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Research ArticleAre Famine Food Plants Also Ethnomedicinal Plants?An Ethnomedicinal Appraisal of Famine Food Plants ofTwo Districts of Bangladesh
Fardous Mohammad Safiul Azam, Anup Biswas, Abdul Mannan, Nusrat Anik Afsana,Rownak Jahan, and Mohammed Rahmatullah
Department of Biotechnology & Genetic Engineering, Faculty of Life Sciences, University of Development Alternative,House No. 78, Road No. 11A (new), Dhanmondi, Dhaka 1209, Bangladesh
Correspondence should be addressed to Mohammed Rahmatullah; [email protected]
Received 27 November 2013; Revised 30 December 2013; Accepted 6 January 2014; Published 20 February 2014
Academic Editor: Menaka C. Thounaojam
Copyright © 2014 Fardous Mohammad Safiul Azam et al. This is an open access article distributed under the Creative CommonsAttribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work isproperly cited.
Plants have served as sources of food and medicines for human beings since their advent. During famines or conditions of foodscarcity, people throughout theworld depend onunconventional plant items to satiate their hunger andmeet their nutritional needs.Malnourished people often suffer from various diseases, much more than people eating a balanced diet. We are hypothesizing thatthe unconventional food plants that people eat during times of scarcity of their normal diet are also medicinal plants and thus canplay a role in satiating hunger,meeting nutritional needs, and serving therapeutic purposes. Towards testing our hypothesis, surveyswere carried out among the low income people of four villages in Lalmonirhat and Nilphamari districts of Bangladesh. People andparticularly the low income people of these two districts suffer each year from a seasonal famine known as Monga. Over 200informants from 167 households in the villages were interviewed with the help of a semistructured questionnaire and the guidedfield-walk method. The informants mentioned a total of 34 plant species that they consumed during Monga. Published literatureshows that all the species consumed had ethnomedicinal uses. It is concluded that famine food plants also serve as ethnomedicinalplants.
1. Introduction
Human beings need food for survival and to satiate theirhunger. Plants have always constituted a major food sourcefor people throughout the world since the advent of humans.During times of natural disasters like inclement weatherconditions, populations suffering from severe food shortagesbecome heavily reliant on wild food plants for survival [1].This has given rise to the concept of famine plants [2]. RodaleandMcgrath [3] stated that famine plants have been eaten andutilized for centuries. Certain “wild-foods” are enjoyed andtherefore collected and consumed every timewhen ready andthese are important “famine-foods” during periods of foodshortage [4].
The human population of the western Sahel has beenreported to depend on a number of wild plant foods, and
this dependency increases during drought conditions [5].However, scarcity of food or in practicality, famine condition,is also a common occurrence with people who live in povertyand so cannot afford their daily requirements of a normaland conventional diet. Such food scarcity/famine (famineand food scarcity have been considered equivalent in thispaper in the sense that both conditions lead to inadequateintake of daily conventional food items) can be observedamong the people of Bangladesh, about a third of those wholive below the poverty level income, defined as less thanUS$ 1 per day. Moreover, people of the northern districtsof Bangladesh are subjected each year to a seasonal famineknown as Monga. Monga usually occurs twice a year; thegreater Monga (boro Monga) occurs during the lean seasonpreceding the harvest of paddy in the Bangla months ofAshwin and Kartik (mid-September to mid-November), and
Hindawi Publishing CorporationEvidence-Based Complementary and Alternative MedicineVolume 2014, Article ID 741712, 28 pageshttp://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2014/741712
2 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine
the smaller Monga (choto Monga) occurs during the leanseason preceding the harvest of paddy in between the Banglamonths of Chaitra and Jaistha (mid-March to mid-June). Itis to be noted that rice (obtained after dehusking paddy) isthe staple cereal of the people of Bangladesh and is the majoritem consumed by the poorer rural people with lentils andan occasional sidedish of a vegetable. Monga occurs due toa number of factors, lack of adequate water supply duringthe above months and lack of diversification of jobs (mostpeople being agricultural laborers with little cultivable landof their own).The agricultural laborers, landless farmers, andthe marginal farmers suffer from acute food shortage duringMonga [6].
Lalmonirhat and Nilphamari districts are two districts inthe northern part of Bangladesh, which suffer from Monga.The people in these districts, particularly the rural poor,are the worst sufferers and suffer during Monga from acutefood shortages. We have previously shown that a numberof nonconventional plant items are consumed by the poorpeople of the northern districts of Bangladesh during Monga[7]. In fact, such consumption of nonconventional plant itemsduring times of food scarcity has been reported by us forother districts of Bangladesh, like Rangamati and Kurigram[8, 9]; Rangamati district does not suffer from Monga, butfood scarcity exists among segments of the mainstreampopulation as well as tribal people. Also notably, Rangamatidistrict is in the southeastern portion of the country. Duringour survey in Kurigram district on famine food plants, wenoted a distinct correlation between nonconventional plantsconsumed during food scarcity and their folk medicinalusage; in other words, most of the plants consumed had folkmedicinal uses [10].
Chronic lack of food causes the people to suffer frommalnutrition with consequent wasting away of body andweakening of the body’s immune systems [11]. This can causea number of diseases to occur because of the body’s weakdefenses against invading pathogens. Lack of proper diet cannot only cause shortage ofmacronutrients like carbohydrates,proteins, and lipids, but also cause lack of vitamins andessentialmicronutrients with concomitant arising of ailmentslike anemia, night blindness, beriberi, pellagra, kwashiorkor,and marasmus, to name only a few. Thus nonconventionalfood items should not only be edible, but also satiate thehunger and meet the body’s nutritional needs adequately.
The Australian Aboriginal hunter-gatherers reportedlyused to have over 800 plant foods, and that this traditionaldiet may have been low in carbohydrates but high in fiber,leading to protection of the Aborigines from a genetic pre-disposition to insulin resistance (a physiological condition inwhich the natural hormone, insulin, becomes less effectivein lowering blood sugars) and its consequences like diabetesmellitus, coronary heart disease, and obesity [12]. Theseconventional food plants andmedicine are interrelated as alsobeen shown by other authors. Research in several regions hasillustrated that many wild plants that are retained in localfood cultures are inseparable from traditional therapeuticsystems [13, 14]. Since ancient times, the thinking of “foodas medicine” has existed in Chinese medical theories andChinese food therapy [15, 16]. Etkin and Ross [17, 18] showed
from their West African research that many wild plantswere used both in therapeutics and for dietary purposes. Wefurther hypothesize that through trial and error, the humanpopulation have selected famine food plants items, whichnot only fulfill hunger satiating and nutritional needs, butalso serves a therapeutic purpose. It then follows from ourhypothesis that famine food plants, in general, must also haveethnomedicinal uses.
The objective of the present survey was to conduct anethnomedicinal appraisal of famine food plants consumed bypoor villagers in four villages (Sailmari, Khurdobichondoi,Paschim Dewwabar, and Schatunama) of two adjoiningdistricts, namely, Lalmonirhat andNilphamari, which are twoof the most Monga-prone districts in Bangladesh, and havesubstantial segments of the population suffering from foodscarcity during Monga. The two districts are bordered on thesouth by Rangpur district, on the north by West Bengal Stateof India, on the east by Kurigram district, and on the westby Dinajpur and Panchagarh districts (Figure 1). The area ofthe four villages where the present survey was carried outapproximates 50 square kilometers. An indigenous commu-nity, namely the Santals, inhabits portions of the two districtscovered. The Santals are considered to be original settlersin this area since prehistoric times; however, the majorityof the population (over 98%) of the two districts at presentcomprises of mainstream Bengali-speaking population.
The villages surveyed lacked any industry; as a con-sequence, the people are dependent on agriculture. Threeof the villages Sailmari, Khurdobichondoi, and PaschimDewwabar fell under Kaliganj and Hatibandha Upazilas(subdistricts) of Lalmonirhat district, while Schatunuma fellunder Dimla Upazila of Nilphamari district (Figure 1). As perNational Information Services provided by the Governmentof Bangladesh [19], the total population of Kaliganj andHatibanda Upazilas was 216,868 and 239,568, respectivelywith a literacy rate of 24, and 21.4% (it is to be noted thata person is considered literate in Bangladesh if the personcan only sign his or her name without even going to primaryschool). The total population of Dimla Upazila is 280,076with an average literacy level of 42.86%. Small farmers (i.e.farmers without land or having less than one-third acre ofland per family) constituted over 80% of the populationin the villages surveyed; these farmers mostly worked asagricultural laborers in other people’s land.
The surveyed villages did not have any forest land. Thevillages, however, contained fallow land and “char” (riverislands on the Teesta River) areas. There was some vegetativecover in the fallow lands and chars; the vegetation mostlyconsisted of wild herbs, shrubs, and a few trees, which weretropical and subtropical in nature.
2. Methods
2.1. Study Area and InvestigativeMethods. Thepresent surveywas conducted between October 2010 and August 2012.A preliminary survey was conducted among the villagersof a number of villages in Lalmonirhat and Nilphamaridistricts, which according to news reports of the countryhave a substantial number of households, who were affected
Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 3
NilphamariLalmonirhat
Figure 1: Map of Bangladesh showing the districts, Upazilas, and study sites (villages). Actual study sites are marked on the map asX.
by Monga. From this preliminary survey, four villages asmentioned abovewere chosen in the two districts on the basisof the number of households, whose incomes were belowthe poverty level, and as a consequence, were more affectedby Monga. More detailed surveys (comprising of a total ofnine visits, each visit lasting four days on an average) wereconducted in these four villages among a total of 167 house-holds who mentioned that they consume nonconventionalplant items not only during Monga, but also at other timesof food scarcity, caused due to their low income levels. Alltogether, 238 adult members (219 females and 19 males) fromthese households were interviewed. It is to be noted thatwomen, particularly the adult married women members ofrural households, are in general responsible for cooking foodand collecting nonconventional plant items (during times offood scarcity) and so possess more information on faminefoods than the male members of the household. Althoughcollecting nonconventional edible plants from the wild orfallow lands and roadsides is also shared by children alongwith adult female members of the household, such childrenwere not interviewed in the present survey.
2.2. Mode of Interview and Plant Specimen Collection. In-formed consent was first obtained from the Head of eachhousehold (in most cases being the oldest active male mem-ber) to gather information on their monthly income levels,
availability of adequate food throughout the year, prevalenceof diseases, occupation, literacy, consumption of nonconven-tional plant food items during times of food scarcity in theirhouseholds, and the therapeutic uses of the nonconventionalplant species. The male Heads of households themselvessuggested that information on consumption of nonconven-tional plants be gathered from the female adult membersof each household. Information was collected and recordedwith the help of a semistructured questionnaire, open-endedinterviews, and the guided field-walk method of Martin [20]and Maundu [21]. In this method, the women informantstook the interviewers on guided field walks through areasfrom where they usually collected their nonconventionaledible plants, pointed out the plants, and described the modeof consumption of these plants and the plant parts used forconsumption, as well as medicinal values of the plants. Allsuch plant specimens were collected from the spot, pressed,dried [22], and brought back to Dhaka for complete iden-tification by the Bangladesh National Herbarium. Voucherplant specimens were deposited with the Plant CollectionWing of the University of Development Alternative. Nomen-clature of plants was compiled from the Plant List database(http://www.theplantlist.org/). Lalmonirhat and Nilphamariare adjoining districts, and it was noticed that the patternof consumption of nonconventional plants was basically thesame for each household in all four villages of the twodistricts.
4 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine
Corm, 2.04 Bark, 2.04
Leaf stalk, 4.08
Stem, 18.36
Leaf, 44.89
Fruit, 12.24
Flower, 6.12
Root, 4.08
Tuber, 4.08
Figure 2: Percentage distribution of various plant parts consumedduring times of food scarcity.
2.3. Search of Databases for Ethnomedicinal Uses of Plants.Ethnomedicinal uses of the plant reports were collectedthrough searching various databases like PubMed, SCOPUS,and Google Scholar.
3. Results and Discussion
3.1. Demographic Characteristics. Of the 219 females inter-viewed, 76 females (34.7%) were in the age group of 21–30years, 88 females (40.2%)were in the age group of 31–40 years,and 55 females (25.1%) were in the age group of 41–50 years.100% of the females were married and described their occu-pation as housewives. The literacy rate among the femaleswas 3.1%. Of the 19 males interviewed, 16 males (84.2%)described their occupation as agricultural laborers, while 3males (15.8%) described themselves as small farmers withland holding not exceeding 1/3 acres. Literacy rate among theinterviewed males was 7.9%. It may be noted that the literacyrate among the surveyed populationwas observed to be lowerthan theUpazila average.The informantsmentioned that partof this lower literacy rate was due to age, for only recentlythe Government of Bangladesh has made primary education(up to Grade V) compulsory for both males and females.The other factor mentioned by the informants was that theycould not even send children to schools regularly because thechildren were often engaged in foraging for wild edible plantsbecause of chronic food shortages.
3.2. General Dietary Information. According to all infor-mants, their main diet during food availability consistedof rice, which was consumed along with lentil soup (dal),vegetables, and occasionally fish or meat. Since rice containsvery low amount of protein, lentils served as themain proteinsource in the absence of meat or fish items. During timesof food scarcity, rice could not be afforded, and so theyconsumed nonconventional edible plants or plant parts alongwith lentil soup, if the latter could be afforded. Various types
of lentils (pulses) are available in Bangladesh, the most costlybeing Lens esculenta and Lens culinaris (masoor dal) andVigna radiata (mung dal). However, the poorer people cannotusually afford these two pulses and consume instead Lathyrussativus (khesari dal).
3.3. Plant Habitat. Among the plants whose parts were con-sumed, with the exception of Artocarpus heterophyllus, Cor-chorus capsularis, Moringa oleifera, Musa sapientum, andRaphanus sativus, the rest of the plants were collected fromthe wild (fallow land, roadsides, open fields, or marshyareas). Aquatic wild edible plants included Ipomoea aquatica,Marsilea minuta, Enhydra fluctuans, Nelumbo nucifera, andNymphaea pubescens.
3.4. Plants, Plant Parts, and Mode of Consumption duringFamines. The various informants mentioned a total of 34nonconventional plant species that they consumed duringtimes of food scarcity. The plants were distributed into 26families. Among these plants species, the parts consumedwere leaves, stems, barks, fruits, seeds, flowers, tubers, andcorms. The results are shown in Table 1. Leaves formed themajor plant part consumed and constituted 44.9% of thetotal. Leaves were followed by stems at 18.3% and fruits at12.2%. The results are shown in Figure 2. In other parts ofthe world like Niger in Africa, leaves have been reportedto be primarily consumed during famines and have beenshown to be excellent sources of proteins andmicronutrients,particularly of plants like Amaranthus viridis andM. oleifera[23]. Notably, the leaves of these two plants were also found tobe consumed by the people of the present survey areas duringtimes of food scarcity.
Fruits were usually eaten directly in the raw state, tubersand corms in the mashed state following boiling in water,and leaves and stems taken following frying or cooking inthe form of vegetables. Since the households were too poorto afford spices, essentially a little oil or a small amount oftable salt was added for cooking and making the dish morepalatable. The three exceptions to this generalized mode ofconsumption were Centella asiatica, M. minuta, and Oxaliscorniculata. In all these three cases, juice obtained fromsqueezed leaves was added to lentil soup, which was thenconsumed. The reason for this unusual mode of consump-tion was attributed to age-old practices of the community.Among these plants, not all plant parts consumed werefully nonconventional. For instance, during regular times offood availability, villagers would consume leaves and stemsof Amaranthus tricolor, seeds of A. heterophyllus, leaves ofC. asiatica, leaves, stems, and tubers of Colocasia esculenta,leaves ofC. capsularis, leaves of I. aquatica, fruits ofMusa par-adisiaca, leaf stalks of N. pubescens, and leaves of R. sativus,but only occasionally. M. sapientum and Musa paradisiacafruits were consumed during regular times, but during timesof food scarcity, other parts of the plant along with fruits wereconsumed.
3.5. Food Uses of Famine Food Plants of Surveyed Areas inOther Parts of the World. It is of interest that the plants
Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 5
Table1:Non
conventio
nal(famine)food
plantsof
four
villagesinLalm
onirh
atandNilp
hamarid
istric
ts,Ba
ngladesh.
Seria
lnum
ber
Species
Family
Localn
ame
(Eng
lishname)
Part(s)u
sed
Mod
eofcon
sumption
Localm
edicinaluse(s)
1Ab
romaaugusta
(L.)
L.f.
Malvaceae
Ulotk
ombo
l(D
evil’s
cotto
n)Ba
rk,roo
tJuiceo
btainedfro
mcrushedbark
istakenwith
alittlesalt.
Smashedroots
arec
ooked.
Rootsu
sedagainstm
enstr
ualproblem
s,leucorrhea,stomachpain,and
sexu
alweakn
ess.Ba
rkused
againstjaund
ice.
2Alternantherasessilis
(L.)R.
Br.exDC.
Amaranthaceae
Shantishak
(Sessilejoy
weed)
Leaf,stem
Friedwith
little
oiland
water.
Leaves
used
againstscabies
andeczema.
3Am
aranthus
spinosus
L.Amaranthaceae
Kantak
huria
(Spiny
Amaranth)
Leaf,stem
Friedwith
little
oiland
water.
Leaves
andste
msu
sedagainstb
oils,
stomachpain,and
weakn
ess.
4Am
aranthus
tricolor
L.Amaranthaceae
Choriedang
ashak
(Joseph’scoat
Amaranth)
Leaf,stem
Friedwith
little
oiland
water.
Leaves
andste
msu
sedagainstskin
diseases
anddysentery.
5Am
aranthus
virid
isL.
Amaranthaceae
Khaikhu
ria(G
reen
Amaranth)
Leaf,stem
Friedwith
little
oiland
water.
Leaves
andste
msu
sedagainstb
oils,
constip
ation,
andsevere
malnu
trition
.
6Ar
tocarpus
heterophyllus
Lam.
Moraceae
Kanthal
(Jackfruit)
Seed
Roastedseedsa
reeatendirectlyor
inthem
ashedform
.Seedsu
sedagainstcon
stipatio
n.
7Bo
mbaxceibaL.
Bombacaceae
Shim
ul(Silk
cotto
ntre
e)Ro
otCu
tintosm
allpiecesa
ndbo
iledwith
alittle
salt.
Rootsu
sedagainstsexualw
eakn
ess.
8Ca
ryotaurensL
.Arecaceae
Chag
uwa
(Solitary
fishtail
palm
)Fruit
Fruitsaree
aten
raw.
Nolocalm
edicinaluses
repo
rted.
9Ce
ntellaasiatica(L.)
Urb.
Apiaceae
Khu
dimanim
uni
(Indian
penn
ywort)
Leaf
Juiceo
btainedfro
mcrushedleaves
isaddedto
lentilsoup
.Leaves
used
againstind
igestio
n,diarrhea,
anddysentery.
10Ch
enopodium
album
L.Ch
enop
odiaceae
Bothua
(Lam
b’squ
arters)
Leaf,stem
Friedwith
little
oiland
water.
Leaves
andste
msu
sedagainstliver
diseases,helminthiasis,hem
orrhoids,
constip
ation,
andbloatin
g.
11Co
locasia
esculen
ta(L.)Scho
tt.Araceae
Kochu
(Eleph
ant’s
ear)
Leaf,stem,tub
er
Leaves
andste
msa
refriedwith
little
oiland
water.Tub
ersa
rebo
iledin
water
containing
saltandconsum
edin
them
ashedform
.
Leaves
andste
msu
sedagainst
indigestion.
Tubersused
against
tuberculosis,
rheumatism
,and
paralysis.
12Co
rchoruscapsularis
L.Tiliaceae
Paatshak
(Jute)
Leaffro
myoun
gplants
Cutintosm
allpiecesa
ndcooked
with
little
saltandwater.
Leaves
used
againststomachpain,liver
disorders,andlossof
appetite.
13Dioscorea
esculen
ta(Lou
r.)Bu
rkill
Dioscoreaceae
Boro
alu
(Lessery
am)
Leaf,tub
erBo
iledin
water
andthen
takenin
the
mashedform
after
mixingwith
oiland
hotp
eppers.
Tubersused
againstm
alnu
trition
.
14Diplaziu
mesculen
tum
(Retz.)
Sw.
Dryop
terid
aceae
Dhakias
hak
(Vegetablefern)
Leaf
Cutintosm
allpiecesa
ndcooked.
Leaves
used
againstfever.
6 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine
Table1:Con
tinued.
Seria
lnum
ber
Species
Family
Localn
ame
(Eng
lishname)
Part(s)u
sed
Mod
eofcon
sumption
Localm
edicinaluse(s)
15Eh
retia
acum
inataR.
Br.
Boraginaceae
Kath
guwa
(Kod
oweed)
Fruit
Fruitsaree
aten
raw.
Nolocalm
edicinaluses
repo
rted.
16En
hydraflu
ctua
nsLo
ur.
Asteraceae
Hanchishak
(Water
cress)
Leaf
Friedwith
saltandthen
cooked.
Leaves
used
againstd
iabetes,lowsemen
density,and
weakn
ess.
17Ficush
ispidaL.
Moraceae
Kho
ksha
(Hairy
fig)
Fruit
Fruitsaree
aten
raw.
Fruitsused
againstd
iabetesa
ndhypertensio
n.
18Glinus
oppositifoliu
s(L.)Au
g.DC.
Molluginaceae
Teetas
hak
(Bitter
leaf)
Leaf
Leaves
areb
oiledin
water
follo
wed
bydiscarding
thew
ater
andcook
ingthe
boiledleaves
asvegetable.
Leaves
used
againstind
igestio
n,fever,
andbu
rningsensations
inhand
sorfeet.
19Ipom
oeaaquatica
Forssk.
Con
volvulaceae
Kolm
ishak
(Water
spinach)
Leaf
Cutintosm
allpiecesa
ndcooked
with
saltandwater.
Leaves
used
againstchicken
poxand
rheumatism
,and
toincrease
lactationin
nursingmothers.
20Ipom
oeabatatas(L.)
Poir.
Con
volvulaceae
Mistialoo
(Sweetp
otato)
Leaf
Cutintosm
allpiecesa
ndcooked
with
saltandwater.
Leaves
used
againstd
iarrheaa
nddebility.
21Leucas
aspera
(Willd.)
Link
Lamiaceae
Kanshika
(Whitedead
nettle)
Leaffro
myoun
gplants
Cutintosm
allpiecesa
ndcooked
with
alittlesalt.
Leaves
used
againstb
odypain,cou
ghs,
andmucus.
22Malva
verticillata
L.Malvaceae
Napas
hak
(Chinese
mallow)
Leaf
Coo
kedwith
little
water
andsalt.
Nolocalm
edicinaluses
repo
rted.
23Marsilea
minutaL.
Marsileaceae
Dhelm
anim
uni
(Dwarfw
ater
clover)
Leaf
Leaves
ares
queezedto
obtain
juice,
which
isconsum
edwith
lentilsoup
.Leaves
used
againstedema,sexu
alweakn
ess,mucus
andfever.
24Moringa
oleiferaLam.
Moringaceae
Saazna
(Drumstick
tree)
Leaf,immature
fruit
Leaves
arec
ookedwith
alittlesoda
andconsum
ed.Fruits
arec
ookedas
vegetables.
Leaves
andfruitsused
againstfever,boils,
cold,and
jointp
ain.
25Musaxparadisia
caL.
Musaceae
Anajeek
ola
(Plantain)
Flow
er,fruit,
pseudo
stem
Immaturefl
owersa
retakenin
the
mashedform
with
alittlesaltaft
erbo
iling
.Unripefruits
areb
oiledand
takenin
them
ashedform
orcooked
asvegetable.Pseudo
stemsfrom
youn
gplantsarec
ookedas
vegetable.
Fruitsused
againstanemia,hem
atem
esis,
anddysentery.Flow
ersa
ndpseudo
stems
used
againstchron
icdysentery.
26Musaxsapientum
L.Musaceae
Aeetak
ola
(Banana)
Flow
er,fruit
Immaturefl
owersa
rebo
iledandtaken
inthem
ashedform
with
alittlesalt.
Ripe
fruitsaretaken
rawor
smashed
andkept
inwater
for10–
12ho
urs
follo
wed
bydrinking
them
ixture.
Fruitsagainststomachpain,diarrhea,
andskin
erup
tions.Flowersu
sedagainst
diabetes.
27Ne
lumbo
nucifera
Gaertn.
Nelu
mbo
naceae
Padm
a,Dhepra
(Sacredlotus)
Leafstalk
Leafsta
lksa
refriedwith
alittlesalt.
Leaves
andleafsta
lksu
sedagainst
weakn
ess.
Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 7
Table1:Con
tinued.
Seria
lnum
ber
Species
Family
Localn
ame
(Eng
lishname)
Part(s)u
sed
Mod
eofcon
sumption
Localm
edicinaluse(s)
28Ny
mphaeapubescens
Willd.
Nym
phaeaceae
Shapla,Shaluk
(Hairy
water
lily)
Leafsta
lk,corm
Leafsta
lksa
refriedwith
alittlesalt.
Cormsa
reroastedandtakenwith
alittle
salt.
Nolocalm
edicinaluses
repo
rted.
29Oxalis
cornicu
lata
L.Oxalid
aceae
Amrul
(Creeping
woo
dsorrel)
Leaf
Juiceo
btainedfro
mcrushedleaves
istakenwith
lentilsoup
.Leaves
used
againstd
ysentery
andas
antid
otetopo
ison.
30Ra
phanus
sativ
usL.
Cruciferae
Mula
(radish
)Leaf
Cutintosm
allpiecesa
ndcooked
inwater
with
somes
altand
alittleoil.
Nolocalm
edicinaluses
repo
rted.
31Saccharum
spontaneum
L.Po
aceae
Keshur,K
ashia
dand
a(W
ildsugarc
ane)
Stem
Stem
sare
chew
edandthee
nsuing
juiceistaken
orally.
Stem
juiceu
sedagainstjaund
icea
ndsexu
alweakn
ess.
32Scopariadu
lcisL
.Scroph
ulariaceae
Mistip
ata
(Sweet
broo
mweed)
Leaf
Leaves
arec
ookedwith
alittlesalt.
Leaves
used
againstfever,dysentery,
bloo
ddysentery,andgastric
ulcer.
33Sesbaniagrandiflora
(L.)Pers.
Fabaceae
Bokful
(Augustfl
ower)
Flow
erFried.
Flow
ersu
sedagainstb
iliarydisordersa
nddiabetes.
34Spilanthesp
anicu
lata
Wall.ex
DC.
Asteraceae
Oshun
shak,
Roshun
shak
(Parac
ress)
Leaf,stem
Cutintosm
allpiecesa
ndcooked.
Leaves
andste
msu
sedagainst
rheumatism
.
8 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine
22.05
7.35 7.35 8.825.88 4.41
7.35 5.88 4.41
26.47
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
Dist
ribut
ion
frequ
ency
(%)
(%)
Gas
troin
testi
nal
Sexu
al d
isord
er
Hep
atic
diso
rder
Skin
diso
rder
Wea
knes
s
Rheu
mat
ism
Feve
r
Dia
bete
s
diso
rder
diso
rder
Resp
irato
ry
Misc
ella
neou
s
Figure 3: Frequency distribution (%) of famine food plants used fortreatment of variousmedical disorders. Besides the disorders shownin the figure, other disorders for which famine food plants were usedhave been classified in general as Miscellaneous.
consumed during times of food scarcity in the surveyed areasare also used as normal or famine foods in other regionsof the world, although the same plant part may not beconsumed. Food uses of some of the plants are shown inTable 2. For instance, leaves and seeds of Abroma augusta areconsidered edible in Papua New Guinea and Sikkim, India,respectively [24, 25]. The surveyed population consumedthe barks and roots of the plant. Leaves of Alternantherasessilis are also considered edible in Papua New Guinea [24];the surveyed population consumed leaves and stems. Leavesof Amaranthus spinosus and Amaranthus viridis are eatenas leafy vegetables in Assam, India [26]; the local peopleconsumed both leaves and stems. The flowers of Bombaxceiba are considered edible in Arunachal Pradesh, India [27];the local people consumed the roots of the plant.
3.6. Local Ethnomedicinal Uses of Plants Consumed duringFamines. With the exception of five plants, the rest 29 plants(85.29% of total) were reported by the informants to havemedicinal uses. The frequency of plant use in differentcategories of disorders is shown in Figure 3. Gastrointestinaldisorders had the maximum frequency of ethnomedicinaluse (22.05%), followed by skin disorders (8.82%). Othermajor disorders against which plants were reported to haveethnomedicinal uses included sexual disorders, hepatic dis-orders, and fever (7.35% each). The rural population andparticularly the surveyed rural poor households were foundto live under unhygienic conditions and with poor sanitationand drinking water quality. These factors along with possiblefall of immunity due to malnutrition [11] can lead to variousdiseases, and gastrointestinal disorders and skin diseaseswould constitute the major disease forms. Other studies havealso indicated the prevalence of gastrointestinal disordersamong the Bangladeshi rural population [28, 29].
3.7. Ethnomedicinal Uses of the Famine Food Plants in OtherRegions of the World Including Bangladesh. To validate our
hypothesis that, through trial and error, the human popula-tion has selected famine food plants items, which not onlyfulfill hunger satiating and nutritional needs, but also servesa therapeutic purpose, it was of interest to examine publishedreports on ethnomedicinal uses of the famine food plantsof the survey areas in other parts of the world, includingBangladesh. The results are presented in Table 3. It is tobe noted that only a selection of available reported eth-nomedicinal uses of the plants are presented in Table 3. Notsurprisingly, the ethnomedicinal uses of the local famine foodplants were much greater when other regions of the worldwere taken into account. However, some local medicinal useswere in common with uses in other regions (i.e., treatment ofmenstrual problems with A. augusta or use of C. asiatica fortreatment of gastrointestinal disorders).
Taken together, the available ethnomedicinal reportson the nonconventional plants consumed by the villagerssurveyed, strongly validates our hypothesis that faminefood plants are also ethnomedicinal plants. That the exactethnomedicinal value be actually known is possibly notnecessary; just the mere observation that consumption ofthese plants satiate hunger, meet nutritional needs to alesser or greater extent, and somehow prevents diseases fromoccurring can be valid reasons for selection of particularnonconventional plants and not others. For instance, theinformants did not mention any medicinal uses for theplants, namely, Caryota urens, Ehretia acuminata, Malvaverticillata, N. pubescens, and R. sativus (Table 1); however,all four plants have reported ethnomedicinal uses in otherparts of the world (Table 3). The reasons for discarding otherwild or nonconventional plants can be due to a variety ofreasons ranging from toxicity and lesser palatability to lesserfulfillment of nutritional needs, with all these factors beingeasily manifested.
The question then arises as to why did not the villagerssurveyed in the present study consume these nonconven-tional plant items on a regular basis? One answer providedby the villagers themselves was that they did not find thesenonconventional plant items as palatable (in their wordstasty) as their regular diet of rice and lentils. A further answercould be that they were unaware of all the health benefitsthat these nonconventional plants offered (as also suggestedfrom a comparison of local medicinal uses of the plantsversus ethnomedicinal uses in other parts of the world), andso they stuck to their millennia old dietary habits. Anotherpossible reason could be that they once were aware of theethnomedicinal benefits of the plants consumed but havelost some of that knowledge over time. In fact, “optimumforaging strategy” theory [30] implies that all animals foragein such a way as to maximize their net energy intake perunit time. We extend this hypothesis to include that humansforage or rather use famine food plants in such a mannerwhich besides maximizing their net energy intake per unittime also provides them with health benefits in the form ofpreventing or curing diseases. This also makes sense; duringmalnutrition arising out of food scarcity, humans may havereduced strength and weakened body defenses; as such, theywould include food, which would offer both nutritional aswell as therapeutic benefits. It is interesting to note that
Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 9
Table 2: Reported food uses of the famine food plants.
Species Use as food plantAbroma augusta L. Leaves are considered edible in Papua New Guinea [24] and seeds in Sikkim, India [25].Alternanthera sessilis (L.)R. Br. ex DC. Leaves are considered as wild edibles in Papua New Guinea [24].
Amaranthus spinosus L. Consumed as leafy vegetable in Assam (India) [26].Amaranthus tricolor L. Considered an edible vegetable in North India [34].Amaranthus viridis L. Consumed as leafy vegetable in Assam (India) [26].Artocarpus heterophyllus Lam. Fruits and seeds consumed in Malaysia [35].Bombax ceiba L. Flowers eaten as vegetable in Arunachal Pradesh of India [27].Caryota urens L. Pith used as famine food in South India [36].Centella asiatica (L.) Urb. Considered a leafy vegetable in Assam (India) [26].Chenopodium album L. Considered a leafy vegetable in Assam (India) [26].Colocasia esculenta (L.) Schott. Considered a leafy vegetable in Assam (India) [26].Corchorus capsularis L. Leaves are eaten in the cooked form in some Asian countries [37].Dioscorea esculenta (Lour.)Burkill Tubers are reported as wild edible in the islands of Remote Oceania [38].
Diplazium esculentum (Retz.) Sw. Leaves consumed in Yunnan, China [39].Ehretia acuminata R. Br. Fruits are eaten raw by aboriginals in Australia [40].Enhydra fluctuans Lour. Leaves and stems consumed as leafy vegetable by ethnic communities in Tripura, India [41].Ficus hispida L. Fruits are eaten raw in Arunachal Pradesh of India [27].Glinus oppositifolius (L.)A. DC. Young leaves and stems consumed as vegetable in West Bengal, India [42].
Ipomoea aquatica Forssk. Leaves and stems are cooked and consumed in Malaysia [35].Ipomoea batatas (L.) Lam. Leaves and stems are cooked and consumed in Malaysia [35].Leucas aspera (Willd.) Link Young leaves consumed during famine in Kurigram district, Bangladesh [10].Malva verticillata L. Young leaves consumed as soup in Korea [43].Marsilea minuta L. Leaves and stems consumed as vegetable in Jharkand, India [44].
Moringa oleifera Lam. Leaves, fruits, flowers consumed in the cooked form in many countries of South Asia and Africa[45].
Musa paradisiaca L. Fruits consumed in the unripe state in tropical countries [46].Musa sapientum L. Ripe fruits consumed throughout the world [47].Nelumbo nucifera Gaertn. Consumed as vegetable in various parts of India [48].Nymphaea pubescens Willd. Roasted endosperm consumed by rural communities in Assam, India [49].Oxalis corniculata L. Consumed by tribal communities of Central India during times of food scarcity [50].Raphanus sativus L. Dietary vegetable in Asian countries, particularly China, Japan, and Korea [51].
Saccharum spontaneum L. Stems used to mitigate thirst or hunger by tribes in ParambikulamWildlife Sanctuary, Kerala,India [52].
Scoparia dulcis L. Consumed as vegetable in northeasternThailand [53].Sesbania grandiflora (L.) Pers. Flowers and buds consumed as vegetable in India [54].Spilanthes paniculataWall.ex DC.
Special food item prepared from the plant during religious festivals by the Mising communityof Assam, India [55].
another study in Northeast Thailand also found that halfof the weedy vegetables consumed by the people are alsoregarded as sources of medicine [31].That various wild plantscan serve as both food and medicine has been reported fromvarious regions of the world including Palestine and China[32, 33].
The major finding of this study is that, since faminefood plants have the real possibility of multiple ethnomedic-inal uses, such plants throughout the world merit furtherscientific studies to fully explore their medicinal potentials.Moreover, since famine food plants aremostly wild but edibleand can grow under inclement weather conditions without
10 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine
Table3:Re
ported
ethn
omedicinaluses
ofthen
on-con
ventionalfoo
dplantsshow
nin
Table1.
Seria
lnu
mber
Species
Repo
rted
ethn
omedicinaluses
Repo
rted
pharmacological
activ
ities
1Ab
romaaugusta
L.
Root
juicetaken
orallyby
tribalandruralp
eopleinWestR
arrh
region
ofWestB
engal,India,forb
lood
dysentery,diarrhea,
andnightw
ettin
g[56];pow
dero
fbarkandrootsc
onsumed
thric
eadaywith
boiledwater
bytheK
hamtitribeo
fArunachal
Pradesh,India,foru
rinaryprob
lems[57];flo
werstaken
orallyby
theT
onchon
gyatrib
eofB
andarban
distric
t,Ba
ngladesh,
form
entalsickn
ess[58];ste
mjuicetobe
takenorally,
advisedby
folkmedicinalpractitionersin
Begu
mganj,N
oakh
ali
distric
t,Ba
ngladesh,for
irregular
menstr
uatio
n,painfulm
enstr
uatio
n,andbu
rningsensations
intheu
terus[59];root
juice
takenorallyas
uterineton
icby
ethn
iccommun
ities
ofTinsuk
iadistric
tofA
ssam
,Ind
ia[60];leafjuice
orallytaken,
advised
ford
iabetesb
yfolkmedicinalpractitionersof
Vasu
Biharv
illage,Bo
grad
istric
t,Ba
ngladesh
[61];crushed
stemstaken
orally
inVitbiliav
illageo
fPabna
distric
t,Ba
ngladesh,for
treatmento
fdebilityandinfertilityin
wom
endu
etouterinep
roblem
s[62];leafjuice
takenorallyford
iabetesa
ndroot
juicefor
sexu
aldisorder
bytheG
arotribalcommun
ityof
Netrakona
distric
t,Ba
ngladesh
[63];leafjuice
takenorallyforh
eatstroke
inBrahmanbaria
distric
t,Ba
ngladesh
[64].
Antidiabetic
,antioxidant,
anti-inflammatory,wou
ndhealing,hypo
lipidem
ic,
antifun
gal,antib
acteria
l,insecticidal,uterin
ediso
rders
[65].
2Alternanthera
sessilis
(L.)R.
Br.
exDC.
Who
leplantu
sedby
ethn
icgrou
psin
Sialkotd
istric
t,Pakistan,for
headache,dizziness,snake
bite,and
vomiting
ofbloo
d[66];plant
alon
gwith
leaves
ofHibisc
usrosa
sinensis
tiedwith
apiece
ofclo
thby
ethn
icgrou
psof
Diso
ivalleyforestarea
oftheJorhatd
istric
tofA
ssam
,Ind
ia,for
bone
fracture
andwou
nds[67];driedleaves
used
fortreatmento
fjaund
iceb
yPalliyar
tribalsinSirumalaiHills,Western
Ghats,Tam
ilNadu,India[
68];root,stem,and
leafdecoctiontakenorallyby
thetrib
also
fBa
rgarhdistric
t,Oris
sa,Ind
ia,for
bloo
ddysentery[69];w
holeplantu
sedfortreatmento
fwou
ndsb
ydifferent
tribal
commun
ities
ofUtta
raKa
nnadad
istric
t,Ka
rnataka,India[
70];leaves
andwho
leplantslocaltrib
alpeop
leof
Kaptipada
ForestRa
nge,Oris
sa,Ind
ia,for
treatmento
ffevers,op
hthalm
ia,gon
orrhea,and
pruritis[71];who
leplantu
sedby
thelocal
peop
leof
Amarkantak
region
,MadhyaP
radesh,Ind
ia,for
burningsensation,
diarrhea,skindisease,dyspepsia
,hemorrhoids,liver
andspleen
diseases,and
fever[72];plantjuice
orallyused
againstchron
icdysenteryin
Jajpur
distric
t,Odisha,India[
73];leaves
used
inNoakh
alid
istric
t,Ba
ngladesh,for
treatmento
fgon
orrhea,low
semen
coun
t,and
leucorrhea
[59];leavesu
sedby
localIrulatribalso
fKalavaivillage,V
ellored
istric
t,TamilNadu,India,fortreatmento
fheadache,hepatitis,andasthma[
74];leaves
used
bypeop
leof
AlagarH
ills,Ea
stern
Ghats,
TamilNadu,India,fortreatment
ofeyesight
[75];leafjuice
used
bytheN
athpeop
leof
Assam,Ind
ia,toincrease
lactationin
nursingmothersandfor
treatmento
fhaira
ndsto
machtro
uble[76].
Anti-infl
ammatory[77]
hematinic[78],w
ound
healing
[79],antidiabetic
[80].
3Am
aranthus
spinosus
L.
Leaves
areb
oiledin
cowmilk
andorallytakenin
Kiku
kuvillage,M
ulebad
istric
t,Tanzania,for
treatmento
fpeptic
ulcers
[81];fresh
root
infusio
nalon
gwith
saltorallytakenforthroatinfectio
nsby
theT
ripuritrib
esof
TripuraS
tate,Ind
ia[82];
root
paste
appliedtopically
fore
czem
aora
bscesses
inJajpur
distric
t,Odisha,India[
73];root
paste
topically
used
byHoo
ralis
tribeinSathyamangalam
forests
ofWestern
Ghats,
TamilNadu,India,forw
ound
sand
blisters[83];decoctionof
who
leplanto
rally
takenfortreatmento
fHIV
/AID
SatTo
kombere
(farn
orth
Cameroo
n)[84];ash
ofwho
leplanttaken
orallyfortreatmento
fkidneysto
nes;fre
shleaves
arec
ookedalon
gwith
chicoryplantand
fenu
greekandtakenorallyforlow
bloo
dpressure
andblackcataractof
eyeb
ylocalcom
mun
ities
inarid
region
sofP
akistan
[85];leafjuice
alon
gwith
leafjuice
ofMangifer
aindica
andwho
leplantjuice
ofSida
rhom
bifolia
used
bytheT
ripuratrib
alcommun
ityof
Com
illad
istric
t,Ba
ngladesh,for
treatmento
fjaund
ice[86];root,bark,andste
morallytakenin
Kurig
ram
distr
ict,Ba
ngladesh,for
stopp
age
ofurinationanddefecatio
n[87];upp
erpartso
fthe
plantu
sedas
afebrifugeb
ythetrib
esof
Lalganjblock
ofdistr
ict
Mirz
apur,U
ttarP
radesh,Ind
ia[88];usedform
enorrhagia,gon
orrhea
(roo
ts),and
snakeb
ite(roo
ts)andto
increase
milk
flowin
cows(ste
ms)by
theN
athpeop
leof
Assam,Ind
ia[76].
Antiprotozoal,
anti-inflammatory,antio
xidant,
antim
alarial,analgesic
,im
mun
omod
ulatory,
hepatoprotectiv
e,antifertility,
antid
iabetic
,antihyperlip
idem
ic[89].
Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 11
Table3:Con
tinued.
Seria
lnu
mber
Species
Repo
rted
ethn
omedicinaluses
Repo
rted
pharmacological
activ
ities
4Am
aranthus
tricolorL
.
Who
leplantu
sedin
Kurig
ram
distric
t,Ba
ngladesh,for
treatmento
fanemiaand“m
eho”
(diabetes)[87];w
holeplantu
sedin
Ivanur
PanchayatinCu
ddalored
istric
t,TamilNadu,India,to
improvee
yepo
wer
[90];curry
prepared
from
greenleaves
takenorallyto
stopdiarrhea;seeds
takenorallyforg
eneralgastric
prob
lems;seedsfrie
din
butte
rtaken
orallyto
lessen
pregnancypainsb
ytheL
epchatrib
eofD
zong
uvalley,bo
rderingKhangchendzon
gaBiosph
ereR
eserve,inNorth
Sikk
im,
India[
91];who
leplantu
sedby
thelocalpeop
leof
Mansoora,Malegaon,
India,as
astringent
andfortreatmento
fmenorrhagia,diarrhea,anddysentery[92];leafp
asteappliedtopically
byethn
iccommun
ities
ofTinsuk
iadistric
t,Assam
,India,forc
utsa
ndwou
nds[60];leafpaste
used
tocure
wou
ndsinDarikalGaonof
Tezpur
inAs
sam,Ind
ia[93];leaves
cooked
andeatenas
vegetablea
streatmentfor
anem
iain
Semiliguda
blockof
Koratpur
distric
t,Odisha,India[
94].
Hepatop
rotective,nu
tritive,
bloo
dtonic[95].
5Am
aranthus
virid
isL.
Who
leplantsandste
msu
sedfortreatmento
fbronchitis,piles,leu
corrhea,breastabscess,menorrhagiaby
localtrib
alpeop
leof
KaptipadaF
orestR
ange,O
rissa,Ind
ia[71];usedforb
oils(roo
ts)andmalnu
trition
inpregnant
mothers(le
aves
andste
ms
arec
ookedandeaten)
inKu
rigram
distric
t,Ba
ngladesh
[87];roo
tdecoctio
nused
bytribalso
fSam
ahni
Valley,Pakistan,to
controlm
enstrualprob
lemsa
ndbackbo
neache
durin
gpregnancy[96];plant
used
againstcou
gh,infl
ammation,
high
bloo
dpressure,and
asurinativeb
ypeop
lein
arid
region
sofP
akistan
[85];leavesu
sedagainststomachcolic
andas
laxativ
eby
tribalso
fDarjeeling
Hills,India[
97];leaves
takenorallyford
ysentery,asa
diuretic,and
toalleviateinternalfever
inNizam
abad
distric
t,And
hraP
radesh,Ind
ia[98];usedagainstsnake
bite(stem)a
ndscorpion
sting
(leaf)b
ytheN
athpeop
leof
Assam,Ind
ia[76];w
holeplantu
sedin
Bhop
aldistric
t,India,fortreatmento
fstone
diseases
[99];tendersho
otstaken
asvegetabletoim
provee
yesig
htby
thee
thnicc
ommun
ities
ofTinsuk
iadistric
t,As
sam,Ind
ia[60];leafjuice
takenorallyfor
chronicd
ysentery
invillageso
fNatorea
ndRa
jshahid
istric
ts,Ba
ngladesh
[100].
Antinociceptiv
e,antip
yretic,
bloo
dtonic[95].
6Ar
tocarpus
heterophyllus
Lam.
Pedu
nclejuicetaken
orallythric
edailyforsnake
bitesinWestR
arrh
region
ofWestB
engal,India[
56];latexapplied
topically
astre
atmento
fskindisease,wou
nd,and
scorpion
sting
inJorhatdistric
t,As
sam,Ind
ia[67];leavesu
sedforskin
diseases,ulce
r,asthma,anddiarrhea
inTamilNadu,India[
101];ash
ofrin
dspinea
ppliedtopically
onthroator
tong
uefor
treatmento
fulce
rsin
Nasikdistric
t,Maharashtra,Ind
ia[102];used
againstb
loating(unripefruit),con
stipatio
n(ripefruits),
edem
a,ulcers(le
afash),skindiseases
(topicalapp
licationof
youn
gleafandroots),asthm
a,anddiarrhea
inNoakh
alid
istric
t(oraladm
inistratio
nof
youn
gleaves
androots),B
angladesh[59];usedagainstg
astro
intestinaldisordersinIlo
ilo,the
Philipp
ines
(plant
partsn
otmentio
ned)
[103].
Antioxidant,anti-infl
ammatory,
antib
acteria
l,antic
ariogenic,
antifun
gal,antin
eoplastic
,antid
iabetic,w
ound
healing
[104].
7Bo
mbaxceibaL.
Stem
bark
used
fortreatmento
fherpesinfectio
nin
CoastalKa
rnataka,India[
105];skindiseases,fem
aled
iseases,and
snake
bitein
Manipur,Ind
ia(plant
partused
notm
entio
ned)
[106];leaves
ares
oakedin
water
andthed
ecoctio
nused
fortakinga
bath
fortreatmento
fbod
ypain
bytheO
rang
Asliin
Kampu
ngBa
won
g,Perak,WestM
alaysia
[107];decoctionof
root
used
bythep
eopleo
fKadhi
areaso
fKhu
shab,P
unjab,Pakistan,tokillabdo
minalworms[108];leafp
asteappliedtopically
for
treatmento
fsnake
biteby
theM
ulluku
rumatrib
eofW
ayanad
distric
t,Ke
rala,Ind
ia[10
9];seedused
bytribalso
fChitte
riHills,India,to
treatdiabetes
[110];flo
wer
paste
appliedtopically
bytheC
hakm
acom
mun
ities
ofCh
ittagon
gHill
Tracts,
Bang
ladesh,for
treatmento
fboils[111];rootso
fthe
planttaken
orallywith
seedso
fHyptis
suaveolen
sbytheM
arakhsectof
theG
arotribeinMym
ensin
ghdistric
t,Ba
ngladesh,againstgono
rrhea[
112];usedin
Samba
distric
tofJam
muandKa
shmir
againstd
iarrhea,dysentery,menorrhagia,stomachcomplaints,diabetes,m
enstrualdisorders,andforc
onception,
andas
anaphrod
isiac
(plant
partused
notm
entio
ned)
[113];root
used
againstd
iabetesb
ythetrib
esof
Pedabayalu
Mandalam,
Visakh
apatnam
distric
t,And
hraP
radesh,Ind
ia[114];used
againstu
rinaryprob
lems(fruits)
anddiarrhea
(stem
bark
juice)
bytheG
ondtribeo
fAdilabaddistric
t,And
hraP
radesh,Ind
ia[115].
Aphrod
isiac,anti-infl
ammatory,
hepatoprotectiv
e,antic
ancer,
anti-HIV,anti-H
elicobacter
pylori,
antia
ngiogenic,analgesic
,antio
xidant,hypotensiv
e,hypo
glycem
ic,antim
icrobial
[116].
12 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine
Table3:Con
tinued.
Seria
lnu
mber
Species
Repo
rted
ethn
omedicinaluses
Repo
rted
pharmacological
activ
ities
8Ca
ryotaurensL
.
Decoctio
nof
root
used
asag
alactagogueb
ynu
rsingmothersin
Tinsuk
iadistric
t,As
sam,Ind
ia[60];infl
orescencejuice
and
nutexu
datesu
sedfora
sthma,as
amild
laxativ
e,andas
acoo
lant
bythea
borig
inalso
fKalrayanandShervarayanHills,
Easte
nGhats,
TamilNadu,India[
117];todd
yprepared
from
plantsap
used
bytheG
onds
ofAd
ilabaddistr
ict,And
hra
Pradesh,India,to
healurinaryprob
lems[115];ash
prepared
bybu
rningoldleaves
isorallytakenwith
honeyfortreatmento
ftympanitis
(inflammationof
middlee
ar)b
ythetrib
also
fSim
ilipalB
ioreserve,Oris
sa,Ind
ia[118].
Antioxidant
[119].
9Ce
ntellaasiatica
(L.)Urb.
Leaves
either
eatenas
paste
orcooked
andeatenas
vegetablea
gainsthepatic
diseases
likejaund
ice,cirrho
sis,and
liver
injury
bytheH
alam
tribeo
fTrip
uraS
tate,Ind
ia[120];who
leplantjuice
orallytakenforsyphilis
andulcerb
ytheC
hakm
atrib
alcommun
ities
ofCh
ittagon
gHill
Tractsregion
,Bangladesh[111];used
againstleucorrheaa
ndeczemab
ytheM
alasarstrib
alhealerso
fVelliang
iriHills,India(
plantp
artu
sedno
tmentio
ned)
[121];who
leplantcoo
kedandeatenfortreatmento
fsto
machdisorder
bytheB
orotribeo
fManas
NationalP
ark,As
sam,Ind
ia[122];who
leplantu
sedfortreatmento
fherpesin
Coasta
lKarnataka,Ind
ia[105];decoctionof
stemsa
ndleaves
takenorallyforc
ough
reliefand
crushedleaves
andste
ms
appliedto
burnsb
ytheK
alanguya
tribeinTino
c,Ifu
gao,Lu
zon,
Phillipines
[123];leaves
areg
roun
dedwith
fresh
turm
eric
andappliedagainstskindiseases
bytheK
urichyas
tribeinKa
nnur
distric
t,Ke
rala,Ind
ia[124];who
leplantu
sedagainstfever
andsunstro
keby
theM
anavalakuruchi
peop
leof
Kanyakum
arid
istric
t,TamilNadu,India[
125];pasteof
who
leplantu
sed
againstcarbu
ncle;crushed
leaves
arem
ixed
with
resin
from
Artocarpus
heterophyllusand
takenorallywith
fire-roasted
Channa
punctatusfi
shfortreatmento
fpilesb
ytheT
ai-K
hamyang
tribeo
fAssam
,Ind
ia[126];leafjuicetaken
orallyfor
bloo
dpu
rificatio
n,bloo
dclo
ts,andappend
icitisb
ytheK
anitrib
alsinPechiparaiforests
ofSouthern
western
Ghats,
Tamil
Nadu,India[127];leafjuice
used
bythetrib
alcommun
ities
ofCh
itrakoo
t,MadhyaP
radesh,Ind
ia,againstric
ketsin
child
ren
[128];used
againstsyphilis,m
entald
isorders,andskin
diseases
bytheB
aiga
tribalsinAmarkantak
Meikalforesto
fMadhya
Pradesh,India(
plantp
artn
otmentio
ned)
[129];leaves
used
againstrheum
atism
anddysenteryby
tribalsa
ndlocal
inhabitantso
fRajou
ri-Po
onch
ofJammuandKa
shmirState,India[
130];plant
juiceo
rally
takenby
theM
arakhsectof
the
GarotribeinMym
ensin
ghdistric
t,Ba
ngladesh,againstexcessiveb
leedingdu
ringmenstruation[112];rawrootsa
ndleaves
aretaken
orallywith
routinefoo
dby
theA
katribeo
fWestK
amengdistric
t,ArunachalPradesh,India,to
improvea
ppetite
durin
gjaun
dice
[131];driedandpo
wderedwho
leplantsorallytakenagainstazoosperm
iaandstr
eptospermiain
Bansoa,
WestC
ameroo
n[132];decoctionof
who
leplantapp
liedtopically
alon
gwith
coconu
toilagainstw
ound
sbytheM
alayali
tribes
ofPacham
alaiHills,TamilNadu,India[
133].
Antiulce
r,wou
ndhealing,
antitum
or,m
emoryenhancing,
neurop
rotective,
cardioprotectiv
e,hepatoprotectiv
e,antio
xidant,
immun
omod
ulatory,
radiop
rotective,antid
epressant,
antip
soria
tic,antitu
bercular,
antileprotic
,antifilaria
l,antiv
iral,
antip
rotozoal,sedative,
antispasm
odic,
anti-inflammatory[134].
10Ch
enopodium
album
L.
Who
leplantu
sedas
laxativ
etocure
constip
ationby
theinh
abitantso
fnorthernpartof
Narad
esert,Pakista
n[135];
decoctionof
leaves
andste
msc
ookedas
vegetablea
ndtakenorallyagainsttub
erculosis,jaund
ice,fevers,glottisp
ain,
flu,
phlegm
,dropsy,inflammation,
kidn
ey,and
gallbladderstones,andas
diuretic,blood
purifi
er,and
caloric
amon
glocal
commun
ities
inarid
region
sofP
akistan
[85];w
holeplantu
sedagainstjaund
iceb
yinhabitantso
fJalalpu
rJattan,
Punjab,
Pakista
n[136];who
leplantu
sedagainstanemiaandconstip
ationby
tribalsa
ndlocalinh
abitantso
fRajou
ri-Po
onch
ofJammuandKa
shmirState,India[
130];decoctio
nof
who
leplantu
sedas
diureticandforw
omen’sste
rility
intradition
almedicineo
feastA
natolia,Turkey[137];who
leplantu
sedagainstrheum
atism
/arthritisinBe
tuld
istric
t,MadhyaP
radesh,
India[
138];w
holeplantu
sedagainstjaund
icea
ndliver
diseases
inMandi
Bahaud
indistric
t,Pakistan
[139];seedsu
sedas
stim
ulant,diuretic,carminative,andantispasm
odicby
tribes
ofHam
irpur
valley,Him
achalP
radesh,Ind
ia[14
0];usedin
Bhop
aldistr
ict,India,fortreatmento
fstone
diseases
(plant
partused
notm
entio
ned)
[99];coo
kedleaves
used
inurinary
troub
les,andcolic
pain;leafextractused
inpiles,coug
hs,and
worms;ste
mused
inkidn
eysto
ne,hepaticdisorder,jaund
ice,
andas
agalactagogue;who
leplantu
sedas
laxativ
e;root
powderu
sedin
spermatorrhea
inSialkotd
istric
t,Pakistan
[141];
tend
ershoo
tsused
againstcon
stipationandcoug
hsby
ethn
iccommun
ities
ofTinsuk
iadistric
t,As
sam,Ind
ia[60];w
hole
plantexceptroo
tfor
preventio
nof
hemorrhoids
(piles)in
Chuadang
adistric
t,Ba
ngladesh
[142].
Antipruritic,antinociceptiv
e[14
3].
Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 13Ta
ble3:Con
tinued.
Seria
lnu
mber
Species
Repo
rted
ethn
omedicinaluses
Repo
rted
pharmacological
activ
ities
11Co
locasia
esculen
ta(L.)
Scho
tt.
Who
leplantalong
with
bulbof
Alliu
msativ
umandbark
ofCinn
amom
umverum
iscooked
with
turm
ericandginger
follo
wed
byseparatio
nof
theliquidpo
rtion,
which
isthen
orallytakenagainstrheum
atism
anddebilityin
Dinajp
urand
Thakurgaon
distric
ts,Ba
ngladesh
[144];tub
ersa
refriedin
mustard
oiland
takenas
vegetablea
gainstrheumaticpain
and
paralysis
inthreev
illages
ofKu
rigram
distric
t,Ba
ngladesh
[87];leavesu
sedby
tribalso
fChitte
riHills,India,to
cure
piles
[110];leaves
used
againstjaund
iceb
ytheT
ai-K
hamyang
sofA
ssam
,Ind
ia[126];leaves
friedin
casto
roilused
forrelieving
jointp
ainby
theG
ondtribeo
fBhand
arad
istric
t,Maharashtra,Ind
ia[14
5];raw
leaves
areo
rally
takenby
theP
aliyan
and
Pulayantribes
oflowe
rPalni
Hillso
fTam
ilNadu,India,againststone
form
ationin
theu
rinarytractand
forfrequ
ent
urination[14
6];rhizomep
asteappliedin
cuts,
burns,andscorpion
sting
sbyethn
icgrou
psof
Diso
ivalleyforestarea
ofthe
Jorhatdistric
tofA
ssam
,Ind
ia[67];pasteprepared
from
tuberisu
sedtopically
againstswellin
gsandcooked
rhizom
eis
eatenforh
elmintic
infestations
bytheK
attunayakastrib
esof
Mud
umalaiWild
lifeS
anctuary,N
ilgirisd
istric
t,TamilNadu,
India[
147];w
holeplantu
sedagainstseverejaund
ice,constip
ation,
andas
adigestiv
eaid
inSh
itolP
arav
illageo
fJhalokati
distric
t,Ba
ngladesh
[148].
Hypoglycemic,antifu
ngal
antic
ancer,hypo
lipidem
ic,
anti-inflammatory,nervineton
ic[14
9].
12Co
rchorus
capsularisL.
Freshleafdecoctionadministered
orallyagainststomachache
inchild
renin
North
Beng
al,Ind
ia[150];leafjuiceo
rally
taken
tocure
dysenteryby
tribalso
fBargarh
distric
t,India[
69];seedsa
ndleaves
used
assto
machicb
yBh
iltribeo
fBibdo
d,MadhyaP
radesh,Ind
ia[151];seedsu
sedas
stomachicb
ythetrib
esof
Pedabayalu
Mandalam,V
isakh
apatnam
distric
t,And
hraP
radesh,Ind
ia[114].
Cardiop
rotective,
antiinfl
ammatory,
antin
ociceptiv
e[152].
13Dioscorea
esculen
ta(Lou
r.)Bu
rkill
Tuberisa
ppliedas
poultic
eonsw
ellin
gsby
ethn
iccommun
ities
ofTinsuk
iadistric
tofA
ssam
,Ind
ia[60].
Antioxidant
[153].
14Diplaziu
mesculen
tum
(Retz.)
Sw.
Boiledyoun
gfro
ndsa
retakenwith
boiledric
easlaxativeb
ytheA
ditribes
ofDehang-DebangBiosph
ereR
eserve
inArunachalPradesh,India[
154];roo
tsareb
oiledin
water
tillthe
volumeis1/4th
oftheo
riginalvolume;3m
Lof
the
decoctionistakenwith
2mLho
neyon
anem
ptysto
machfor15days
againstsperm
atorrhea
bytribalcommun
ities
inSimilipalB
iosphere
Reserve,Oris
sa,Ind
ia[155];decoctionof
rhizom
eiso
rally
takenagainsth
aemop
tysis
andcoug
hsby
tribalcommun
ities
ofPo
baRe
served
Forest,
Assam,Ind
ia[156];juiceo
btainedfro
mah
andful
ofleaves
isorallytakento
get
relieffrom
cold
andcoug
hsby
inhabitantso
fKolliHills,Ea
stern
Ghats,Tam
ilNadu,India[
157];m
acerated
rootsa
reused
againstskindisordersinRa
jbarid
istric
t,Ba
ngladesh
[158];macerated
bark
ofrootso
rally
takenford
etoxificatio
nof
medicineo
verdosageb
ytheT
onchon
gyatrib
einBa
ndarbandistr
ict,Ba
ngladesh
[159];leaves
used
totre
atheadache
byindigeno
uspeop
leof
Manokwari,WestP
apua
[160].
Antioxidant,centralnervou
ssyste
mstimulant[161].
15Eh
retia
acum
inataR.
Br.Ex
tracto
fleavesm
ixed
with
water
andtakenorallyon
cedaily
for2
-3days
againstd
ysentery
byCh
oreitribes
ofsouthern
Assam,Ind
ia[162].
Non
ereported.
16En
hydraflu
ctua
nsLo
ur.
Leafandtwigextracttaken
with
equalamou
ntof
Ipom
oeaa
quaticaa
ndJussiaea
repens
administered
orallyatad
oseo
f1teaspo
onthric
edailyfor1
weekby
theC
hakm
acom
mun
ityof
TripuraS
tate,Ind
ia,ash
epatop
rotective[120];1/2
cupof
leaf
infusio
norallytakenas
remedyagainstgon
orrhea
bytribalso
fMayurbh
anjd
istric
tofN
orth
Oris
sa,Ind
ia[16
3];stem
used
againstu
lcer,gastric
,and
who
leplantagainstconstip
ationby
different
tribes
ofCa
char
distric
t,As
sam,Ind
ia[164
];extract
obtained
from
boiledplantsused
asantid
iabetic
bytheM
eitei-P
angalcom
mun
ityof
Thou
bald
istric
tofM
anipur,n
ortheast
India[
165];one
teaspo
onleafjuicem
ixed
with
equalamou
ntso
fCentella
asiaticaandcucumberjuice
orallytakenagainst
hypertensio
nandexcessbilesecretionby
theT
ripuriand
Reangtribes
ofTripuraS
tate,Ind
ia[166];leaves
used
forh
eadache,
eyed
iseases,hoo
kworm
infection,
andbiledisorder
byinhabitantso
fSim
ilipalB
iosphere
Reserve,Oris
sa,Ind
ia[167];leaf
andste
mjuicetaken
orallybefore
mealsas
treatmentfor
diabetes
bytheM
arakhsectof
theG
arotribeinMym
ensin
ghdistric
t,Ba
ngladesh
[168];tend
ershoo
tsorallytakenas
alaxativeb
yethn
iccommun
ities
inTinsuk
iadistric
t,Assam
,Ind
ia[60];w
holeplantscooked
andeatenas
vegetablea
gainstedem
ainanypartof
theb
odyby
theG
arocommun
ityof
Tang
ail
distric
t,Ba
ngladesh
[169];plantjuice
used
againstgon
orrhea;leafjuice
appliedtopically
forp
ricklyheats,andleafjuice
orallytakenagainstsperm
atorrhea
byteag
ardentribes
ofDarrang
andUdalgurid
istric
ts,As
sam,Ind
ia[170].
Centralnervou
ssystem
depressant
activ
ity[17
1],
hepatoprotectiv
e[172],
antio
xidant
[173].
14 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine
Table3:Con
tinued.
Seria
lnu
mber
Species
Repo
rted
ethn
omedicinaluses
Repo
rted
pharmacological
activ
ities
17Ficush
ispidaL.
Exud
atefrom
rootstaken
orallyby
ethn
icgrou
psin
Diso
iValleyRe
serveF
oresto
fJorhatd
istric
t,Assam
,Ind
ia,against
diabetes,and
curryprepared
from
leafistakenin
jaun
dice
[67];fruits
used
ashepatoprotectiv
ebysomee
thnicc
ommun
ities
ofTripuraS
tate,Ind
ia[120];50
gdriedste
mbark
isbo
iledin
water
with
100g
driedste
mandroot
bark
ofFicus
beng
halensis;
thed
ecoctio
nistakenon
cead
ayfora
perio
dof
6weeks
againstd
iabetesb
ytheP
alliyar
tribalsinSirumalai
Hills,Western
Ghats,Tam
ilNadu,India[
68];fruitsandbark
used
againstleprosy,for
bloo
dpu
rificatio
n,andforincreasing
lactationby
Kani
tribalso
fAgasthiyarm
alaiBiosph
ereR
eserve,sou
thernWestern
Ghats,
India[
174];leavesa
ndseedsu
sed
byKa
virajeso
fChalnaa
rea,Khu
lnad
istric
t,againstd
iuretic
,vom
iting
,and
derm
atitis[175];fruits
orallytakenas
anxiolytic
inNatorea
ndRa
jshahid
istric
ts,Ba
ngladesh
[100];ste
mused
forc
ureo
fwou
ndsb
ytribalsinBu
ldhana
distric
t,India[
176];
paste
offruitsrubb
edby
tribalcommun
ities
totre
atheadache
inJalgaondistric
t,North
Maharashtra,Ind
ia[177];leaves
used
againstringw
orm
bythetrib
esof
Paderu
Mandalam,V
isakh
apatnam
distric
t,And
hraP
radesh,Ind
ia[114].
Antineoplastic
,cardiop
rotective,
neurop
rotective,
anti-inflammatory[178].
18Glinus
oppositifoliu
s(L.)
A.D
C.
Who
leplantp
asteappliedtopically
againstskindiseases
bytradition
alhealerso
fSou
thOris
sa,Ind
ia[179];used
against
gastrointestinaldisordersinAs
huganj
ofBrahmanbaria
distric
t,Ba
ngladesh
(plant
partused
notm
entio
ned)
[64];w
hole
plantjuice
used
inNoakh
alid
istric
t,Ba
ngladesh
forimprovem
ento
fapp
etite
andas
digestivea
id;w
holeplantjuice
alon
gwith
casto
roilisappliedto
earsto
cure
eara
che;who
leplantjuice
appliedtopically
foritch,andskin
diseases
[59];leavesa
recooked
andeatenfork
eeping
theb
odyc
oolinPirojpur
distric
t,Ba
ngladesh
[180];extracto
rcurry
offre
shleaves
takenorally
againstskindiseases;leafextractappliedtopically
onwou
ndsb
yinhabitantso
fthree
distr
ictsof
WestB
engal,India[
181].
Antioxidant,hepatop
rotective,
immun
omod
ulatory,
antip
rotozoal[182],antio
xidant,
antih
yperglycem
ic[183].
19Ipom
oeaaquatica
Forssk.
Freshleafpaste
isappliedon
wou
ndsa
ndbo
ilsby
theY
anaditrib
eofSrih
arikotaIsla
nd,A
ndhraP
radesh,Ind
ia[184];fried
leaves
areo
rally
takenforh
eadreeling;leafjuicea
long
with
cow“ghee”(clarifi
edbu
tter)istakenforg
onorrhea;leafjuice
istakenas
bloo
dpu
rifier
andpu
rgativeinSouthOris
sa,Ind
ia[179];crud
eextractof
leaves
appliedto
wou
ndsa
ndbo
ilsby
the
Choreitribes
ofSouthern
Assam
,North
Easte
rnIndia[
162];juice
obtained
from
macerated
who
leplantiso
rally
takenas
antid
otetopo
isoning
andagainstchicken
poxin
Kurig
ram
distric
t,Ba
ngladesh
[87];w
holeplantu
sedin
digestivep
roblem
sandliver
diseases
byruralp
eopleo
f“Ch
atara”blockof
Sonebh
adra
distric
t,Utta
rPradesh,Ind
ia[18
5];leavesa
reorally
takenforleucorrheaa
ndto
increase
lactationin
nursingmothersin
Shito
lParav
illage,Jhalokatid
istric
t,Ba
ngladesh
[148];
used
againstgastro
intestinaldisordersinIlo
ilo,P
hilip
pines(plantp
artu
sedno
tmentio
ned)
[103];leafjuice
used
injaun
dice,urin
arytro
uble,
andnervou
shindrance
bytheN
athpeop
leof
Assam,Ind
ia[76];tendersho
otsu
sedin
diabetes
andas
galactagogue
byethn
iccommun
ities
ofTinsuk
iadistric
t,As
sam,Ind
ia[60].
Antidiabetic
,antioxidant,
antic
ancer,anti-inflammatory,
antia
rthritic,antim
icrobial,
antiu
lcer,noo
tropic,
antie
pileptic,centralnervou
ssyste
mdepressant,anx
iolytic
,hypo
lipidem
ic,diuretic
,analgesic
,antisc
orpion
veno
m[186].
20Ipom
oeabatatas
(L.)Lam.
Leaves
areo
rally
takenas
bloo
dtonica
ndleaves
arem
ixed
with
saltto
treatwhitlo
win
Nigeria[187];leaves
aretop
ically
appliedagainstb
oilsby
theB
ench
ethn
icgrou
pof
Ethiop
ia[188];tubersused
bytribalsinCh
itteriH
ills,India,to
treat
diabetes
[110];leaves
used
fortreatingging
ivitisa
ndtoothacheinanim
alsinSh
itolP
arav
illage,Jhalokatid
istric
t,Ba
ngladesh
[148];roo
tsused
asaphrod
isiac
bytribes
ofLalganjblock
ofMirz
apur
distric
t,Utta
rPradesh,Ind
ia[88];usedas
digestive(tend
erleaves
eatenbo
iled)
bytheK
arbitribeo
fAng
long
distric
t,As
sam,Ind
ia[189];bo
iledtuberswith
skin
onareo
rally
takenfork
idneyprob
lemsinOyo
State,Nigeria[19
0];leaveso
rally
takenagainstd
iabetesinYo
ruba
medicineo
fsouthwestern
Nigeria[19
1].
Antioxidant,antidiabetic,w
ound
healing,antiu
lcer,antibacteria
l,antim
utagenic[19
2].
Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 15
Table3:Con
tinued.
Seria
lnu
mber
Species
Repo
rted
ethn
omedicinaluses
Repo
rted
pharmacological
activ
ities
21Leucas
aspera
(Willd.)L
ink
Leaves
used
againstgastritisinSialkotd
istric
t,Pakistan
[66];pasteof
plantu
sedagainstp
ainandinflammation;
decoction
ofplanto
rally
takenwith
1-2seedso
fSyzygium
arom
aticu
mforc
hron
icph
legm
aticfeverinno
rthern
partof
NaraD
esert,
Pakista
n[135];leafandtwigjuicetaken
orallyby
theC
hakm
atrib
eofT
ripuraS
tate,Ind
ia,againstchild
hood
jaun
dice
and
liver
cirrho
sis[120];plantextracttakenorallywith
plantextractof
Phyllanthus
amarus
andbo
iledleaves
ofEclipta
prostra
taandbu
tterm
ilktwicea
dayfora
perio
dof
onew
eekagainstjaund
iceb
ytheP
alliyar
tribes
ofIndia[
68];leaves
used
against
gastritisin
Jalalpur
Jatta
n,Gujratd
istric
t,Pakistan
[136];leaves
boiledin
water
andthev
apor
inhaledto
cure
headache
and
feverb
ytradition
alhealerso
fKancheepu
ram
distric
t,TamilNadu,India[
193];leafjuice
mixed
with
common
salttaken
orallyby
Kani
tribalsinIndiatocure
indigestionin
child
ren[127];who
leplantare
boiledin
mustard
oiland
topically
appliedfortreatmento
fseverep
ainin
Farid
pura
ndRa
jbarid
istric
ts,Ba
ngladesh
[194];leaves
andflo
wersu
sedfor
treatmento
fcolicin
Greater
Khu
lnaD
ivision
,Bangladesh[195],macerated
root
isorallytakenwith
tables
altfor
excessive
menstr
ualbleedingby
theT
ongcho
ngya
tribalcommun
ityof
RoangchaariinBa
ndarbandistr
ict,Ba
ngladesh
[196];leaves
arer
ubbedover
scorpion
bitte
narea
inNagapattin
amdistric
t,TamilNadu,India[
197];leafjuice
mixed
with
water
isorally
takenagainstscabies;roo
tjuice
mixed
with
goat’smilk
istakenthreetim
esad
ayforfou
rdaystocure
poiso
nous
bitesb
yvillagersin
Kumaragiri
Hills,Salem
distric
t,TamilNadu,India[
198].
Antifu
ngal,anti-infl
ammatory,
analgesic
,antioxidant
[199].
22Malva
verticillata
L.
Rootsu
sedby
localinh
abitantsa
gainsturinarycomplaintsinKe
darnathWild
lifeS
anctuary
inWestern
Him
alaya,India
[200];driedandpo
wderedrootsu
sedagainstd
andruff
,febrileilln
ess,andheadache
bylocalinh
abitantsB
aleM
ountains
NationalP
ark,Southeastern
Ethiop
ia[201];root
decoctionisorallytakenagainstu
rinarytractinfectio
nby
theB
hotia
tribal
commun
ityof
inIndian
CentralHim
alayar
egion[202];leaves
aree
aten
asvegetablea
gainststo
machailm
entsby
ethn
iccommun
ities
ofTinsuk
iadistric
t,As
sam,Ind
ia[60].
Antidiabetic
[203].
23Marsilea
minuta
L.
Leafjuicetaken
with
curd
forinsom
niaa
ndleaves
friedin
“ghee”(clarifi
edbu
tter)takenorallyfore
pilepsyby
ruralp
eople
ofJajpur
distric
t,Odisha,India[
73];driedandpo
wderedleaves
takenwith
hotw
ater
incase
ofdiabetes
bytheV
alayian
tribalpeop
leof
AlagarkoilH
illso
fMaduraidistr
ict,TamilNadu,India[
204];w
holeplantu
sedby
tribalsa
gainstbo
dyache
inJharkand
,Ind
ia[205];who
leplantu
sedin
coug
hs,spasticcond
ition
sofleg
muscle
s,insomnia,andas
sedativ
ebylocal
andtribalpeop
leof
KumaunHim
alaya,Utta
rakh
and,India[
206];decoctio
nof
leaves
takenwith
ginger
tocure
coug
hand
bron
chitisb
yvillage
peop
leof
Rajasth
an,Ind
ia[207];who
leplantsused
incoug
handspastic
cond
ition
oflegmuscle
;who
leplantp
astetakenwith
curd
prepared
from
blackcow’smilk
fore
pilepsyandleafjuiced
ropp
edin
nostrilso
fnosefor
cure
ofmigraineb
ytribalso
fSim
ilipalB
iosphere
Reserve,Oris
sa,Ind
ia[155];leaves
used
againstd
iabetesb
yIrulatrib
eofK
alavai
village,V
ellore
distric
t,TamilNadu,India[
74];who
leplantjuice
takenorallyagainstgastro
intestinald
isordersb
ya
Chris
tiancommun
ityresid
ingin
Mirz
apur
village
ofDinajp
urdistric
t,Ba
ngladesh
[208];fre
shleaves
andpetio
lejuiceu
sed
againstm
igraineb
ytribalso
fHadotip
lateau,sou
theaste
rnRa
jasthan,
India[
209].
Hepatop
rotective[210],antistress
[211],antitussiv
e,expectorant
[212],antid
iabetic
[213],
antia
ggressive[214],antitu
mor
[215].
16 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine
Table3:Con
tinued.
Seria
lnu
mber
Species
Repo
rted
ethn
omedicinaluses
Repo
rted
pharmacological
activ
ities
24Moringa
oleifera
Lam.
Leaves
takenorallyto
redu
cebo
dyheat;flow
ersa
dvise
dto
betakenas
food
toincrease
sperm
prod
uctio
nin
men
andto
treatindigestionandeyed
iseases
bytradition
alhealersinKa
ncheepuram
distric
tofT
amilNadu,India[
193];decoctio
nof
leaves,barks,seeds,and
rootsu
sedfortreatmento
fskindiseases,headache,rheumatism
,and
inflammationandas
adetoxifyingagentb
yvillagersarou
ndKimbo
zaforestreserveinMorogoro,Tanzania[216];seed
powdertaken
with
aglassof
lukewarm
water
againstind
igestio
nandflatulenceinNorth
Beng
al,Ind
ia[150];fre
shleafjuiceo
rally
takenagainst
menstr
ualp
ainin
ruralareas
ofKe
rala,Ind
ia[217];bark
used
forfever
andfits;leaves
used
againstcon
stipatio
n;flo
wers
used
againstcou
ghsa
ndmales
terility
andfruitsused
againstinfertility
inmen
andwom
enin
TamilNadu,India[
101];fresh
juiceo
froo
tbarkused
againstd
entalcariesinCoastalDakshinaK
annada,Ind
ia[218];leaf,flow
er,and
bark
used
against
stomachpain
andto
increase
fertilityby
Kani
tribalso
fPechiparaiH
ills,TamilNadu,India[
127];decoctio
nof
bark
alon
gwith
barkso
fAlstoniascholaris,M
angifer
aindica
andAe
glemarmelo
susedfortreatmento
fjaund
iceb
yfolkmedicinal
practitionersin
Bang
ladesh
[219];seedsu
sedfortreatmento
fepilepsyby
folkmedicinalpractitionersof
Brahmanbaria
,Narsin
ghdi,and
Rajsh
ahid
istric
tsof
Bang
ladesh
[220];bark
decoctiontakenorallyagainstp
uerperalfever,pain,jaund
ice,
anddebilityinvillageso
fSylhetd
istric
t,Ba
ngladesh
[221];ste
msa
retakenorallyagainstrheum
atism
;flow
ersa
recooked
like
vegetablea
ndeatenas
treatmentfor
chickenpo
xby
theP
ahan
tribeo
fNatored
istric
t,Ba
ngladesh
[222];leafjuicetaken
orallyagainstd
iabetesb
ytheG
arotribalcommun
ityof
Netrakona
distric
t,Ba
ngladesh
[63].
Anti-infl
ammatory,antio
xidant,
antim
icrobial,
antih
yperlip
idem
ic,antifertility,
antic
ancer,hepatoprotectiv
e,antiu
lcer,centralnervou
ssystem
depressant
[223].
25Musaparadisia
caL.
Root
tinctureisu
sedagainstw
eakerectio
n;ste
mjuicetaken
orallyforlow
sperm
coun
t,andtworoastedun
ripefruits
taken
orallydaily
asan
aphrod
isiac
bytheIFA
Nkaripeop
leof
Akw
aIbo
mState,Nigeria[224];juicee
xtractof
leafsheath
used
againstsnake
veno
mby
theK
anitrib
esof
Agasthiyarm
alaiBiosph
erer
eserve,Ind
ia[17
4];fruits
takenorallywith
leafand
stem
juiceo
fBasellarubraandsugartopreventexcessiv
ebleedingfollo
wingchild
birthin
Kurig
ram
distric
t,Ba
ngladesh
[87];fruits
used
fortreatingdiarrhea
anddysenteryby
theZ
outribeo
fChu
rachandp
urdistric
t,Manipur,Ind
ia[225];rip
efruittaken
orallywith
“lightningbu
gs”toenhancefem
alefertility
inDhemajid
istric
t,As
sam,Ind
ia[226].
Antidiarrheal,antiulcer,
antim
icrobial,antihypertensive,
hypo
glycem
ic,
hypo
cholesterolemic,
antio
xidant,antiallergic,
antisnake
veno
m[227].
26Musasapientum
L.
Root
tincturetaken
orallyagainstw
eakerectio
nandas
anaphrod
isiac
bytheIFA
Nkaripeop
leof
Nigeria[224];leaves
steeped
inho
twater
andtakenorallythric
edailyforo
neweekby
theK
anuritrib
eofn
ortheaste
rnNigeriato
treatanem
ia,
yello
wfever,andmalaria[228];fruitsused
inTh
ailand
asalaxative[
229];stem
andleaves
used
form
emoryenhancem
ent
andantia
ging
inSagamu,Nigeria[230];inflo
rescence
used
againstb
addreaming,bedwettin
gby
child
ren,
insanityand
unusualbehavior,andheadache
bytheT
ai-K
hamyang
sofA
ssam
,Ind
ia[126];leafandste
mjuicetaken
orallyagainstfever
byvillagersof
Vasu
Viharv
illage,Bo
grad
istric
t,Ba
ngladesh
[61];leafjuice
appliedto
earsfore
arache
duetocold,and
root
juicetaken
orallyforh
elminthiasis
inDhamrai,Ba
ngladesh
[231];exud
ates
ofrotte
nroot
appliedto
wou
ndsb
ytheIgede
peop
leof
Nigeria[232];fruitswith
blackpepp
eraretaken
orallyforrespiratory
prob
lemsa
ndflo
wersa
reused
indiabetes
andgenitald
isorders,whileplantisu
seddysentery,high
bloo
dpressure,and
rheumaticpain
inSonebh
adra
distric
t,Utta
rPradesh,India[
185].
Antidiarrheal,antiulcer,
antim
icrobial,hypoglycemic,
hypo
cholesterolemic,
antio
xidant,diuretic
,wou
ndhealing,antia
llergic[227].
Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 17
Table3:Con
tinued.
Seria
lnu
mber
Species
Repo
rted
ethn
omedicinaluses
Repo
rted
pharmacological
activ
ities
27Ne
lumbo
nucifera
Gaertn.
Rhizom
eextractused
againstd
ysentery
inBu
ldhana
distric
t,Maharashtra,Ind
ia[233];paste
ofyoun
gleaves
alon
gwith
fruitsof
Phyllanthus
emblica
appliedon
forehead
togetrelieffro
mheadache;flow
erpetald
ecoctio
nisorallytakenagainst
diarrhea;you
ngflo
wer
paste
isused
asac
ardioton
icandforfever
andliver
ailm
ents;
driedseed
powdertaken
with
cowmilk
againsth
eadache;youn
gseed
paste
appliedtopically
forskindiseases;pow
deredroot
takenforringw
orms;root
paste
taken
inlemon
juicefor
pilesinSouthOris
sa,Ind
ia[179];driedflo
wer
powdertaken
with
ghee
orallyfortreatmento
fpilesb
ythe
Mulluku
rumatrib
eofW
ayanad
distric
t,Ke
rala,Ind
ia[10
9];flow
erjuiceu
sedby
tribalsinCh
itteriH
ills,India,to
treat
diabetes
[110];rhizom
esused
bytribalso
fPedabayaluMandalam,A
ndhraP
radesh,Ind
ia,totre
atdysentery[114];tuberis
eatenrawas
treatmentfor
gastrointestinalprob
lemsb
yvillagersof
GingeeH
ills,Villu
puram
distric
t,TamilNadu,India
[234];who
leplantu
sedin
hearttroub
le,urinarydiseases,bleedingpiles,andas
nerveton
ic;seeds
used
durin
gpregnancy
andalso
used
asdiuretic,sedative,andexpectorant(plantp
artu
sedno
tmentio
ned)
inSonebh
adra
distric
t,India[
185];seed
powderistaken
with
honeyfor4
0days
byGon
dtribeo
fAdilabaddistric
t,And
hraP
radesh,Ind
ia,for
infertility[115];
decoctionof
red-flo
wered
planto
rally
takenon
anem
ptysto
machon
cead
ayby
tribalso
fSim
ilipalB
iosphere
Reserve,
Oris
sa,Ind
ia,for
treatmento
fblood
dysentery[118].
Anti-ischemic,antioxidant,
hepatoprotectiv
e,anti-inflammatory,antifertility,
antia
rrhythmic,antifibrosis,
antiv
iral,antip
roliferative,
immun
omod
ulatory(seeds),
antid
iarrheal,hypoglycemic,
sedativ
e,diuretic,
anti-inflammatory,antio
xidant,
antip
yretic,immun
omod
ulatory
(rhizome),hypoglycemic,
antio
xidant,aldoser
eductase
inhibitory,antibacteria
l,aphrod
isiac,antipyretic,
antip
latelet(flo
wer),
cardioprotectiv
e,antiv
iral,
antio
xidant,lipolytic,
hypo
cholesterolemic,antiobesity,
hepatoprotectiv
e,antic
ancer
(leaves)[235].
28Ny
mphaea
pubescensW
illd.
Rhizom
eextracttakenwith
sugarc
andy
takenorallytwicea
dayfor3
days
againstleucorrheab
ytribes
ofKinw
atforest,
Nandeddistric
t,Maharashtra,Ind
ia[236];paste
ofrhizom
esandseedso
fPipernigrum
appliedexternallyon
neck
against
goiterb
ytribalso
fBou
dhdistric
t,Odisha,India[
237];decoctio
nof
rhizom
eofred-flow
ered
plantu
sedagainstb
lood
dysentery;rhizom
ejuice
takenforleucorrhea;po
wderedrhizom
ewith
honeytakenforp
iles,dysentery,anddyspepsia
;roo
tjuicetaken
tokeep
stomachcoolandgetrelieffrom
burningsensations
durin
gurination;
root
paste
ofred-flo
wered
plant
takenform
enorrhagia;roo
tpastealon
gwith
flowerso
fHibisc
usrosa-sinensis,barkof
Ficusreligiosa,andseedso
fSesam
umindicum
takenfora
bortion[179];root
istie
don
wasteof
pregnant
wom
anto
preventabo
rtionby
theTh
arutribeo
fDevipatan
divisio
n,India[
238];roo
tsused
againstd
ysentery
bytribes
ofPedabayalu
Mandalam,V
isakh
apatnam
distric
t,India[
114].
Hepatop
rotective[239],
antic
ancer[240].
29Oxalis
cornicu
lata
L.
Leaves
used
againstd
iarrheaa
nddysenteryin
Gujratd
istric
t,Pakistan
[136];plantp
astefilteredandused
aseyed
ropagainst
eyed
iseases
byethn
icgrou
psof
Diso
iValleyRe
serveF
orest,India[
67];leaves
used
againstd
ysentery
bytribes
ofMirz
apur
distric
t,India[
88];leafjuicew
ithcurd
isorallytakenagainstd
iarrheaa
nddysenteryby
theM
ulluku
rumatrib
eofW
ayanad
distric
t,India[
109];usedagainststomachcomplaints,piles,colic,and
dysenteryin
Manipur,Ind
ia(plant
partused
not
mentio
ned)
[106];extracto
faerialvegetativep
ortio
ntakenwith
sugara
gainstabdo
minalpain
anddiarrhea
bytheT
aiAho
mtribeo
fDibrugarh
distr
ict,As
sam,Ind
ia[241];who
leplantu
sedagainsto
ralailm
entsin
Dharw
addistric
t,Ka
rnataka,India
[242];leafpaste
isappliedover
forehead
totre
atheadache;leavesa
reconsum
edas
saladforind
igestio
nandlossof
appetite
bytheK
hamtitribeo
fArunachalPradesh,India[
57];ste
m,bark,androot
used
againstd
yspepsia,piles,anem
ia,and
tympanitis
bytribalso
fKaptip
adaF
orestR
ange,Ind
ia[71];w
holeplantjuice
isorallytakenagainstd
ogbiteandsnakeb
iteby
theK
hatriyaa
ndKa
shya
clanso
fthe
Bagdip
eopleo
fRajbaridistr
ict,Ba
ngladesh
[243].
Antiin
flammatory,anxiolytic,
antic
onvulsa
nt,antifu
ngal,
antiu
lcer,
antin
ociceptiv
e,anticancer,
antid
iabetic
,hepatop
rotective,
hypo
lipidem
ic,
abortifacient,antim
icrobial,
wou
ndhealing,antid
iarrheal,
antia
mebic,antiepileptic[244
].
18 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine
Table3:Con
tinued.
Seria
lnu
mber
Species
Repo
rted
ethn
omedicinaluses
Repo
rted
pharmacological
activ
ities
30Ra
phanus
sativ
usL.
Rootsu
sedagainstjaund
iceinBa
ngladesh
[245];used
againstw
hoop
ingcoug
hin
Tunisia
andIta
ly(plant
partused
not
mentio
ned)
[246
];leaves
androotso
rally
takenagainstacidityin
Firozabaddistric
t,India[
247];usedagainstsyphilis
inSamahni
Valley,AzadKa
shmir,
Pakistan
[248];used
againstcou
ghsinJalgaondistric
t,India[
249];roo
tsused
against
urinarytro
ubleby
tribes
ofPedabayalu
Mandalam,V
isakh
apatnam
distric
t,India[
114];rootsa
reconsum
edto
regu
lariz
edigestivec
omplaintsinBu
ldhana
distric
t,India[
233];fresh
leafjuiceiso
rally
takenwith
sugarc
andy
andbu
tterm
ilkto
cure
pilesinDharm
abad
Taluka
ofNandeddistr
ict,India[
250];fresh
rootso
rleavesa
reeatenrawagainstu
rinarycomplaints
andas
adiuretic
bytribes
ofNortheastGujarat,Ind
ia[251];seedsa
retakenorallyagainstsexuald
ebilityby
nativ
esof
Bargarhdistric
t,Oris
sa,Ind
ia[252].
Antihypertensive,antio
besity,
antid
iabetic
,con
stipation,
coug
h[253].
31Saccharum
spontaneum
L.
Who
leplantu
sedforimprovem
ento
fapp
etite
andtre
atmento
fabd
ominalpain
inGujratd
istric
t,Pu
njab,Pakistan
[136];
pulpof
crushedleaves
used
againstp
usform
ationin
anypartof
theb
odyin
Jaun
sar-bawar,D
ehradu
ndistr
ict,India[
254];
crushedrootsa
rebo
iledin
water
andorallytakenagainstasthm
ainMirz
apur
village
ofDinajp
urdistric
t,Ba
ngladesh
[208];
paste
prepared
from
rootso
fthe
plantand
rootso
fCynodon
dactylon
takenwith
cowmilk
andsugare
arlyin
them
orning
for1
mon
thagainstleucorrheainMeerutd
istric
t,Utta
rPradesh,Ind
ia[255];used
againstgastro
intestinaldisordersinIlo
ilo,
Philipp
ines
(plant
partused
notg
iven)[103].
Antiurolithiasis[256],
antio
xidant
[257].
32Scopariadu
lcisL
.
Stem
infusio
nisused
bythee
thnicc
ommun
ities
ofTinsuk
iadistric
t,As
sam,Ind
iaagainstgastritis[60];decoctionof
leaves
takencontinuo
uslyfora
weekfortreatmento
fsorethroatb
yKo
ltrib
also
fSim
ilipalB
ioreserve,Oris
sa,Ind
ia[118];leaves
andtwigstaken
orallyas
ahepatop
rotectivea
gent
(i.e.,
againstjaund
ice)by
theD
arlong
tribeo
fTrip
uraS
tate,Ind
ia[120];
crushedroot
extracto
rally
takenforstomachpain,urin
arydisorders,andkidn
eysto
neby
theK
urichyatrib
eofK
erala,
India[
124];leaves,flo
wers,andfruitsareg
roun
dinto
apasteandused
againstw
ound
sand
tocontrolbleedingby
theK
ani
tribalso
fTam
ilNadu,India[
127];usedagainstd
iarrheainTrinidad
andTo
bago
(plant
partused
notm
entio
ned)
[258];
decoctionof
leaves
ofthep
lant
alon
gwith
leaves
ofEclipta
alba
andCy
nodondactylon
used
againstd
iabetesb
ytheS
antal
tribeo
fThakurgaon
distric
t,Ba
ngladesh
[259];who
leplantextractisorallytakenagainstu
rinarydiseases
bytheK
urichar
tribeo
fWayanad
distric
t,Southern
Western
Ghats,
Kerala,Ind
ia[260];who
leplantu
sedagainstcou
gh,bronchitis,and
kidn
eytro
ubleby
peop
leof
Golaghatd
istric
t,As
sam,Ind
ia[261];leafjuiceo
rally
administered
bytheP
ankh
otribal
commun
ityin
Rang
amatid
istric
t,Ba
ngladesh,againstspermatorrhea
[262];leafjuiceu
sedby
folkmedicinalpractitionersin
Kurig
ram
distric
t,Ba
ngladesh,against“m
eho”
(diabetes)[87];plant
decoctionused
bytheD
arlong
tribeo
fTrip
uraS
tate,
India,againstjaund
ice[120];pasteof
tend
ershoo
tsalon
gwith
Paederiascandens
inther
atio
of2:
1taken
3tim
esperd
ayfor
2days
durin
gmenstruationagainstfem
aleinfertility
inDhemajid
istric
tofA
ssam
,Ind
ia[226];macerated
leaves
taken
orallyagainstfever
bytheIgede
peop
leof
Nigeria[232];50
gwho
leplanttogetherw
ith50
gwho
leplanto
fPhyllanthu
sam
arus
and50
gSida
acuta(w
holeplant)arem
adeintoap
asteandmixed
with
250m
Ldrinking
water
andtakenorally
twicea
dayfor1-2
days
totre
atsnakeb
iteby
tribes
ofSouthSurguja,Ch
hattisgarh,India[
263];leafgroun
dinto
apasteand
used
forw
ound
healingby
tribalpeop
lein
Southern
India[
264];leafextractisorallyadministered
byMeche
peop
leof
Jhapa
distr
ict,easte
rnNepal,againstcontinuo
usweeping
bybaby
[265].
Antidiabetic
,analgesic,
anti-inflammatory,antiv
iral,
antim
alarial,neurotropic,
antic
ancer,hypertensiv
e,sedativ
e,diuretic[266].
33Sesbania
grandiflora
(L.)
Pers.
Bark
used
inVisakh
apatnam
distric
t,India,by
tribalpeop
leagainstd
iarrhea[
114];leaves
used
againstskinliceb
yrural
peop
leof
Mayurbh
anjd
istric
t,Oris
sa,Ind
ia[163];leaves
prepared
intheform
ofsoup
andtakenorallyby
theV
alaiyantribe
ofAlagarkoilH
ills,Maduraidistric
t,TamilNadu,India,as
verm
ifuge
andagainstp
eptic
ulcer[204];50m
Lof
leafdecoction
takenorallyon
anem
ptysto
machas
verm
ifuge
andagainststomachailm
entsby
tribalandruralp
eopleo
fSiru
malaiHills,
Dindiguld
istric
t,TamilNadu,India[
267];leaf,youn
gfruitand
bark
used
againsth
eadachea
ndfeverb
ytheM
alayaraya
tribeo
fVannapu
ram
village
inIduk
ki,K
erala,India[
268];coo
kedflo
werstaken
orallyagainstd
izzinessin
Mysorea
ndCoo
rgdistric
ts,Ka
rnataka,India[
269];leafd
ecoctio
ntakenorallyforb
odycoolingby
Kani
tribalso
fTiru
nelveli
hills,
Western
Ghats,
India[
270];coo
kedleaves
areo
rally
takento
give
coolingeffecttoinfected
eyes
bytheIrulaandtheS
oliga
tribeo
fSathyam
angalam
forests
ofErod
edistric
t,TamilNadu,India[
271].
Wou
ndhealing,antim
icrobial,
hypo
lipidem
ic,antiulcer,
anti-inflammatory,antia
rthritic,
antio
xidant,antihelm
intic
,antid
iarrheal,analgesic,diuretic
,centraln
ervous
syste
mdepressant,laxative[272].
Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 19
Table3:Con
tinued.
Seria
lnu
mber
Species
Repo
rted
ethn
omedicinaluses
Repo
rted
pharmacological
activ
ities
34Spilanthes
paniculata
Wall.
exDC.
Usedagainsttoo
thache
byTripuratrib
almedicinalpractitionersin
TripuraS
tate,Ind
ia[82];leafjuice
isorallytaken(1
teaspo
onthric
edailyfor3
-4days)a
gainstjaun
dice
andcirrho
sisby
theH
alam
tribeo
fTrip
uraS
tate,Ind
ia[120];flo
wer
headsa
rechew
edagainsttoo
thache
inCoastalDakshinaK
annada,Ind
ia[218];flo
wersa
ndfruitsared
irectlychew
edby
the
Aditrib
esof
Lower
Dibangdistric
tofA
runachalPradesh,India,fortoo
thache
[273];leaves
areu
sedagainstd
iarrhea,
dysentery,andhigh
bloo
dpressure
bytheN
agaa
ndKu
kitribes
ofSenapatidistric
t,Manipur
State,India[
274];leavesa
reorallytakenby
theA
patani
tribeo
fArunachalPradesh,India,againstcon
stipatio
n[275].
Antifu
ngal,antipyretic,local
anaesthetic
,bioinsecticide,
antic
onvulsa
nt,
antio
xidant,aph
rodisia
c,analgesic
,pancreatic
lipase
inhibitor,antim
icrobial,
antin
ociceptiv
e,diuretic,
vasorelaxant,anti-h
uman
immun
odeficiency
virus,
toothacher
elieve,
anti-inflammatory[276].
20 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine
any particular care [1], they can potentially be sources of bothfuture foods and medicine.
4. Conclusion
Famine food plants have generally beenmentioned as uncon-ventional dietary items and consist of wild edible plants. Itwas our hypothesis that such plants also serve therapeuticpurposes and can be considered ethnomedicinal plants.Through local surveys among famine-affected population oftwo districts of Bangladesh on the unconventional plantsthey consume during famine periods, along with local andother reported ethnomedicinal uses on these plants, we havevalidated our hypothesis.
Conflict of Interests
The authors declare that they have no competing interests.
Authors’ Contribution
FardousMohammad Safiul Azam, Anup Biswas, AbdulMan-nan,NusratAnikAfsana, andRownak Jahan participated andcompleted the survey and searched relevant ethnomedicinalliterature under the supervision of Mohammed Rahmatullahand submitted an initial report of the survey. MohammedRahmatullah analyzed the data and wrote the paper. Allauthors edited the paper and read and approved the finalpaper.
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