Reseaarch Methodology

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Research Methodology

Unit 4


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Overview

Qualitative and Quantitative research Concept of measurement Causality Generalization & replication merging thetwo


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Qualitative Research vs. Quantitative

Research

Qualitative Research is about investigating thefeatures of a market through in-depth researchthat explores the background and context fordecision-making.

In qualitative research there are 3 main methodsof collecting primary data:i. Depth interviewsii. Focus/discussion groupsiii. Projective techniques


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Depth Interviewing Depth interviews are the main form of qualitative

research in most business markets. Here an interviewerspends time in a one-on-one interview finding out aboutthe customers particular circumstances and theirindividual opinions. The majority of business depth interviews take place inperson, which has the added benefit that the researchervisits the respondents place of work and gains a sense ofthe culture of the business. However, for multi-national studies, telephone depthinterviews, or even on-line depth interviews may bemore appropriate.


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Focus Group The main alternative to depth interviews -focus group discussions - is typically toodifficult or expensive to arrange with busy

executives. However, on-line techniques increasing getover this problem.


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Projective Techniques Used in Consumer research to understand consumers knowledge in

association with a particular product or brand. Used by clinical psychologists to understand a consumers hiddenattitudes,motivation and feelings. These techniques could be:

i. Word association: Respondents are presented with a series ofwords or phrases and asked to say the first word, which comes toyour mind. This method is helpful to check whether the proposedproduct names have undesirable associations.ii. Sentence completion: The beginning of a sentence is read out tothe respondent and he/she is asked to complete it with the first wordthat comes to the mind. E.g., people who dont prefer to eat from fastfood joints are


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Projective Techniques (cont..)iii. Third party techniques: Respondents are asked todescribe a third person about whom they have littleinformation. Useful in determining attitudes of therespondents.iv. Thematic appreciation test: Respondents are shownan ambiguous picture or drawing or fill in a blankspeech bubble associated with a particular characterin an ambitious situation and then asked to interpret thesame.Helps in understanding the perception of therespondents towards the various aspects of the product.


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Quantitative Research Involves numbers The aim is to classify features, count them,and construct statistical models in anattempt to explain what is observed.

"There's no such thing as qualitative data.

Everything is either 1 or 0"

- Fred Kerlinger


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Features of Qualitative &Quantitative Research


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Research

According to purpose According to Methods of Study

Pure Research

Applied Research

Exploratory Research

Descriptive Study Diagnostic Study

Evaluation Study

Action Research

Experimental Research

Analytical Study

Historical Research

Survey

Case study


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Types of Research (Based on Purpose)

Pure Research - It is undertaken for the sakeof knowledge without any intentions to applyit in practice. Applied Research Carried out to findsolution to a real life problem requiring anaction. It is problem oriented and actiondirected. Exploratory Research It just attempts to seewhat is there, rather than to predict therelationship that will be founded. Descriptive Study It is a fact findinginvestigation with adequate interpretation (more specific than exploratory study).


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(Cont..)

Diagnostic Study Similar to descriptivestudy, but with a different focus. It aims atidentifying the causes of a problem and thepossible solutions for it. Evaluation Study It is determination ofresults attained by some activity designed toaccomplish some valued goal or objective,e.g. Family Planning Scheme. Action Research It is concurrent evaluationstudy of an action program launched forsolving a problem/for improving an existingsituation.


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Types of Research (Based on

Methods)

Experimental Research It aims atdetermining Whether & in what mannervariables are related to each other.Dependent variable - The factor, which isinfluenced, by other factors.Independent variable - The other factors,which influence DV.

Analytical study or Statistical Method it is asystem of procedures and techniques ofanalysis applied to quantitative data.


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(Cont..)

Historical Research It is a study of past records andother information sources with the view toreconstructing the origin and development of aninstitution or movement or system and discoveringthe trends in the past. It is descriptive in nature.

Survey It is a fact finding study. Its a method ofresearch involving the collection of data directlyfrom a population or a sample, thereof at particulartime. Case Study- It is an in-depth comprehensive study

of a person, social group, episode, a situation,program, a community, an institution, business unitetc.


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Concept of Attitude

Mental state of an individualwhich makes him to act orrespond for or against, situationsetc. with which his/her vestedfeelings of interest, liking, desireand so on, are directly or indirectlylinked or associated.


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Basic Purpose for Conducting Attitude Survey

To compare results with other survey results To measure the effect of change that occurs To determine the nature and extent of feeling


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The concept of measurement

Selecting observable empirical events Using numbers or symbols to

represent aspects of the events Applying a mapping rule to connectthe observation to the symbol


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Characteristics of Data

Classification Order Distance (interval between numbers) Origin of number series


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Measurement

The four widely accepted levels of

measurement called measurementscales

are:

Nominal Scale

Ordinal Scale

Interval Scale

Ratio Scale


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(Cont..)

DataType

Classification Order Interval Origin

Nominal yes - - -

Ordinal yes yes - -

Interval yes yes yes -

Ratio yes yes yes yes


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(Cont..) Nominal Scale : Applied to qualitative data where

the objects or items are classified into variousdiscrete and distinctive groups or categorieswithout any ranking or order associated Example :-Categorizing people according to religionAccording to political affiliation Smoking Vs non-smokingIt doesnt posses attribute like magnitude,intervals or absolute zero.


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Ordinal Scale: Categories of items can be comparedwith each other only in order of rank assigned tothese categories. It posses the attribute of magnitudeonly.

Example :-Categorization of students according to gradesCategorization of employees according todesignation Ranking of two household according to income

(Cont..)


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Interval Scale : It possess both:magnitude as well as equal intervalmagnitude. Does not posses theabsolute zero point.

Example :Measures of height, weight and

time etc.


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Ratio Scale : It posses the attributeof absolute zero beside otherattributes of magnitude and equalintervals.

Example :Physical measurement such asheight, weight, distance etc.


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Comparison of Measurement Scales

Type Basic

Empirical

Operations

Typical Usage Typical Statistics

Descriptive Inferential

Nominal Determination of

Equality

Classification of

male-female, smoker-

non smoker

Percentage

mode

Chi-square

Binomial

Ordinal Determination ofgreater or less

Ranking : Preferencedata, market

position, attitude

measurement

Median Rank-ordercorrelation

Interval Determination of

equality ofintervals

Index numbers,

attitudemeasurement

Mean, Range,

StandardDeviation

T-Test, Factor

analysis

Ratio Determination of

equality of ratios

Sales, units

produced, number of

customers, costs, age

etc.

Geometric

Mean

Coefficient of

variation


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Characteristics of Good Measurement

Validity it is the extent to which a test measureswhat we actually intend to measure

Reliability had to do with the accuracy andprecision of a measurement procedure.

Stability A measure is said to possess stability ifyou can secure consistent results with repeatedmeasurements of the same person with the sameinstrument.

Practicality is concerned with wide range offactors of economy, convenience, andinterpretability etc.


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Causation

A situation where one variable leads to specified effect on the

other variable.

Eg: A produces B or A forces B to occur

a) Feedback causes improved sales performance

Feedback ----- Improved Sales Performanceb) Improved sales performance causes feedback

Improved Sales Performance ----- Feedback


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A & B causes C

Eg:-

Training and employee motivation causeshigher productivity.

Absence of raw materials & motivation

results in noproductivity.


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Generalization

Generalizability/ Generalization refers to the

extent to which findings from a study apply to a

wider population or to different contexts.

In a sample survey, random sampling allowsgeneralizability through the principle that the

study sample is likely to be statistically

representative of the larger population of interest,

so findings can be extrapolated to that population.


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Replication

Replication is a term referring to the repetition

of a research study, generally with different

situations and different subjects, to determine if

the basic findings of the original study can be

generalized to other participants and

circumstances.


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Thank you

Documents

Reseaarch Methodology