87

CHAPTER – III

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

INTRODUCTION

This chapter deals with the methodological evaluations that are supposed to be

considered while studying marketing strategies of the service provider taking under

consideration the demographical differences and the consumer purchase. Assembling

information from a particular source, analyzing the information collected and by the

means of collecting this information is what is meant by methodology of a study. It is

required to choose apt research design and methods to conduct this study for which a

focused strategy is needed to be taken under consideration. Independently, the emphasis

is laid on ‘positivism’ or ‘phenomenology’ as both of them make up to be the most

significant aspects of business research (Saunders, Lewis, and Thomhill, 2000). It is

important to notify here to establish a relationship between research and theory i.e. either

the research was conducted due to the theory which means a deductive approach or

whether the theory born out of the research that was so conducted which signifies

inductive approach. The reason behind the importance of taking research design under

consideration is that it can help in guiding whether the research is desired to be

exploratory based on interviews/observations and focus groups or should it be casual

based on the ethnography or true/quasi experiments or should it be a questionnaire

survey i.e. a descriptive approach. This leads to the extraction of strategies from the

research design whether they are desired to be qualitative or quantitative and what

methods does the research underlines for data collection and analysis.

The multi-faceted nature of reality is well depicted by this research as it

undertakes both phenomenological as well as positivist approach. Phenomenological

approach sets the limitations of a perspective by analyzing how to tackle different

problems and being opened to the emergence of new solutions to a problem. The study

reflected two broad approaches, one which was primarily deductive in nature and the

other one which is less inductive in approach. The clarification of the study was carried

out with the help of the deductive approach with the help of theories and hypotheses. On

the other hand, the motive behind using inductive approach was to feed the data from the

new findings in the pre-existing theories and concepts. Both qualitative as well as

quantitative measures were taken into consideration. Qualitative strategies of research

88

include live interviews, focus group and observations whereas quantitative approach is

based on surveys conducted through live interviews on a vast wilderness. Therefore, a

descriptive design is succeeded by exploratory analysis. On one side, when qualitative

data is analyzed on the basis of the content, quantitative data is analyzed on the basis of

statistics and discriminant based approach is complied. The chapter will be

conceptualizing the hypothetical, theoretical and objectives of the study.

RESEARCH DESIGNS

The first thing that appears as a huge portrait is whether the methodology of

research which is being conducted is "positivist epistemological or positivism" or

"phenomenological" (Burrell and Morgan, 1979; Daft and Wiginton, 1979; Gill and

Johnson, 1991; Morgan, 1986; Woodruffe, 1996). These are the methodologies which

are held liable for contributing the sort of activities a research takes up and the goals it

desires to achieve. The basic reason behind choosing positivism is because it deals with a

scientific approach focusing on ‘testing of theories’ (Gill and Johnson, 1991, pl32).

Positivism’s main motive is “to exclude any subjective matter which is intangible to

being meaningless” (Gill and Johnson, 1991, pl32). Our passive and neutral approach

and stimuli to situations and sensory inputs are largely responsible to construct the

grounds of positivism (Gill and Johnson, 1991, pl34). The research has been prolonged

to find out an appropriate natural science model to study society (Bhaskar, 1989). Also,

the major area of concern is to carry forward a ‘scientific approach’. Therefore, a new

term has been added along with positivism by the researchers to make their objectives

clear i.e. ‘phenomenology’. Basically, ‘phenomenology’ is responsible for explaining the

interpretation of the social moves and actions and their affect over the course of time

(Daft and Wigmton, 1979; Weber, 1947). It takes into considerations various complex

facets of the study. This research intervenes into studying the behavior of a costumer in

buying readymade branded garments in the states of –Punjab and Haryana. The dealing

of the research comprises retailers and also their sales executives in order to reflect their

sales to customers. In accordance to the methodological scenario, this is explicitly a

social activity where group of people put their heads together to agree on a common

perspective of purchasing an item. It is believed that an effective research methodology

is the one which takes under consideration the various aspects of reality (Burrell and

Morgan, 1979). Therefore, phenomenological approach is better than the positivist

approach Morgan (1986) who also claims that people who consider the multi-faceted

89

perspective of a situation in a research are proved to be advantageous over those who

commit to focus on one aspect.

They can consider a wide prospect as they can study problems from various

points of views and extract a number of different solutions to tackle these problems. On

the contrary, the main objective of positivism is to ensure how to represent the aim of the

study in consideration with the reality. This goal can be achieved by the following

processes of research and design (Cooper and Emory (1995)).

A good research must consider a scientific approach (Burrell and Morgan, 1979;

Daft and Wiginton, 1979; Hirschman and Holbrook, 1986; Gill and Johnson, 1991;

Elliott, 1994; Woodruffe, 1996). According to Hirschman and Holbrook (1986),

phenomenology plays a vital role but not solely responsible for developing a basic

understanding of the costumer. Also, it is observed by Elliott (1994) that a positivist

approach is more of the superficiality rather than stressing upon meaningful knowledge.

Therefore, considering this context, it is feasible to undergo both the approaches of

positivism and phenomenology. To affiliate the science of this study, many approaches

are considered namely, design (descriptive and explanatory), research nature (deductive

and inductive), methods (survey, focus groups, observations and interviews) and strategy

(quantitative and qualitative).

SELECTION – RESEARCH DESIGNS

One important thing to decide in research designs is that which one of the two-

data or theory should come first. On the other hand, deciding the deductive or the

inductive approach that the researchers should use (Gill and Johnson, 1991). In a

deductive approach, it may or may not be confirmed the nature of the research and

whether the researcher starts with a theory or with a hypotheses. The major advantage of

this approach is that the research is well aware of what exactly is the agenda to be

studied. So the process goes like Theory -> Hypotheses -> Data Collection -> analysis ->

findings -> hypotheses -> confirmed or rejected -> revision of theory. Processing the

mentioned way, the study may become more efficient and pacey but results can be more

trivial.

Inductive approach is exactly opposite to deductive. As the researcher finally

winds up his/her findings of theory that evolved the entire process, thus, indulging

90

induction (Glaser and Strauss, 1967). The research findings linked with a proper agenda

of enquiry are fed back into the theories. According to, Burrell and Morgan, 1979; Daft

and Wiginton, 1979; Gill and Johnson, 1991; Morgan, 1986; Woodruffe, 1996), the

differentiation of inductive and deductive research is done on the basis of research

methodological foundations. Taking the research and findings of the sections under

consideration, it can be inferred that the two research methodologies form two entirely

different bunches of research nature. Therefore, deductive approach has taken into

consideration the positivism and natural scientific model. On the contrary, inductive

research lays emphasis on an individual perspective of analyzing and interpreting the

social scenario. Therefore, this study determinates the deductive approach than the

inductive approach.

According to Churchill (1991, pl27), marketing research design is defined as the

guide to analyze and collect data. It is the foundation that is followed to complete a

study. It is this research design that takes the assurance that the study will be conducted

in the desired context with proper procedures (Churchill, 1991; Frankfort-Nachmias and

Nachmias, 1992). According to (Aaker and Williams, 1998; Chisnall, 1997), research

design is divided into thre main categories- casual, exploratory and descriptive design.

CAUSAL RESEARCH DESIGN

Causal research design basically, focuses on the cause and effect relationship.

Following points can be considered to explain the same:

1. To verify hypotheses

2. To determine which of the variables are termed in the category of cause and

which among them will be considered under effect of marketing analysis.

3. To clarify the sort of relationship between the effect to be verified and the causal

variables. (Malhotra and Birks, 2000, p84)

According to (Malhotra and Birks, 2000, p84), it must be taken into brief account

that the causal variables should be monitored under control as they may affect the

dependent variable in such a way that this might cause manipulation during the inference

of the result of causality. This is concluded by causal research design being deductive in

nature. Methods that include causal design are ethnography, quasi experimentation or

action research and experimentation. These methods require a field scenario such as the

91

researcher who would put inputs to develop the research, participants like the firm or the

customers and environment such as market place and customer space. Therefore, the

causal research has to undergo to face the constraints of administration, time and cost.

The major goal behind conducting this study is to analyze causality and examining

customer’s views about readymade garments.

EXPLORATORY AND DESCRIPTIVE RESEARCH DESIGN

After taking into a consideration a brief account of study of marketing and

business oriented reviews, it was decided to add descriptive and explanatory approach

(Lazer, 1974; Churchill, 1991; Kervin, 1992; Aaker and Williams, 1996; Frankfort-

Nachmias and Nachmias, 1996; Chisnall, 1997). This was taken in account in order to

study problems related to research analysis and accordingly devising methods to produce

hypotheses for verification (Churchill, 1991; Ghauri et al., 1995; Seiltiz et al, 1976).

According to Malhotra and Birks (2000), the descriptive research can be formulated in

the following perspectives:

• To suggest alternated to be acted upon

• To make hypotheses

• To prioritize things for research ahead.

• To present a problem more accurately

• To keep key variables for examination

• To develop a specific approach to a problem

Explanatory research is accountable for the following objectives of study:

1. Examining the sales executives skills and strategies of selling products

2. Studying the marketing skills and comparing the two states- Punjab and Haryana.

3. Assessing the behavior of customers to purchase goods.

Consumer behavior is critically taken into consideration to study demography,

retail marketing strategies and branding. At the same time, it focuses on the perspectives

that influence the consumer society for purchasing goods that are the brand marketing,

cultural features and consumer’s behavioral characteristics. Interaction of people among

each other branding about a product, patterns and effects of consumption of a specific

cultural effect, interrelationship between behavior and attitudes marks the influence of

92

selling of a product in retailing. Studying the factors responsible for determining,

identifying and clarifying the consumer behavior are the major objectives. The study also

deals with developing strategies to increment business in the retailing sector and also

encouraging their employees in an innovative manner to enhance their selling skills.

A glimpse of the scenario of quantitative methodology in product marketing (e.g.,

Chisnall, 1997; Hooley and Hussey, 1995; Marketing, 1998) as well as quantitative

studies of behavioral aspect of consumers (e.g., Britt, 1970a; Rosecky and King, 1996)

which signifies that a questionnaire based approach of research is the best suited way for

data generation for the particular research. Therefore, the variables erupted in the

previous sections and earlier research were fed into the data in the form of a

questionnaire which allows various techniques such as ranking list of values and values

on a Linkert – type scale.

QUANTITATIVE DATA ANALYSIS

Data was analyzed taking into consideration SPSS (Statistical Package of Social

Sciences) which was based on the questionnaire that was coded. Various forms of data

was analyzed such as univariate, bivariate and multivariate (Bryman and Cramer, 1994;

Malhotra, 1996) that could be held liable for this research survey which was indicated

by a brief glimpse of research methodology. According to Cheung, 1999; Peterson, 1994;

Steenkamp and Baumgartner (1998), the standardization of analytical procedure with

factors like Principle Component is in the review of the consumer literature. On the other

hand, another review of this research (e.g., Durvasula et al., 1993; Hui and Triandis,

1985; Joreskog, 1971; Netemeyer et al., 1991; Steenkamp and Baumgartner, 1995; 1998)

represented that the model based on factor analysis is the most dynamic approach

considering the versatile nature of testing cross-cultural measurement invariance.

It is well observed from the cross-cultural literature of research that statistical

analysis is the prime tool for effective and clear results of hypothesis (e.g., Grunert and

Scherhom, 1990; Munson and Mcintyre, 1979; Soutar et al., 1999). Also, it is the ‘two

group analysis’ which is believed to be most appropriate for a study to be conducted

(Green et al., 1997; Malhotra and Birks, 2000; Soutar et al., 1999; Utsch et al., 1999). It

is mandatory to note that before the real study is conducted, it is the pilot study which is

taken under consideration which is used to mark the factors responsible for marketing

strategies and consumer behavior. The techniques used for quantitative data analysis are

93

frequency, chi-square test, factor analysis, cross tabulation, Kruskal Wallis test, Mann-

Whitney test.

Frequencies refer to the number of responses per value of a variable and

expressing the result in terms of percentage per response (Daniel and Terrell, 1992;

Einspruch, 1997; Field, 1971). Frequencies along with cross tabs and chi-square analysis

were used for the assessment of profile related demographics of respondents as well as

the unstructured survey questions in accordance with their response pattern. The relative

values of frequencies are noted to be in percentage giving rise to a table including the

frequency count, cumulative frequency and their respective percentage for all the

associated values of the variable. The mathematical analytical techniques such as mean

and standard deviation were used to assess the age of the consumers.

Cross-Tabulations Analysis was used to determine a single variable and the

association of this variable with other multiple variables.

Chi Square Test of Independences was used when two variables belonging to the

same sample are being tested (Welkowitz, Ewen, & Cohen (1991, pp. 293-297) and

Daniel (1990, pp. 181-185)). Reynolds (1984, p. 36)). Reynolds (1984, p. 36) suggests

that going by the percentage scale of 2X2 contingency tables helps in detecting the

patterns of independent departures. Describing the attitude, behavior and intentions of

customers depends upon the inter-connected relationships (Ajzen and Fishbein 1980).

The tool used was chi-square that describes the strength of associations among different

variables.

Likert Scale is used for a number of analytical domains such as behavior,

marketing, healthcare and utility. Likert scale requires all the participants to verify their

level of agreement while responding considering a response level between five and

seven. The distinct features of a Likert item data scale are tied number, restricted range

and discrete values. Likert scale data analysis exist in conflict with the perceptions of

scholars to justify whether the Likert scale should be used along with non-parametric

statistics such as the rank-test which is based on the Mann Whitney Wilcoxon (MWW)

or the parametric statistics such as the t-test (Carifio & Perla, 2008; Jamieson, 2004). On

one hand where Nanna and Sawilowsky (1998) gave greater preference to MWW test in

almost all the investigative cases on the counterpart many other analysts such as

94

Gregoire and Driver (1987) were still in dilemma of either to use the t test or the rank

test (MWW) in a simulation study of five-point Likert test.

Mann Whitney Test Statistics were used to compare the response of two groups

and to analyze it. The extension of groups can exceed to four to five groups at times as

well. The comparison is assessed with the help of kruskal-wallis test.

Factor Analysis is responsible for determining that whether a set of items is

homogenous within a sample orand ensuring the selection of homogenous items (AlIen

& Yen, 1979:130). Simplifying the statement it means that factor analysis simplifies the

designing of questions for the questionnaire in such a way that the questions developed

are easier to be understood and more meaningful. It is important to notify that the

variables used for factor analysis must be descriptive in nature for the purpose of

theoretical and exploratory research. The possible percentage of variance was extended

to a few more factors extracted from the factor analysis. The factors that were a gradual

result of the un-rotated factor matrix that explained the inter-linking between different

individual variables could not be properly interpreted due to the enhanced correlation of

the factors along with a number of variables. This was the reason rotation method was

taken into consideration to simplify the factor matrix and make it easier to interpret.

VARIMAX procedure was the method used in the rotation of factors which resulted in

orthogonal factors (Malhotra and Birks, 2000).

PILOT STUDY

Social science research uses two different ways to explain pilot study. The

preparation done for major studies include small scale versions or trial runs which are

considered a part of the feasibility of a study (Polit et al., 2001: 467). At other point, pilot

study can be considered as the pre-verification of a specific tool of research study (Baker

1994: 182-3). Pilot study keeps in track with one of the major requirements of

information such as pre-knowledge of the fact where the study might fail, the protocols

might not be contemplated or the given instruments might be inappropriate or way too

complex for the study to be conducted. As De Vaus (1993: 54) says, “do not take risk,

take pilot first and foremost.”

The basic agenda of conducting a pilot study is to assemble all the prior

information on the minutest level before conducting a major study on a greater level. In

95

accordance with Tashakkori & Teddlie (1998: 47), it is the qualitative data collection and

information for the assessment of a relatively unexplored topic before formulating and

developing a major study on the basis of quantitative analysis. The initial phase of this

study indulges surveys and group interviews or taking in consideration the judgment and

observations of a community which later on adds up to the phases of designing major

questionnaire surveys. The same criteria was followed in the research study as well when

consumers were surveyed and questioned on the basis of their qualitative approach and

analysis of a particular subject of study.

The next area of concern is to determine the framing of questions for the survey

to be asked from the qualitative groups of people for analysis. The final pilot way

questionnaires should be distributed and collected. Same was the case during conducting

this study as well. On a primary basis, a sample of 50 odd customers and 25 retailers

were being considered to assess the questionnaire that was framed for the major survey.

INSTRUMENTATION

Case study, interviews and survey methods were extensively used in order to

carry out efficient research. According to behavioral sciences, survey method is

considered as the finest methods to conduct the initials of a research (Issac & Micheal,

1990), whereas interviews are the perfect mean to explore the qualitative point of view of

various practitioners and their varied perspectives (Whitman and Woszczynski, 2004).

On the other hand case study methods are formulated to consider the study of a detailed

account of the subject be it an event, a group or an individual. It concentrates on a

systematic way of data collection, understanding and compiling the data, analysis of

information, reporting and inference and finally, taking out result (Yin, 2009). Thus

these methods account for a better and more efficient information gathering and analysis

of data.

A questionnaire was developed to prepare an efficient survey. The questionnaire

focused on the designing of questions such as these will examine the behavioral sciences

of a consumer while purchasing readymade garments and also noting down the views

and perceptions of strategies of the retailers as well as their employees in order to sell

their products to a large variety of consumers. This instrument was classified into three

categories namely:

96

Part A comprised the strategies and planning of the retailers and the respondents while

skillfully convincing and attracting customers towards their items. The respondents were

surveyed on the basis of mass media role, information technology, data warehousing and

customer policies.

Part B consists of the customers as the respondents to the questionnaire of the survey

wherein, they were asked about their shopping experiences about a particular store they

chose and their perception and mentality behind purchasing a specific product.

Part C described the survey being conducted upon the respondents as the sales

executives who shall provide suggestions regarding skillful selling strategies to

improvise upon the conditions of a particular garment outlet. These perceptions were

carefully considered to carry forward the practices of a specific organization efficiently.

DATA COLLECTION

A general approach may consist of various forms of data collection techniques. A

research analyst would look forward for multiple sorts of data collection techniques

going by the depth of efficiency each method would hold keeping in mind a number of

factors such as:

Estimated cost, expected level of measured errors, expected quality of collected

data, predicted non response rates and the duration of data collection term (Lyberg and

Kasprzyk, 1991). There is a wild possibility that a given answer may not satisfy the

requirement of a question which could be probably because of a lack of appropriateness

in the techniques developed for data collection (Kerlinger, 1986).

The techniques of data collection considering the geographical areas a technique

called Stratified sampling technique was adopted to determine the skills of the retailers

and sales executives. This was taken up as a project in sector 17, 22 and 35 of

Chandigarh where retailers and sales executives of various readymade garments were

selected randomly and surveyed upon. A number of customers from the states of Punjab

and Haryana were selected and asked through a technique called Simple random

sampling. Out of the total of 600 people in the survey, 150 were retailers and 300 were

the customers from Punjab and Haryana and 200 were sales executives.

97

RESEARCH OBJECTIVES/ HYPOTHESIS

The ‘what’s’ and ‘how’s’ of a research methodology play a very vital role to

construct the prime foundation of any research study (Yin, 1989:19). Considering the

case of this particular research, the pre understanding of marketing wasn’t just precise

enough to formulate questions of survey. Therefore, a more in depth knowledge of the

scenario was pre requisite to have a better formulation of questions. This gave rise a

number of subsets of questions being iterated from the actual study.

The study was then jeopardized in the following objectives:

1. To discover the trends of marketing in terms of readymade garments in India.

2. To focus upon the environment of regulation in the marketing of readymade

garments.

3. To make suggestions on the marketing strategies considering the analysis of

marketing strategies

4. To determine and examine the consumer behavior while buying the products.

5. To study and compare the marketing practices being followed in the states of

Punjab and Haryana.

6. To assess the perceptions of the sales executives and determine the situation

based on the management of the merchandise in the readymade garments sales.

H01: The marketing practices were similar of the retailers from Punjab and

Haryana

It refers to the marketing practices such as strategies of marketing, customer

identification, mass media effect, marketing plans, brand building, favorable factors,

overall satisfaction and customer policy are being considered. These were the parameters

on which the analysis was performed. The first session of questionnaire is depicted by

diagram 3.1.

H02: The demographic profile of customer has no effect on its buying Behavior in

retail marketing

The behavior of customers to purchase the products was assessed through the

following parameters such as perception on shopping experiences, promptness

parameters and merchandise

described by figure of diagram 3.2.

Figure 3.1: Conceptual Research Analysis Diagram of Retailers Questionnaire

Figure 3.2: Conceptual

H03: The perception of sales executives were similar, from Punjab and Haryana

Favorable Factors • Test of

Proportion

Customer Policy • Cross Tab/ Chi

Sqaure

Satisfaction • Mann Whitney

Test

Promptness Parameters Shopping Experience & Parameters Perception – Shopping Perception – Merchandise

parameters and merchandise. The second section of questionnaire is well defined and

described by figure of diagram 3.2.

Figure 3.1: Conceptual Research Analysis Diagram of Retailers Questionnaire

Figure 3.2: Conceptual Research Analysis Diagram of Customers Questionnaire

The perception of sales executives were similar, from Punjab and Haryana

Punjab Vs Harayana Retailers

Marketing Plans• Cross Tab/ Chi

Sqaure

Customer Identification • Test of

Proportion

Strategies of Marrketing • Mann Whitney

Test

Mass Media Effect • Mann Whitney

Test

Satisfaction Mann Whitney

Mann Whitney Test:Gender, Marital Status

Kruskal Wallis Test: Monthly Income, Education, Locality, Frequent Visitor

98

. The second section of questionnaire is well defined and

Figure 3.1: Conceptual Research Analysis Diagram of Retailers Questionnaire

Research Analysis Diagram of Customers Questionnaire

The perception of sales executives were similar, from Punjab and Haryana

Customer Identification

Brand Buiding • Cross Tab/ Chi

Sqaure

Strategies of Marrketing

Mann Whitney

Mann Whitney Test: Gender, Marital Status

Kruskal Wallis Test: Age, Occupation, Monthly Income, Education, Locality, Frequent Visitor

99

It was in reference to the sales executives and the merchandise to proliferate their

perception regarding improvising the business through a number of techniques. The

parameters considered were self-analysis and advices- policies, reasons and

improvisation. The following figure describes the third section of questionnaire.

Figure 3.3: Conceptual Research Analysis Diagram

of Sales Executives Questionnaire

Sales Executives Punjab Vs Haryana

Chi Square Test:

Self Assessment

Mann Whitney Test:

Suggestions: Improvisation, Reasons & Policies

100

References

1. Aaker, J.L. & Williams, P. (1998). 'Empathy versus Pride: The Influence of

Emotional Appeals Across Cultures1, Journal of Consumer Research, 25, (3),

p241-271.

2. Allen M.J. and Yen W.M. (1979), “Introduction to Measurement Theory”, Brooks

– Cole, Monterey, CA, 1979

3. Ajzen, I. & Fishbein, M. (1980). Understanding Attitudes and Predicting Social

Behavior. Englewoods Cliff, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall.

4. Baker, T.L. (1994), Doing Social Research (2nd Edn.), New York: McGraw-Hill

Inc.

5. Britt, S.H. (1970a). Consumer behavior in Theory and in Action. USA: John Wiley

& Sons.

6. Bryman, A. & Cramer, D. (1994). Quantitative Data Analysis for Social Scicntists.

London: Routledge.

7. Burrell, G. & Morgan, G. (1979). Sociological Paradigms and Organisational

Analysis: Elements of the Sociology of Corporate Life. London: Heinemann

Educational.

8. Carifio, J., & Perla, R. (2008). Resolving the 50-year debate around using and

misusing Likert scales. Medical Education, 42, 1150–1152.

9. Cheung, G.W. (1999). 'Multifaceted conceptions of self-other ratings

disagreement', Personnel Psychology, 52, (1) Spring, pl-3.

10. Chisnall, P.M. (1997). Consumer Behaviour, (3r t ed.) Great Britain: Clays.

11. Churchill Jr., G .A. (1991). Marketing Research: Methodological Foundations. (5*

ed.) USA: Dryden Press.

12. Cooper, D.R. & Emory, C.W. (1995). Business Research Methods. (5th ed.) USA:

Irwin.

101

13. Daft, R. & Wiginton (1979). 'Language and Company1. Academy of Management

Review, 9, (2),p284-295.

14. Daniel, W. W. (1990). Applied Nonparametric Statistics (2nd

ed.). Boston: PWS-

Kent.

15. Daniel, W.W. & Terrell, J.C. (1992). Business Statistics. (6* ed.) Boston:

Houghton Mifflin.

16. De Vaus, D.A. (1993), Surveys in Social Research (3rd edn.), London: UCL Press.

17. Durvasula, S.. Andrews, J.S., Lysonski, S. & Netemeyer, R.G. (1993). 'Assessing

the crossnational applicability of consumer behavior models: a model of attitude

toward advertising in general', Journal of Consumer Research, 19, (4) March, p626-

637.

18. Einspruch, EL. (1997). An Introductory Guide to SPSS for Windows.

ThousandOaks, CA: Sage.

19. Elliot, R. (1997). 'Existential Consumption and Irrational Desire', European Journal

of Marketing, 34, (4), p285-296.

20. Field, J.G. (1971). 'The World's Simplest Test of Significance1, Journal of the

Market Research Society, July,pl70-172.

21. Frankfort-Nachmias, C. & Nachmias, D. (1992). Research Methods in the Social

Sciences. (4lhed.) London: Edward Arnold.

22. Ghauri, P., Gronhaug, K.& Kristianslund, I. (1995).Research Methods in Business

Studies. London: Prentice-Hall International.

23. Gill, J. & Johnson, P. (1991). Research Methods for Managers. London: Paul

Chapman Publishing.

24. Green, S.B., Salkind, N.J. & Akey, T.M. (1997). Using SPSS for Windows:

Analyzing and Understanding Data. New Jersey: Prentice-Hall.

25. Gregoire, T. G., & Driver, B. L. (1987). Analysis of ordinal data to detect

population differences. Psychological Bulletin, 101, 159–165.

102

26. Grunert, S.E. & Scherhorn, G. (1990). 'Consumer values in West Germany:

Underlying dimensions and cross-cultural comparison with North America',

Journal of Business Research, 20, p97-107.

27. Hirschman, E.C. & Holbrook. M.B. (1986). 'Hedonic consumption: emerging

concepis. methods, and propositions'. Journal of Marketing. 46, (Summer), p92-

101.

28. Hooley, G.J. & Hussey, M.K. (1995). Quantitative Methods in Marketing, (eds.)

London: Dryden Press.

29. Hui, C.H. & Triandis, H.C. (1985). 'Measurement in Cross-Cultural Psychology: A

Review and Comparison of Strategies', Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 16,

(June), pl31 -152.

30. Isaac S. and Michael W. B., ―Handbook in research and evaluation (2nd ed.)‖,

San Diego, CA: EdITS Publishers, 1990.

31. Jamieson, S. (2004). Likert scales: How to (ab)use them. Medical Education, 38 ,

1212–1218.

32. Joreskog, K.G. (1971). 'Simultaneous Factor Analysis in several Populations',

Psychometrika, 36, (December), p409-426.

33. Kerlinger, Fred N., Foundations of Behavioral Research, Harcourt Brace

Jovanovich, 1986.

34. Kervin, J.B. (1992). Methods for Business Research. New York: Harper Collins.

35. Lyberg. L. E. and Kasprzyk, D. (1991), "Data Collection Methods and

Measurement Error: An Overview," Chapter 13 in Biemer, P.P., Groves, R.M.,

Lyberg. L.E., Mathiowetz, N.A. and Sudman, S. (eds.), in Measurement Errors in

Surveys. New York: Wiley.

36. Malhotra, N.K. (1996). Marketing Research: An Applied Orientation. (2" ed.) New

Jersey: Prentice-Hall.

37. Malhotra, N.K. & Birks, D.F. (2000). Marketing Research: An Applied Approach.

(European ed.) England: Prentice-Hall.

103

38. Mansour, A.A. & Osimy, M.H. (1994). 'Structure and outcome evaluation of three

primary health care centers in Riyadh', International Journal of Public

Administration, 17, (7) June, pl327-1350.

39. Marketing. 'Mercedes-Benz moves away from status-symbol image', Marketing,

April 2001, p26.

40. Morgan, D. (1986). 'Personal Relationships as an Interface between Social Network

and Social Cognitions', Journal of Social and Personal Relationships, 3, p403-422.

41. Morgan, G. (1986). Images of Organization. Beverley Hills, CA: Sage.

42. Nanna, M. J., & Sawilowsky, S. S. (1998). Analysis of Likert scale data in

disability and medical rehabilitation research. Psychological Methods, 3 , 55–67.

43. Netemeyer, R.G., Durvasula, S. & Lichtenstein, D. (1991). 'A Cross-National

Asscssment of the Reliability and Validity of the CETSCALE1 , Journal of

Marketing Research, 28 (August). p320-327.

44. Peterson, R.A. (1994). 'A Meta-Analysis of Cronbach's Coefficient Alpha', Journal

of Consumer Research, 21, (September), p381-391.

45. Polit, D.F., Beck, C.T. and Hungler, B.P. (2001), Essentials of Nursing Research:

Methods, Appraisal and Utilization. 5th Ed., Philadelphia: Lippincott Williams &

Wilkins

46. Reynolds. H. T. (1984). Analysis of nominal data (2nd

ed). Beverly Hills, CA: Sage

Publications.

47. Rosecky, R. & King, A. (1996). 'Perceptual différences among owners of luxury

cars: stratégie implications', Mid-Atlantic Journal of Business, 32, (3), p221235.

48. Saunders, M.N.K., Lewis, P. & Thomhill, A. (2000). Research methods for

business students. (2"d ed.) Harlow, Great Britain: Financial Times/Prentice Hall.

49. Seilitz, C, Wrightsman, L.S. & Cook, S.W. (1976). Research Methods in Social

Relations. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston.

104

50. Soutar, G.N., Grainger, R. & Hedges, P. (1999). 'Australian and Japanese value

stéréotypes: a two country study', Journal of International Business Studies, 30, (1),

p203-212.

51. Steenkamp, J.B.E.M. & Baumgartner, H. (1995).'Development and Cross-National

Validation of a Short-Form of CSI as a Measure of Optimum Stimulation Level',

International Journal of Research in marketing, 12, (July), p97-104.

52. Tashakkori, A and Teddlie, C. (1998), Mixed Methodology: Combining Qualitative

& Quantitative Approaches, Sage

53. Utsch, A., Rauch, A., Rothfuss, R. & Frese, M. (1999). 'Who becomes a small scale

entrepreneur in a post-socialist environment: on the différences between

entrepreneurs and managers in East Germany', Journal of Small Business

Management, 37, (3) July, p31-40.

54. Weber, R.P. (1990). Basic Content Analysis. (2nd ed.) USA: Sage.

55. Welkowitz, J., Ewen, R. B., & Cohen, J. (1991). Introductory statistics for the

behavioral sciences (4th

ed.). New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich Publishers.

56. Whitman, M.E., and Woszczynski, A.B., “The handbook of information systems

research”, Idea Group Inc (IGI), 2004.

57. Yin, R.K., “Case Study Research: Design and Methods”, Fourth Edition. SAGE

Publications. California, 2009.