content must be suitable to the grade level of the 2. Content must be suitable to the grade level of the learners.learners.

3. It must be academic; it can include any topic, theme, 3. It must be academic; it can include any topic, theme, or non-language issue. or non-language issue.

4. Issues have to be of interest to the learner. 4. Issues have to be of interest to the learner.

5. It must encourage cooperative learning. e.g. use 5. It must encourage cooperative learning. e.g. use teamwork.teamwork.

6. Content must be cognitively engaging and demanding 6. Content must be cognitively engaging and demanding for the learner. for the learner.

What are the characteristics of CBI that make it What are the characteristics of CBI that make it an effective means for an effective means for EFL/ESL?EFL/ESL?

1. It is evident that natural language acquisition takes 1. It is evident that natural language acquisition takes place in context. CBI provides a context for meaningful place in context. CBI provides a context for meaningful communication.communication.

2. CBI provides context for negotiation of meaning, 2. CBI provides context for negotiation of meaning, which is known to consolidate learning.which is known to consolidate learning.

3. As mentioned above, content in CBI must be 3. As mentioned above, content in CBI must be appropriate to the level of the learners. This means that appropriate to the level of the learners. This means that CBI uses “comprehensible input”, which promotes CBI uses “comprehensible input”, which promotes language learning.language learning.

44. . It addresses the learners’ needs and interest. It addresses the learners’ needs and interest. Postponing teaching content until language is learnt is Postponing teaching content until language is learnt is impractical and illogical. impractical and illogical.

5. CBI provides opportunities for cooperative learning, 5. CBI provides opportunities for cooperative learning, which has been proved to result in improved learning.which has been proved to result in improved learning.

6. The incorporation of language and content in one 6. The incorporation of language and content in one package for instruction is consistent with functional package for instruction is consistent with functional language use; that is meaning changes according to language use; that is meaning changes according to context.context.

7. CBI incorporates many different thinking skills, and 7. CBI incorporates many different thinking skills, and learning strategies which such as: learning strategies which such as: a)a) information information gathering skills, questioning; gathering skills, questioning; b) b) organizing kills: organizing kills: categorizing, comparing, representing; categorizing, comparing, representing; c)c) analyzing analyzing skills: identifying main ideas, identifying attributes and skills: identifying main ideas, identifying attributes and components, identifying relationships, patterns; and components, identifying relationships, patterns; and d)d) generating skills: inferring, predicting, and generating skills: inferring, predicting, and estimating.estimating.

8. CBI provides extensive reading. Research on 8. CBI provides extensive reading. Research on extensive reading in a second language demonstrates extensive reading in a second language demonstrates

that reading coherent extended materials leads to that reading coherent extended materials leads to improved language abilities.improved language abilities.

9. CBI is supported by research in Educational and 9. CBI is supported by research in Educational and Cognitive Psychology. Anderson (1990; 1993) proposed Cognitive Psychology. Anderson (1990; 1993) proposed a cognitive learning theory for Teaching. This theory a cognitive learning theory for Teaching. This theory integrates attention to content and language. In this integrates attention to content and language. In this theory, content is integrated with other skills.theory, content is integrated with other skills.

10. Research has shown that content-based teaching 10. Research has shown that content-based teaching results in higher achievement in language learning, results in higher achievement in language learning, content learning, and greater opportunities for content learning, and greater opportunities for employment than traditional teaching. It also increases employment than traditional teaching. It also increases motivation and interest levels.motivation and interest levels.

11. Content-based instruction connects learning to real 11. Content-based instruction connects learning to real life. Thus, learners have more opportunities to use the life. Thus, learners have more opportunities to use the

content knowledge and expertise they bring to class.content knowledge and expertise they bring to class.

Task-based Instruction (TBI)Task-based Instruction (TBI)

TBI is teaching language through real life TBI is teaching language through real life tasks. A task-based classroom is a place in tasks. A task-based classroom is a place in which learners employ the “target language which learners employ the “target language resources they have to solve a problem, do a resources they have to solve a problem, do a puzzle, play a game, or share and compare puzzle, play a game, or share and compare experiences.” (experiences.” (WillisWillis, 1996, p. , 1996, p. 53). 53). Meaning is Meaning is the primary focus of a task. Tasks can vary the primary focus of a task. Tasks can vary from social communication tasks to tasks from social communication tasks to tasks based on academic needs. based on academic needs.

Definition of task: Definition of task:

WillisWillis defines a task as a goal-oriented activity defines a task as a goal-oriented activity in which learners use language to achieve a in which learners use language to achieve a real outcome. The main focus in task-based real outcome. The main focus in task-based learning is meaning. A task-based approach learning is meaning. A task-based approach sees the learning process as learning through sees the learning process as learning through doing. It is by primarily engaging in meaning doing. It is by primarily engaging in meaning that the learner’s system is encouraged to that the learner’s system is encouraged to develop.develop.

Basic Characteristics of TBI Classrooms:Basic Characteristics of TBI Classrooms:

• • Instruction is conducted through learners’ Instruction is conducted through learners’ activities. activities.

• • Learners concentrate on performing specific Learners concentrate on performing specific tasks, the primary focus is meaning.tasks, the primary focus is meaning.

• • Tasks have specific goals and outcomes. These Tasks have specific goals and outcomes. These must be expressed clearly to the learners.must be expressed clearly to the learners.

• • Tasks have to involve some problem-solving Tasks have to involve some problem-solving exercises.exercises.

• • Tasks are evaluated on the basis of achieving their Tasks are evaluated on the basis of achieving their goals and outcomes. goals and outcomes.

• • The task must be a real-life (authentic) problem. The task must be a real-life (authentic) problem. Working on a language exercise such as working with a Working on a language exercise such as working with a list of words does not qualify for a real- life task.list of words does not qualify for a real- life task.

• • Tasks must be of interest to the learners in order to Tasks must be of interest to the learners in order to motivate learners to generate ideas and get them motivate learners to generate ideas and get them

involved.involved.

• • Tasks must create a need to communicate.Tasks must create a need to communicate.

• • Tasks may be solving a problem, playing a game, or Tasks may be solving a problem, playing a game, or sharing information or experience.sharing information or experience.

• • Tasks may be solving a problem, playing a game, or Tasks may be solving a problem, playing a game, or sharing information or experience.sharing information or experience.

Format and procedure of using tasks:Format and procedure of using tasks:

Tasks are structured according to a specific Tasks are structured according to a specific format. format.

Nunan (1989) Nunan (1989) proposed a framework in which proposed a framework in which a task is organized into components. A task a task is organized into components. A task should include should include goalsgoals, , inputinput, , activitiesactivities, , teacher teacher rolerole, , learner rolelearner role, , and settingand setting. Goals express . Goals express the outcomes of the task. the outcomes of the task.

Effective and Reflective TeachingEffective and Reflective Teaching

The Five Standards for Effective Pedagogy The Five Standards for Effective Pedagogy (Tharp, 1999):(Tharp, 1999):

Standard 1:Standard 1: Joint Productive ActivityJoint Productive Activity: : Teachers and Teachers and Learners Producing Together Facilitate learning Learners Producing Together Facilitate learning through joint productive activity between teacher and through joint productive activity between teacher and learners.learners.

Standard 2:Standard 2: Language DevelopmentLanguage Development: : Developing Developing Language and Literacy Across the curriculum.Language and Literacy Across the curriculum.

Standard 3:Standard 3: ContextualizationContextualization: : Making Meaning by Making Meaning by Connecting School to Learners’ Lives Contextualize Connecting School to Learners’ Lives Contextualize teaching and curriculum in the experiences and skills of teaching and curriculum in the experiences and skills of Learners’ home and community.Learners’ home and community.

Standard 4:Standard 4: Challenging ActivitiesChallenging Activities: : Teaching Complex Teaching Complex Thinking Challenge learners toward cognitive Thinking Challenge learners toward cognitive

complexity.complexity.

Standard 5:Standard 5: Instructional ConversationInstructional Conversation: : Teaching Teaching Through Conversation Engage learners through Through Conversation Engage learners through dialogue, especially the Instructional Conversationdialogue, especially the Instructional Conversation..

Proof for effective Pedagogy:Proof for effective Pedagogy:

The application of effective teaching has been proved to The application of effective teaching has been proved to be useful. Some teachers used the five standards in their be useful. Some teachers used the five standards in their actual teaching. They found out that the learners’ actual teaching. They found out that the learners’ performance improved (performance improved (LipkaLipka, 1990, and , 1990, and Lee and Lee and FraddFradd, 1996). , 1996).

Systematic programs in various parts of the United Systematic programs in various parts of the United States have also shown similar results. States have also shown similar results.

How Important is Effective Teaching?How Important is Effective Teaching?

The criteria of effective teaching are a part of The criteria of effective teaching are a part of teacher evaluation. teacher evaluation.

The principles set by the University of British The principles set by the University of British Columbia are general in nature, but they can be Columbia are general in nature, but they can be modified to suit specific disciplinary approaches modified to suit specific disciplinary approaches to teaching and learning. In general, these to teaching and learning. In general, these principles of effective teaching reflect many principles of effective teaching reflect many aspects of ‘the highest standards of [classroom] aspects of ‘the highest standards of [classroom] teaching” that may be attained.teaching” that may be attained.

Principle 1.Principle 1. Sets clear goals and intellectual Sets clear goals and intellectual challenges for student learning.challenges for student learning.

Principle 2.Principle 2. Employs appropriate teaching Employs appropriate teaching methods and strategies that actively involve methods and strategies that actively involve learners.learners.

Principle 3.Principle 3. Communicates and interacts Communicates and interacts effectively with learners. effectively with learners.

Principle 4.Principle 4. Attends to intellectual growth of Attends to intellectual growth of learners.learners.

Principle 5. Principle 5. Respects diverse talents and learning Respects diverse talents and learning styles of learners. styles of learners.

Principle 6.Principle 6. Incorporates learning beyond the Incorporates learning beyond the classroom. classroom.

Principle 7. Principle 7. Reflects on, monitors and improves Reflects on, monitors and improves teaching practices.teaching practices.

Reflective TeachingReflective Teaching

Excellent teachers are reflective teachers. They can Excellent teachers are reflective teachers. They can describe their ideas, beliefs, and values about teaching describe their ideas, beliefs, and values about teaching and learning. They are also able to think about (reflect and learning. They are also able to think about (reflect on) their own and others teaching experience, reframe on) their own and others teaching experience, reframe problems, compare practices with personal theories, problems, compare practices with personal theories, and take new actions.and take new actions.

How do I reflect on my teaching?How do I reflect on my teaching?

1. Teach! Do it the way you feel it is right! 1. Teach! Do it the way you feel it is right!

2. Then think back on the way you conducted 2. Then think back on the way you conducted your teaching. your teaching.

3. Describe (e.g. how things went, problems, 3. Describe (e.g. how things went, problems, success).success).

4. Investigate reasons.4. Investigate reasons.

55. . Re - frame events in light of several theoretical Re - frame events in light of several theoretical frameworks. frameworks.

6. Generate multiple understandings. 6. Generate multiple understandings.

7. Decide what to do next.7. Decide what to do next.

8. Start it all over again.8. Start it all over again.

Selecting the instructional model:Selecting the instructional model:

Independent reading (textbooks, journal Independent reading (textbooks, journal article, explanatory handout).article, explanatory handout).

Computer- assisted instruction.Computer- assisted instruction.

Demonstration.Demonstration.

Small group discussion.Small group discussion.

Lecture.Lecture.

Laboratory.Laboratory.

Effective teaching Techniques:Effective teaching Techniques:

• • State the goals and outcomes clearly so that State the goals and outcomes clearly so that learners know what they have to attain.learners know what they have to attain.

• • In every lesson, learners must know what they In every lesson, learners must know what they have to achieve, how can they achieve and why.have to achieve, how can they achieve and why.

• • Involve the learners in the process by having Involve the learners in the process by having them, for example, present the problem, respond them, for example, present the problem, respond

to questions, summarize the findings and to questions, summarize the findings and discussion, research and report unanswered discussion, research and report unanswered

questions.questions.

• • Summarize the “take-home’ points at the end Summarize the “take-home’ points at the end of the discussion/activity.of the discussion/activity.

• • Allow learners to communicate with you.Allow learners to communicate with you.

• • Allow learners to initiate activities and tasks. Allow learners to initiate activities and tasks.

• • Allow time for free communication (speaking Allow time for free communication (speaking and writing).and writing).

• • Be frank. Praise a student when he/she does Be frank. Praise a student when he/she does well and encourage them when they don’t do well and encourage them when they don’t do well.well.

• • Be fair in testing and marking.Be fair in testing and marking.

Knowledge:Knowledge:

* Don’t assume that your textbook has all the answers to * Don’t assume that your textbook has all the answers to your learners’ questions and satisfies all the learners your learners’ questions and satisfies all the learners needs. Be prepared to add some items, or modify part of needs. Be prepared to add some items, or modify part of the book to keep your learners interested.the book to keep your learners interested.

* Don’t assume that all the activities in the learners’ * Don’t assume that all the activities in the learners’ book will work. Yes, you have been told that the book will work. Yes, you have been told that the activities have been piloted. In real life, these activities activities have been piloted. In real life, these activities may fall apart. You have to be prepared to make may fall apart. You have to be prepared to make changes to those activities in a way that will suit your changes to those activities in a way that will suit your class.class.

* Encourage and promote cooperative learning. * Encourage and promote cooperative learning.

* Be knowledgeable about what you are teaching.* Be knowledgeable about what you are teaching.

• • Goal and outcomes of tasks must be clearly Goal and outcomes of tasks must be clearly expressed.expressed.

• • Use heterogeneous groups/teams (e.g. on the Use heterogeneous groups/teams (e.g. on the basis of abilities) of four or five members, basis of abilities) of four or five members,

working together to achieve certain goals and working together to achieve certain goals and outcomes.outcomes.

• • The members must be situated in a way that The members must be situated in a way that allows face-to-face interaction. allows face-to-face interaction.

• • Each member must be convinced that he/she Each member must be convinced that he/she has equal chance for success.has equal chance for success.

• • However, each member is individually However, each member is individually accountable for performing a specific task accountable for performing a specific task

with the group activity. with the group activity.

• • The members of a group are positively The members of a group are positively interdependent; that is the whole group either interdependent; that is the whole group either

succeeds or fails. Failure is not related to succeeds or fails. Failure is not related to individuals, but to the whole group. In other individuals, but to the whole group. In other

words, the members of a group either swim or words, the members of a group either swim or sink together.sink together.

• • Positive interdependence and individual Positive interdependence and individual accountability makes learners realize that accountability makes learners realize that

although an individual can do something but although an individual can do something but he/she cannot do everything.he/she cannot do everything.

When task is completed, each group must When task is completed, each group must reflect on their performance in order to assess reflect on their performance in order to assess

their :their :

a)a)Teamwork. Teamwork.

b) the extent to which they have achieved the b) the extent to which they have achieved the goals and outcomes of the task.goals and outcomes of the task.

c) how they helped each other to learn and c) how they helped each other to learn and perform the task.perform the task.

d) what they will do to improve their d) what they will do to improve their performance. performance.

Test yourselfTest yourself

A- The Natural Approach:A- The Natural Approach:

• • What do current approaches to EFL What do current approaches to EFL stress? stress? • What is the natural approach based on? • What is the natural approach based on? • State some of EFL areas that seem to • State some of EFL areas that seem to reflect the natural approachreflect the natural approach• • State the five the five hypotheses of the State the five the five hypotheses of the natural approach.natural approach.

Answer True or False according to the natural Answer True or False according to the natural approach:approach:1. Adults learn the items of a foreign language in 1. Adults learn the items of a foreign language in a way that is similar to children acquiring this a way that is similar to children acquiring this language as a first language. language as a first language. 2. Roger Brown found out first language 2. Roger Brown found out first language acquisition has no similarity to learning foreign acquisition has no similarity to learning foreign language. language. 3. 3. Dulay and Burt’s study show that Spanish-Dulay and Burt’s study show that Spanish-speaking children learn English morphemes in speaking children learn English morphemes in random order. random order. 4. Adults develop knowledge and skill in a second 4. Adults develop knowledge and skill in a second language using two processes.language using two processes.

5. Learned rules form knowledge about 5. Learned rules form knowledge about language. language. 6. A person uses his/her grammatical intuition 6. A person uses his/her grammatical intuition when he/she uses acquired knowledge. when he/she uses acquired knowledge. 7. McLaughlin thinks that there are clear 7. McLaughlin thinks that there are clear explanations of “acquisition” and “learning”. explanations of “acquisition” and “learning”. 8. When you are asked to correct sentences that 8. When you are asked to correct sentences that contain grammatical errors, you necessarily use contain grammatical errors, you necessarily use “learned”. “learned”. 9. EFL learners acquire language by being 9. EFL learners acquire language by being exposed to “comprehensible” input.exposed to “comprehensible” input.

B. Content-Based Instruction (CBI):B. Content-Based Instruction (CBI):

1. What is the origin of Content-based 1. What is the origin of Content-based instruction? instruction? 2. What is content-based instruction 2. What is content-based instruction 3. 3. How is content-based instruction different How is content-based instruction different from immersion methods? from immersion methods? 4. What are the main criteria that make a certain 4. What are the main criteria that make a certain was of instruction qualify for CBI? was of instruction qualify for CBI? 5. 5. What is the main argument for CBI?What is the main argument for CBI?

Which of the following are characteristics ofWhich of the following are characteristics of CBI that CBI that make it an effective way for EFL teaching.make it an effective way for EFL teaching.

1. CBI meets the learners’ needs and interest. 1. CBI meets the learners’ needs and interest. 2. CBI delays teaching content because it distract 2. CBI delays teaching content because it distract learners. learners. 3. 3. CBI makes learners engaged in intensive CBI makes learners engaged in intensive reading. Reading promotes learning. reading. Reading promotes learning. 4. CBI links learning to real life. 4. CBI links learning to real life. 5. 5. CBI has one main emphasis: identifying CBI has one main emphasis: identifying relationship. relationship. 6. CBI promotes learning by using 6. CBI promotes learning by using ‘comprehensible input”.‘comprehensible input”.

D. Reflective and Effective: D. Reflective and Effective: 1. What is reflective teaching? 1. What is reflective teaching? 2. State Stanley’s steps of reflective teaching. 2. State Stanley’s steps of reflective teaching. 3. 3. Apply these steps and the guidelines in section Apply these steps and the guidelines in section 3 in your actual teaching. Then write a full 3 in your actual teaching. Then write a full report of this experience.report of this experience.

Answer the following questions:Answer the following questions:1.1. What are the main characteristics of cooperative What are the main characteristics of cooperative learning? learning? 2.2. State at least 10 ways (techniques) of effective State at least 10 ways (techniques) of effective teaching. teaching. 3.3. Which ones do you use with your pupils? Which ones do you use with your pupils? 4.4. How can you create a good learning atmosphere? How can you create a good learning atmosphere? 5.5. Is it advisable to use one method and approach all the Is it advisable to use one method and approach all the times and in different environments? Why? times and in different environments? Why?

Answer the following questions:Answer the following questions:1.1. Define communicative competence. Define communicative competence. 2.2. How did psychology affect the communicative How did psychology affect the communicative approach? approach? 3.3. What is the main objection to the communicative What is the main objection to the communicative approach? approach? 4.4. Give at least 7 examples of communicative tasks. Give at least 7 examples of communicative tasks.

Previous Questions:Previous Questions:SUBJECTIVE QUESTIONSSUBJECTIVE QUESTIONS::

Decide whether the following statements Decide whether the following statements are True or False:are True or False:

1-The Natural Order Hypothesis means that 1-The Natural Order Hypothesis means that the rules of L2 are acquired in a predictable the rules of L2 are acquired in a predictable way that is similar to L1. ___________way that is similar to L1. ___________

2. The Communicative Approach focuses only 2. The Communicative Approach focuses only on the linguistic aspect of language. on the linguistic aspect of language. ______________________

4. Many scholars define a task as a goal-oriented 4. Many scholars define a task as a goal-oriented activity in which learners use language to activity in which learners use language to achieve a real outcome. ___________achieve a real outcome. ___________

5. Developments in linguistic and psychological 5. Developments in linguistic and psychological studies have affected current language teaching studies have affected current language teaching methods.___________methods.___________

Choose the best answer :Choose the best answer :1.The justification: “ Learners start using a language 1.The justification: “ Learners start using a language as they are learning it” is at the chore of the:as they are learning it” is at the chore of the:

a. Task-based Method.a. Task-based Method.b. Content-based Method. b. Content-based Method. c. Direct Method.c. Direct Method.d. Grammar Translation Method. d. Grammar Translation Method.

2. The two forms of Integrated-Skill Instructions are 2. The two forms of Integrated-Skill Instructions are found in:found in:a. The Natural and the Grammar Translation Methods.a. The Natural and the Grammar Translation Methods.b. The Audio-lingual and the Direct Methodsb. The Audio-lingual and the Direct Methodsc. The Silent period and the Communicative-based c. The Silent period and the Communicative-based Instructions. Instructions. d. The Task-based and the Content-based Instructions.d. The Task-based and the Content-based Instructions.

3. The main role of the teacher in the 3. The main role of the teacher in the Communicative method is to be a:Communicative method is to be a:

a. Provider of a good model of imitation.a. Provider of a good model of imitation.b. Provider of help when needed. b. Provider of help when needed. c. Translator from target to native language.c. Translator from target to native language.d. Translator from native to target language.d. Translator from native to target language.

4. The Communicative Approach focuses on:4. The Communicative Approach focuses on:

a. the knowledge of Languagea. the knowledge of Languageb. the social context of language useb. the social context of language usec. interaction and group learningc. interaction and group learningd. all of the aboved. all of the above

OBJECTIVE QUESTIONS:OBJECTIVE QUESTIONS:

Define the following:Define the following:A. A. The Communicative Approach:The Communicative Approach:

Communicative language teaching (CLT) is an Communicative language teaching (CLT) is an approach to the teaching of second and foreign approach to the teaching of second and foreign languages that emphasizes interaction as both the languages that emphasizes interaction as both the means and the ultimate goal of learning a means and the ultimate goal of learning a language. It is also referred to as “communicative language. It is also referred to as “communicative approach to the teaching of foreign languages” or approach to the teaching of foreign languages” or simply the “communicative approach”.simply the “communicative approach”.

B. B. Communicative Competence: Communicative Competence:

C. Reflective teaching :C. Reflective teaching :

Communicative competence is a term in linguistics Communicative competence is a term in linguistics which refers to a language user's grammatical which refers to a language user's grammatical knowledge of syntax, morphology, phonology and knowledge of syntax, morphology, phonology and the like, as well as social knowledge about how and the like, as well as social knowledge about how and when to use utterances appropriately.when to use utterances appropriately.

Excellent teachers who can describe their ideas, Excellent teachers who can describe their ideas, beliefs, and values about teaching and learning. beliefs, and values about teaching and learning. They are also able to think about their own and They are also able to think about their own and others' teaching experience reframe problems, others' teaching experience reframe problems, compare practices with personal theories take new compare practices with personal theories take new actions.actions.

D. The Monitor Hypothesis: D. The Monitor Hypothesis: 

One of krashen's hypotheses related to the One of krashen's hypotheses related to the Natural Approach. He suggests that this Natural Approach. He suggests that this conscious linguistic knowledge acts as a conscious linguistic knowledge acts as a monitor that changes the out put of the monitor that changes the out put of the acquired system when time and conditions acquired system when time and conditions permit.permit.

Answer the following questions:Answer the following questions:

1. In the Natural Approach what are Krashen’s five Hypotheses? State and explain briefly each hypothesis.The Natural order hypothesis: means that the rules of a second language are acquired in a The Natural order hypothesis: means that the rules of a second language are acquired in a predictable manner in a way that is similar to first language acquisition.predictable manner in a way that is similar to first language acquisition.The Acquisition/ Learning hypothesis: Krashen proposes a dichotomy of two distinct processes The Acquisition/ Learning hypothesis: Krashen proposes a dichotomy of two distinct processes for developing ability and skill in a second language. Acquisition of developing linguistic for developing ability and skill in a second language. Acquisition of developing linguistic competence through subconscious input, and Learning, on the other hand, that is explicit and competence through subconscious input, and Learning, on the other hand, that is explicit and formal. formal. The Monitor Hypothesis : Krashen states that conscious learning can only be used as a monitor The Monitor Hypothesis : Krashen states that conscious learning can only be used as a monitor or an editor. The conscious linguistic knowledge that changes the output of the acquired system or an editor. The conscious linguistic knowledge that changes the output of the acquired system when time and conditions permit.when time and conditions permit.The Input Hypothesis : It states that humans acquire language in only one way- by The Input Hypothesis : It states that humans acquire language in only one way- by understanding messages or by receiving “ comprehensible input ”.understanding messages or by receiving “ comprehensible input ”.The Affective Filter Hypothesis : ‘a mental block, caused by affective factors that ...prevents The Affective Filter Hypothesis : ‘a mental block, caused by affective factors that ...prevents input from reaching the language acquisition device’, Krashen adds that there are attitudinal input from reaching the language acquisition device’, Krashen adds that there are attitudinal variables that relate directly to language acquisition but not to language learning.variables that relate directly to language acquisition but not to language learning.

2. What are the 2. What are the SixSix requirements of ‘content’ in requirements of ‘content’ in CBI ? CBI ?

1- Content has to be from the learner’s curriculum; 1- Content has to be from the learner’s curriculum; what the learners actually study.what the learners actually study. 2-Content must be suitable to the grade level of the 2-Content must be suitable to the grade level of the learners (Krashen’s comprehensible input).learners (Krashen’s comprehensible input).3- It must be academic; it can include any topic, 3- It must be academic; it can include any topic, theme, or non-language issue.theme, or non-language issue.4- Issues must have to be of interest to the learner.4- Issues must have to be of interest to the learner.5- It must encourage cooperative learning (use team 5- It must encourage cooperative learning (use team work).work).6- Content must be cognitively engaging and 6- Content must be cognitively engaging and demanding for the learner. demanding for the learner.

• Sets clear goals and intellectual challenges for student Sets clear goals and intellectual challenges for student learning.learning.•Employs appropriate teaching methods and strategies Employs appropriate teaching methods and strategies that actively involve learners.that actively involve learners.•Communicates and interacts effectively with learners.Communicates and interacts effectively with learners.•Attends to intellectual growth of learners.Attends to intellectual growth of learners.•Respects diverse talents and learning styles of Respects diverse talents and learning styles of learners.learners.•Incorporate learning beyond the classroom.Incorporate learning beyond the classroom.•Reflects on, monitors and improves teaching Reflects on, monitors and improves teaching practices. practices.

3. What are the principles of effective teaching ?3. What are the principles of effective teaching ?

4. State briefly 4. State briefly Seven Seven of the characteristics of TBI of the characteristics of TBI (Task based Instruction) classrooms . (Task based Instruction) classrooms .

o Instruction is conducted through learners’ activities.Instruction is conducted through learners’ activities.o Learners concentrate on performing specific tasks (primary focus is Learners concentrate on performing specific tasks (primary focus is learning)learning)o Tasks have specific goals and outcomes. These must be expressed clearly Tasks have specific goals and outcomes. These must be expressed clearly to the learners.to the learners.o Tasks have to involve some problem-solving exercises.Tasks have to involve some problem-solving exercises.o Tasks are evaluated on the basis of achieving their goals and outcomes.Tasks are evaluated on the basis of achieving their goals and outcomes.o The tasks must be real-life (authentic) problem. The tasks must be real-life (authentic) problem. o Tasks must be of interest to the learners in order to motivate learners to Tasks must be of interest to the learners in order to motivate learners to generate ideas and get them involved.generate ideas and get them involved.o Tasks may be solving a problem, playing a game, or sharing information Tasks may be solving a problem, playing a game, or sharing information or experience.or experience.o Tasks must create a need to communicate.Tasks must create a need to communicate.o Role-play can be used as a technique of task-based instruction provided Role-play can be used as a technique of task-based instruction provided that clear problems and goals are stated for each task.that clear problems and goals are stated for each task.