Report No. 18358-BR

BrazilA Call to ActionCombating School Failure in the Northeast of Brazil

December 19, 1997

Ministry of Education/Northeast Basic Education ProjectThe World BankUNICEF

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CURRENCY EQUIVALENTS(Exchange Rate Effective: December 1, 1997)

Currency Unit = RealR$1.00 = US$1.10

FISCAL YEAR SCHOOL YEAR (SY)January 1-December 31 March-December

WEIGHT AND MEASURESThe Metric system has been used throughout this report

ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS

CIAC Integrated Centers to Serve Children and AdolescentsCNTE National Confederation of Workers in EducationDEMEC State-based Office of the Ministry of Education (MEC)

DEWEY Diversity and Excellence Working for the Education of YouthFAE Foundation for Student Assistance (a MEc-based agency)FNDE National Education Development Fund (Fundo Nacional de

Desenvolvimento da Educa,ao, a MEc-based agency)FPE State Participation Fund (Fundo de Participa,co dos Estados)FPM Municipal Participation Fund (Fundo de Participa,co dos Municipios)FVM National Fund for the Maintenance of Basic Education and Teacher

Valorization (Fundo Nacional de Manuten,co e Desenvolvimento doEnsino Fundamental e de Valoriza,ao do Magisterio, also known asFUNDEF)

IAT Anisio Teixeira InstituteIBGE Brazilian Institute of Geography and Statistics-Census Bureau

(Instituto Brasileiro de Geografia e Estatistica)IBRD International Bank for Reconstruction and DevelopmentICMS Tax on Circulation of Merchandise and ServicesICB International Competitive BiddingIADB or IDB Inter-American Development BankINEP National Institute for Educational Research and Studies, a MEc-based

agency.IPI+IR Taxes on Industrialized Products and Income TaxesIPTU+ISS Property and Services TaxesIRDEB Institute for Educational Radio Broadcasting of BahiaLDB National Education Law, 1996MEC Brazilian Ministry of Education and SportsMOS Minimum Operational Standards for SchoolsNCB National Competitive BiddingNEBE The Second and Third Northeast Basic Education ProjectsNGO Non-Governmental Organization

OECD Organization for Economic Cooperation and DevelopmentOGU General Federal Budget (Or,camento Geral da Uniao)PEEC Education, School and Community ProjectPNLD National Textbook Program (Programa Nacional do Livro Didatico, a

MEc-based program)PPo Program for Research and Operationalization Education Policies

(Programa de Pesquisa e Operaliza,co)PRASEM Municipal Education Secretaries Support Program (Program de Apoio

aos Secretarios Municipais de Educa,cao)SAEB National System for Basic Education Evaluation (Sistema Nacional de

Avalia,cao da Educa,cao Basica)SIAFI System of Financial Administration of the UnionSIAFEM System of Financial Monitoring of States and MunicipalitiesSIED Integrated Education Information SystemUNDIME National Association of Municipal Education ManagersUNDP United Nations Development ProgrammeUNICEF United Nations Children's Fund

Vice President Sahid Javed BurkiDirector Gobind T. NankaniCountry Sector Leader Patricio MillanTask Manager Robin Horn

THE NORTHEAST BASIC EDUCATION PROJECT/MINISTRY OF EDUCATIONPROGRAM FOR RESEARCH AND OPERATIONALIZATION OF EDUCATION POLICY

WORLD BANK

UNICEF

Ministry of Education and Sports

Northeast Basic Education ProjectVia N I Leste - Pavilhao das Metas

Brasilia, DF

70150 500

www.projetonordest.org.br

The World Bank

SCN Qd 2 Lote A

Edificio Corporate Finance Center, conj. 303/304

Brasilia, DF

70170 500

www.worldbank.org

UNICEFSEPN 510- Bl.A- Ed. NAN- 10 andar

Brasilia, DF

70750 530

www.unicef.org.br

"A Call to Action: Combating School Failure in the Northeasf' is the result of a joint effort among educational policy makers, researchers,specialists, and technical personnel in the field of education.

Coordinated by the World Bank, theNortheast Basic Education Project/Ministry of Education, and UNICEF/Brazil, this paper was onlypossible thanks to the collaboration and participation of several institutions: the National Confederation of Workers in Education (CNTE);the National Union of Municipal Directors of Education (UNDIME); the Secretariats of Education of the states of Bahia and CearA, and theFederal Universities of Bahia and Ceara, among others.

A CALL TO ACTION: COMBATING SCHOOL FAILURE IN THE NORTHEAST. DECEMBER, 1997, 61 p.

i

Participants

CONSULTATIVE GROUP

* Adeum Sauer, President of the National Union of Municipal Secretaries of Education(UNDIME)

* Antenor Naspolini, Secretary of Education of Ceara

* Carlos A. Abicalil, President of the National Confederation of Workers in Education(CNTE)

* Edilson Souto Freire, Secretary of Education of Bahia

* Edla Soares, Forrner President of the National Union of Municipal Directors of Education(UNDIME)

• Manasses Fonteles, Rector of the State University of Ceara (UEC)

• Nadia Hage Fialho, Dean of the State University of Bahia (UNEB)

* Roberto Claudio Frota Bezerra, Rector of the Federal University of Ceara (UFC)

* Robert Verhine, Dean of Research and Graduate Studies of the Federal University ofBahia (UFBa)

. Vilmar Carvalho, Adjunct Secretary of the National Confederation of Workers inEducation (CNTE)

COORDINATING GROUP

* Robin Scott Horn, Education Economist, World Bank

* Ant6nio Emilio Sendim Marques, Director General of the Northeast Basic EducationProject, Ministry of Education (MEC)

* Garren Lumpkin, Education Projects Officer, United Nations Children's Fund (UNICEF)

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TECHNICAL TEAM

* Adelia Luiza Portela, Professora, UFBa

* Ant8nio Augusto de Almeida Neto, Technical Coordinator of the Northeast BasicEducation Project, MEC

* Candido A. Gomes, Legislative Consultant, Federal Senate

* Cleunice Rehem, Director of the Departrnent of Instruction

* Fernando Piza, Training Coordinator, Northeast Basic Education Project, MEC

* Jose Amaral Sobrinho, Coordinator of Educational Management, Northeast BasicEducation Project, MEC

* Lia Rosenberg, Consultant, Northeast Basic Education Project, MEC

* Maria Alice Setubal, Director-President, Center of Research for Education and Culture(CENPEC)

* Maribel Sevilla, Special Projects Advisor, Northeast Basic Education Project, MEC

* Maristela Marques Rodrigues, Special Projects Advisor, Northeast Basic EducationProject, MEC

* Marta Grosbaum, General Coordinator, CENPEC

* Sofia Lerche Vieira, Educational Policy Coordinator, Secretariat of Education of the Stateof Ceara

* Terri Demsky, Education Specialist, UNICEF

COMMUNICATION GROUP

* Claudius Ceccon, Executive Secretary of the Center for Creation of Popular Imagery(CECIP)

* Gilberto Costa, Communications Advisor, Northeast Basic Education Project, MEC

* Jacques Schwarztein, Coordinator of the UNICEF Offices in Recife

* Milton Coelho, Communications Advisor, World Bank

* Omar Alves Abud, Publicity Coordinator, Social Communication Advisory Group, MEC

RESEARCH TEAM

* Adelia Luiza Portela, Professor, UFBa

* Ana Luicia Magalhaes, Professor, UFBa

. Antonio Carlos da R. Xavier, Researcher, Institute for Applied Economic Research(IPEA)

* Bruce Fuller, Professor, University of California, Berkeley

* Coriolinda de Carvalho, Professor, UFBa

* David Plank, Professor, Michigan State University

* Eni Bastos, Professor, UFBa

* Jose Amaral Sobrinho, Coordinator of Educational Management, Northeast BasicEducation Project, MEC

* Jose Edvar Costa de Arauijo, Professor, UFC

* Kelma Socorro Lopes de Matos, Professor, University of Fortaleza (UNIFOR)

* Lawrence Salmen, Specialist in Beneficiary Evaluation, World Bank

* Luicia Dellagnelo, Researcher, Harvard University

* Mauricio Holanda Maia, Professor, State University of the Vale do Acarau, Ceara

* Paulo R. de Holanda Gurgel, Professor, UFBa

* Ricardo Paes de Barros, Researcher, IPEA

* Rodolfo Sanjurjo, Consultant, Northeast Basic Education Project, MEC

* Rosane Mendonca, Researcher, IPEA

* Sergei Soares, Researcher, World Bank

* Sofia Lerche Vieira, Coordinator of Educational Policy, Secretariat of Education of theState of Ceara

* Wilsa Maria Ramos, Professor, Federal University of Minas Gerais (UFMG)

1v

Brasilia, March 21, 1997

His ExcellencyThe President of the Federative Republic of BrazilFernando Henrique Cardoso

Your Excellency:

In February 1996, the Program of Research and Operationalization of Education Policy wascreated, under the coordination of the World Bank, the Northeast Basic Education Project,and UNICEF. The main objective of this program was to improve educational outcomes inthe Northeast through strengthening the link between research and practice.

To assure that the program would achieve its objective, the coordinators nominated aConsultative Group composed of key education decisionmakers from the Northeast, and aResearch Team that included some of the region's leading educational experts and policyanalysts. During the course of the year, the Consultative Group met repeatedly with thecoordinators and the technical specialists to analyze the research findings in the context of thegroup's policy experience and to achieve consensus on a set of recommendations capable oftransforming education in the Northeast.

We have the honor and the privilege to present the following report, the product of thiscollaboration. A Call to Action: Combating School Failure in the Northeast demonstratesthe possibility of building consensus around the common objectives of improvingeducational outcomes for children, even in a landscape of differing practical and ideologicalviewpoints that enrich the political and academic environment of Brazilian education.

Believing as we do that the problems portrayed here are relevant to other areas of Brazil, andthat the recommendations may be of benefit to other states, we are counting on your supportto encourage state and municipal governments to evaluate the feasibility of implementingthese recommendations.

Everyone who has collaborated in this effort recognizes that your administration has giventop priority to primary education. It is for this very reason that we are confident that underyour leadership and determination, the changes underway will open new opportunities for thecountry.

PAULO RENATO DE SOUZAMinister of Education and Sport, Brazil

GOBIND T. NANKANIDirector, Brazil Department, The World Bank, Washington DC

AGOP KAYAYANRepresentative for UNICEF, Brazil

v.

Contents

PARTICIPANTS .............................................................. iii

LETTER FROM JOAO .............................................................. ix

I. RESEARCH AND ACTION ............................................................................................. 1

A PARTICIPATORY PROCESS ............................................................. IOPERATIONALIZING THE RECOMMENDATIONS ............................................................. 3

11. THE CONTEXT OF EDUCATION IN BRAZIL ............................................................. 5

WORLD BANK FOCUS ON PRIMARY EDUCATION ............................................................. 5BUILDING CONSENSUS ............................................................. 6THE PERFORMANCE OF PRIMARY EDUCATION .............................................................. 7THE ANALYTICAL FRAMEWORK ............................................................. 10

III. RESULTS FROM THE COMMISSIONED STUDIES ............................................................. 14

SUMMARY OF THE RESULTS FROM THE COMMISSIONED STUDIES ......................................................................... 14THE FOUR PRINCIPAL CAUSES OF SCHOOL FAILURE ............................................................. 181. EDUCATIONAL SYSTEMS ARE NOT ORGANIZED TO PROMOTE SCHOOL EFFICIENCY ................................ 182. THE SCHOOL DOES NOT PRIORITIZE STUDENT LEARNING ............................................................. 203. SCHOOLS ARE OUT OF TOUCH WITH THEIR COMMUNITIES...... ...................................................... 214. PROGRAMS FOR STAFF DEVELOPMENT ARE INEFFECTIVE AND INCONSISTENT ................................................. 23

IV. RECOMMENDATIONS FOR IMPROVING SCHOOLS ............................................................. 25

1. SECRETARIATS OF EDUCATION SHOULD GUARANTEE 'OPPORTUNITY-TO-LEARN' STANDARDS IN ALLSCHOOLS ............................................................. . 252. STATE AND MUNICIPAL GOVERNMENTS IN EACH STATE SHOULD RATIONALIZE THEIR PUBLIC SCHOOLSYSTEM ............................................................. . 263. SECRETARIATS OF EDUCATION SHOULD TAILOR PROGRAMS TO SCHOOLS LOCATED IN RURAL AREAS .......... 274. THE EDUCATION SECRETARIAT'S TOP PRIORITY SHOULD BE TO STRENGTHEN SCHOOL AUTONOMY ............... 295. THE SCHOOL'S TOP PRIORITY SHOULD BE STUDENT LEARNING ....................................................................... 296. THE SCHOOL SHOULD ESTABLISH AN ENVIRONMENT THAT PROMOTES SUCCESS FOR ALL STUDENTS............317. THE SCHOOLS NEED TO BUILD COMMON PARTNERSHIPS WITH THEIR COMMUNITIES ...................................... 338. THE EDUCATION SECRETARIAT SHOULD ESTABLISH STRATEGIES AND INCENTIVES FOR THE CAREERDEVELOPMENT OF SCHOOL STAFF ............................................................................ 349. THE SECRETARIAT SHOULD UTILIZE TECHNICAL CRITERIA WHEN HIRING SCHOOL PRINCIPALS ..................... 35

ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY ............................................................................ 37

1. WAGES AND EDUCATION IN BRAZIL: RATES OF RETURN TO EDUCATION ......................................................... 372. FINANCING PRIMARY EDUCATION IN BRAZIL ............................................................................ 393. LESSONS FROM THE CLASSROOM ............................................................................ 414. DUAL SCHOOL SYSTEMS ............................................................................ 435. TRAINING TEACHERS TO USE TEXTBOOKS: A CASE STUDY ............................................................................ 456. TEXTBOOK DISTRIBUTION IN THE NORTHEAST: PROBLEMS AND SOLUTIONS ................................................... 477. DROPPING OUT OF SCHOOL: A CASE STUDY ............................................................................ 498. TEACHER AND PRINCIPAL IN-SERVICE TRAINING: A STUDY IN BAHIA ............................................................. 519. TEACHER TRAINING IN THE UNITED STATES: A COMPARATIVE STUDY ..................................................... 53

vii

10. SCHOOL MANAGEMENT IM PROVEMENT PROGRAM: A PILOT STUDY .............................................................S . 5511. THE SCHOOL AND ITS COMMUNITY: A BENEFICIARY ASSESSMENT ............................................................... 5612. FACTORS AFFECTING STUDENT ACHIEVEMENT IN BRAZIL: AN ANALYSIS OF THE 1995 NATIONALASSESSMENT RESULTS ......................................................................... 5813. THE INFLUENCE OF COMMUNITY AND FAMILY FACTORS ON SCHOOL PERFORMANCE ................................... 60

viii

Letter from Joao

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ix

Introduction

In the enchanted world of childhood, plants move on their own, clouds take the shape of animals,and the winds sing songs of beauty. This world is much more beautiful and colorful than the worldof adults. But for Joao Santos, a fifth grade student in a public school in the Northeast and theauthor of the letter above, the world has no brilliance, no music and no charm. Joas's school couldoffer him the crayons to paint this colorless world, but as one can see from his letter, the schooldoes not attend to Joao's needs.

A Call to Action: Combating School Failure in the Northeast is an attempt to respond to Joao'sletter. To that end, the Program of Research and Operationalization of Educational Policy (PPO)was conceived. Under it, thirteen research studies on different aspects of the problems of educationhave been completed on topics ranging from the structure and funding of the public educationsystem to observation of pedagogical practice in the classroom. Based on the information obtained,the PPO prepared a response to Joao in the form of nine key recommendations designed tointroduce or reinforce educational policies that, if implemented, would make a substantialdifference in educational outcomes in the Northeast.

This report is organized into four parts. The first section, Research and Action, outlines theworking methodology. In the second section, Context of Education in Brazil, a summary analysisof the educational situation in the Northeast is presented. Part 3, Results from the CommissionedStudies, a synthesis of the main results of the commissioned research, provides the foundation forthis paper. The fourth and last part of A Call to Action reports the Consultative Group's nine chiefrecommendations to transform school systems in the Northeast. The Annotated Bibliographyincludes research abstracts of the thirteen commissioned studies that are published in a separatevolume in a more complete form in the collection Lessons and Practice. The individual studieswill also be made available to researchers and educational specialists.

In the search for a response to Joao's letter, a vast universe of often conflicting information,opinions, and advice was surveyed. This report shows that it is possible to build a consensusaround the important goal of assuring that all children have the opportunity to learn. It is to behoped that universities and other centers of research will advance further along the path that hasbeen investigated in this document, pointing out gaps and suggesting revisions as necessary.

As for the technical personnel and directors of the state and municipal education secretariatsthroughout the Northeast as well as the professionals in the urban and rural schools in the region,let this serve as a testimony to the difficulties they face and the commitment with which most ofthem do their job.

It is hoped that the adoption and reinforcement of the recommendations proposed here willcontribute not only to brighten the world of Joao Santos, but also to enlighten the lives of millionsof other children in Brazil.

Ant6nio Emilio Sendim MarquesRobin Scott HornGarren Lumpkin

xi

I. Research and Action

A Participatory Process

The Program of Research and Operationalization of Education Policy (Programa dePesquisa e Operacionalizagiao de Politica Educational, or PPO) was designed to increase theunderstanding of the causes of low achievement and high repetition rates of children inprimary schools in the Northeast of Brazil, and to specify the strategies to attack theseproblems, in order to increase educational outcomes in the region. To identify the problemsand better understand fundamental educational dilemmas, the PPO has relied on a strongresearch program that includes thirteen qualitative and quantitative studies. Specifically, theobjectives of the PPO were to:

* identify the constraints to improving the performance of the educational systemand student outcomes in the region;

* contextualize the findings for the Northeast setting;

* specify and prioritize recommendations for the short term (actions) and the longterm (policies); and

3 disseminate and implement these recommendations.

Linking Policymakers with Researchers

In order to achieve these objectives, a new participatory process was introduced to linkresearch and analysis to policy and practice. Two important departures from traditionaleducation policy research should be noted. First, the convocation of a Consultative Groupcomposed of leaders and policymakers in education from the Northeast to help specialiststransform the study resulted in viable recommendations, policies, and projects; and second, apartnership was developed between the World Bank, the Federative Government of Brazil,and UNICEF, which coordinated this process.

A Framework for the Process

Participants

The PPO's participatory approach was composed of the following groups:

* a Consultative Group - as introduced above, with members selected for theirleadership, the policymaking experience they can bring to the process to helpimplement the study results, and the influence they can bring to bear to see itthrough;

* a Coordination Group - to guide the operation of the program and assurefinancing;

1

* a Technical Team - composed of senior-level education policy specialists withexperience in advising governments on education policy issues;

* a Research Team - composed of researchers, particularly from the Northeast ofBrazil, associated with university research centers; and

* a Communication Group - with expertise in communications and socialmarketing.

The Process

The PPO process began with a meeting between the World Bank, the Northeast BasicEducation Project, and UNICEF in November 1995. These coordinators agreed to initiatework on a sector study of primary education in the Northeast, and to prepare initial terms ofreference and a timetable for project completion. The policy problem was defined as "WhySchools Fail Children in the Northeast." During this first meeting, coordinators agreed tocollaborate on the financing of four exploratory studies to examine this issue from theperspective of the classroom, the school, the school community, and the broader society. Thefour studies would employ a variety of methodologies: structured classroom observation,beneficiary and social assessment, multivariate analysis of community factors, and economicrate-of-return analysis. A research team was chosen from federal universities in theNortheast, complemented by additional specialists from other locations, including the U.S.

At this time, the coordinators agreed to convene a high level Consultative Group toprovide advice and guidance as the studies were being conducted; to identify additionalstudies as needed to analyze the results consolidated by the Researchers and TechnicalTeams; to specify recommendations for policy and pilot projects based on final study results;and to implement pilot projects under financing from the Northeast Basic Education Projectto test the viability of the recommendations.

The idea of forming a Consultative Group came from a dovetailing of interests: theWorld Bank's desire to include the participation of stakeholders and beneficiaries in analyticwork and upstream project design, and UNICEF's long-standing interest in promotingdialogue among the stakeholders as well as generating a process of national mobilization forbasic education. These interests were reinforced by the concern held by the management ofthe Northeast Basic Education Project that the PPO should not just generate another set ofstudies for the library shelf, but should provide a firm foundation for helping the governmentassure that the objectives of the project are achieved. The coordinators also agreed to form aCommunications Group to help them build a communication and mobilization strategy intothe PPO process.

During 1996, the Consultative Group met repeatedly with the coordinators and theother three groups involved in the PPO process. At the end of the year, the members of thegroup reached agreement on the four principal causes for the failure of education systems inthe Northeast. These are reported in Chapter 3 of Call to Action: Combating EducationalFailure in the Northeast. They also reached consensus on nine priority recomnmendations,which are outlined in Chapter 4.

2

Operationalizing the Recommendations

The publication of Call to Action: Combating Educational Failure in the Northeast does notmean that the PPO process is concluded. The implementation of these recommendationsrequires, in addition to knowledge of the technical and managerial issues involved, thepolitical will, commitment, and seriousness that state and municipal leadership need toexercise to implement them. It is also fundamental that the public understand the importanceand value of these reforms. To assure that these reforms are implemented, the PPO includesstrategies for communication and social mobilization.

A number of steps have already been taken in this direction. The PPO is carrying out anambitious program of training for all 1650 municipal education secretaries of the Northeast tomotivate and support their efforts to operationalize these recommendations. Radioannouncers from the region, who have a broad influence on the public in the Northeast,especially in areas outside of large cities, are also being trained to help communicate theimportance of the recommended reforms, and to mobilize parents to demand theimplementation of these reforms. A series of colloquia on the findings and recommendationsfrom the classroom and school effects studies were carried out, bringing together universityeducation faculty from the region with State and Municipal Education Secretariat staffresponsible for designing teacher training programs.

Other dissemination and social communication activities designed to mobilizedecisionmakers and the public, which have been agreed upon by the Consultative Group andthe coordinators, are already being initiated. These include: the preparation of a series ofnewspaper columns for distribution to the largest newspapers in the Northeast as well as toBrazil's major national newspapers; a back-to-school program to be launched at the start ofthe school year to raise the consciousness of parents and children with regard to several of therecommendations in their scope of responsibility; and a series of "Next Steps" guides formunicipal secretaries, school principals, teachers, and parents on how to implement the majorrecommendations from the PPO.

Initiatives Already Underway at the State Level

At the state level, in Ceara and Bahia, a number of actions based on the findings andrecommendations generated by the PPO have already been initiated. For example, in Bahiathe PPO has led to an overhaul of the primary teacher training system in order to give priorityto the teaching of reading in the first grade, and the introduction of a program to strengthenschools by supporting the creation of "school governments" and transferring financialresources directly to the schools. In Ceara, the state Secretariat is refocusing its trainingpolicy to respond to schools expressed training needs and to promote school-based teachertraining. The secretariat also eliminated "classes for literacy training" for preschool children.These classes contributed to the erroneous belief that children should start first grade with theability to read and that consequently first grade teachers should not be responsible forteaching reading skills.

3

Impact on Subsequent Investment Projects for the Region

The Ministry of Education is preparing a major new investment project, FUNDESCOLA(Fund to Strengthen Schools), that will be substantially based on the recommendationsincluded in this report. This project will serve as the federal government's primary instrumentto help schools and school systems in the region to overcome the constraints identified in thePPO.

4

II. The Context of Education in Brazil

The importance of education to economic development, good health and nutrition, lowerfertility rates, and participatory citizenship is as recognized in Brazil as it is worldwide.'Nevertheless, Brazil has among the worst education statistics in Latin America and the world.Within Brazil, educational outcomes in the Northeast states - the poorest in the country -are even lower than national levels. This study focuses on the outcomes of the primaryeducation system because other problems in education, such as low participation rates insecondary school and unequal access to heavily subsidized higher education, are directlyrelated to the inability of the Brazilian education system to graduate more children fromprimary school. A World Bank study on Improving the Quality of Primary Education inLatin America and the Caribbean showed that only one other country, Haiti, has a lowerprimary school completion rate, and Brazil is last in terms of the proportion of students thatcomplete primary school without repetition.2

The purpose of this study is to report on the findings of the Program of Research andOperationalization of Education Policy described in the previous chapter. It examines theconstraints to improving primary education in the Northeast, and makes ninerecommendations for overcoming them. It does not attempt to carry out a comprehensivereview and perspective of education in Brazil. The Ministry of Education's October 1996publication, The Development of Education in Brazil, is such a report. It covers theeconomic, social, and political context of education in Brazil and provides a description ofthe organization, structure, financing, management, and performance of all levels ofeducation.

World Bank Focus on Primary Education

For the past ten years the World Bank (Bank) has focused much attention on improvingprimary education in Brazil. Current projects being financed in the Northeast, Minas Gerais,Parana, and Sao Paulo are dedicated to increasing enrollment, achievement, and persistenceof primary school students. The Northeast Basic Education I Project (known in Brazil as theEDURURAL Project, fiscal 1980, Ln. 1867-BR) incorporated a large-scale longitudinalstudy to evaluate the impact on student learning and the cost-effectiveness of the varioustypes of investment to improve educational outcomes in poor rural areas of the Northeast.This study resulted in the publication in 1992 of Educational Performance of the Poor:Lessons from Rural Northeast Brazil,3 henceforth referred to as EDURURAL, that examinedthe deterrninants of continuation and achievement in school.

'Barros and Mendoca, Investimentos em Educado e Desenvolvimento Econ6mica, IPEA, 1996.2Wolff, et al., World Bank Discussion Paper no. 257, 1994.3Harbison and Hanushek, published for the World Bank by Oxford University Press: New York, 1992.

5

A Call to Action builds on that research. Specifically, it examines the supply and demandfactors affecting initial enrollment, achievement, persistence, promotion, and completion ofprimary education. As part of this research program, classroom observations and beneficiaryassessment methodologies were used to complement econometric and socio-political studiesto gain the broadest possible understanding of the factors affecting the demand foreducational services, and the relationship between demand and quality of these services. Thisinformation can help the Bank work more effectively with counterparts in Brazil to assurethat new and existing programs encourage all children to enroll in school, stay in school,learn more in school, and complete the primary cycle. Focusing on education quality factorsassociated with demand for primary schooling is in line with the Bank's emphasis onimproving educational quality in primary education, as discussed in the Country AssistanceStrategy (CAS). It also directly addresses the effect of educational policies on povertyexpressed in the CAS. The CAS recognizes the problem of low demand for education inBrazil, particularly among the poor and in rural areas, and expresses the need to address itbased on the reasoning that children who attend school, acquire basic skills, and complete theprimary cycle are less likely to remain poor.

Building Consensus

The launching of A Call to Action occurs at a propitious moment for improving education inBrazil. The federal government has given top priority to primary education, and the past twoyears have seen significant reforms in primary education in Brazil. The most important ofthese reforms is the approval in December 1996 of Constitutional Amendment no. 14/96,which assures that 60 percent of state and local tax revenues earmarked for primary educationare distributed proportionate to enrollment, and allocates supplementary federal funding toguarantee a national minimum per-student spending level. A second reform is the transfer offederal funds directly to the school level. These two reforms, designed to decentralize thefunding of primary education and diminish regional disparities, should have a profoundimpact on school quality, particularly with regard to the degree that states, municipalities,and schools effectively use these resources, and ensure that the public has efficientmechanisms to monitor the application of these finances.

Also of great importance to primary education is the approval in December 1996 by Congressof Law no. 9.394, the National Education Law (LDB), which consolidates, in a singlepackage of legislation, a broad range of regulations for all levels of Brazilian education. Thespirit of this law is to stimulate innovation and initiative on the part of the educational agents,in order to avoid excessive bureaucratization of the education systems. Moreover, in thesection on education finance, criteria are established for allocation of funds with the aim ofraising standards of opportunity, quality, and equity of education in conformity with theabove-mentioned Constitutional Amendment no. 14/96, and its accompanying legislatedregulation (known as the Fund for the Maintenance and Development of Primary Educationand Valorization of Teachers [FVM]).

In addition to these federal changes, important reforms have been introduced in many statesand municipalities. Certain states, such as Minas Gerais, Ceara, Sao Paulo, Parana,Pernambuco, and Rio Grande do Sul, as well as cities such as Porto Alegre, Belo Horizonte,

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Brasilia, Curitiba, Cuiaba, Icapuf, Iguatu, Campinas, and others, have undertaken one ormore of the following initiatives: (i) introduction of criteria for the qualification and electionof school principals; (ii) programs of support for the establishment of school councils, withpartial delegation of administrative and financial responsibility to the schools;(iii) development of state or municipal educational assessment systems to measure anddisseminate what and how well children are learning; (iv) definition of transparentoperational criteria for decentralization of funding; and (v) creation of programs to integrateor improve the coordination of state and municipal educational systems.

Besides the initiatives and reforms led by the federal, state, and municipal governments,numerous other entities and organizations have played an important role in communitymobilization aimed at keeping a steadily increasing number of children in school untilcompleting the primary cycle. Some of the most important institutions in this scenario are:(i) national associations such as CONSED, UNDIME, and CNTE; (ii) non-governmentalorganizations (NGOs) such as Acao Educativa e Centro Educacional Luis Freire; and(iii) private sector foundations such as Abrinq, Fundacao Bradesco, Fundacao RobertoMarinho, Fundacao Herbert Levy, Fundacao Clemente Mariani, Vitae, Funda,ao Odebrecht,and Fundacao Cultural Itaui. International agencies and organizations, including the WorldBank, UNICEF, UNESCO, the Inter-American Development Bank, and the Ford Foundationhave also supported the efforts of the governmental and non-governmental institutions totransform the reform of primary education into a national priority.

This report should be seen as the result of a process of consensus building among partners forwhom the thinking in the education research community is allied with the political will of thestate education secretariats and municipal education secretaries, the orientation of thefederation of teacher trade associations, and the support of international agencies. It is hopedthat this union of interests, forces, and commitment will improve the quality of existingprograms and generate new, even more effective ones to help Brazil in overcoming itsprincipal education problems.

The Performance of Primary Education

In spite of substantial and sustained progress on the educational indicators in Brazil in thepast twenty-five years, there is still much to be done to attain levels of efficiency andperformance capable of ensuring quality education for all.4 Even though the enrollment ratesof the school-aged population have increased considerably during this period, high rates ofgrade retention and low levels of success persist, indicating that the education systemcontinues to perform inefficiently.

Enrollment Rates - In the past quarter century, enrollment rates in Brazil rose from 67.1percent to 96.2 percent (see table 1). This increase suggests that Brazil has attained the globalstandard of coverage of primary education. However, some regions of the country are farbelow this level. In the Northeast, the average enrollment rate in 1970 was 55 percent; by

4Brazil. Ministry of Education and Sport. Desenvolvimiento da educacao no Brasil. 1996.

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1994, it had risen to 75 percent. Although this is a significant improvement, this figure showsthat there is still a long way to go to reach world levels.

Table 1

Enrollment, Ages 7 to 14 (percent)

1970 1983 1994

Brazil 67.1 88.0 96.2

Northeast 55.0 67.5 75.5

Sources: Brazil, MEC/SEDIAE/SEEC (1983, 1994) and IPEA Research Directorate (1970)

Grade Repetition - In the Northeast, grade repetition rates remain extremely high comparedwith the South. In spite of significant and sustained improvement throughout the Northeastregion in the past fifteen years, states such as Bahia and Ceara still have first grade repetitionrates above 50 percent.

Student Achievement - According to the most recent mathematics assessment conducted bythe National System of Evaluation of Basic Education (SAEB) in 1995, 49 percent of thechildren who complete fourth grade in the Northeast are unable to perform at the minimumexpected level. These children are unable to solve concrete problems, add fractions with thesame denominator, or identify the graphic representation of simple fractions. The sameproportion of eighth graders in the Northeast do not perform at the expected level ofmathematics mastery. For instance, this proportion of eighth graders from the Northeast areincapable of solving simple problems involving the four operations, ordering fractions withdifferent denominators, and solving simple problems involving fractions. For Brazil as awhole, these figures are 65 percent and 74 percent, respectively.

Similar results were obtained for Portuguese. Forty-two percent of fourth graders in theNortheast are incapable of reading simple texts, making a literal interpretation of the text, andidentifying the main idea. This is in contrast to 32 percent of Brazilian fourth graders overall.A full 47 percent of eighth grade students in the Northeast are unable to read and comprehendlonger texts, identify relationships between primary and secondary facts, understandpunctuation marks, and interpret simple, practical texts. In the country as a whole, only 27percent of eighth graders are unable to demonstrate this same level of mastery.

Completion Rates - One consequence of the low coverage and promotion rates is an equallylow rate of school completion. In Brazil the continual, gradual increase in investment ineducational quality since 1980 resulted in a doubling in primary school conclusion ratesbetween 1980 and 1994, from 12 to 24 percent. In the Northeast, this rate rose from 6 to 10percent in the same period.

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Teachers - In Brazil there are 69,300 primary school teachers (5 percent of the total) whohave not completed primary school. Of this total, approximately 47,000, or 68 percent, are inthe Northeast. Controlling for school location (rural vs. urban), almost all of these teachers(95 percent) are in the Brazilian rural zone, where most of the schools belong to municipalschool systems. Considering just the Northeast, the percentage of teachers in rural areas is95.7 percent. The problem is clearly linked to the urbanization process: qualified teachers arelacking in rural areas, reflecting the lower financial capability of these municipalities.

Financial Resources - Brazil's socioeconomic structure, on which the distribution ofrevenues is grounded, produces and accentuates inequality in educational finance. Thecollection of the Tax on Circulation of Merchandise and Services (ICMS), responsible for 96percent of the tax revenues of the states, is regressive because the industrialized states have alarger tax base (see table 2). Revenue sharing with the municipalities (FPM) and states (FPE)aims to reduce this inequality, but does so only partially.

Table 2Collection of :ICMS and Population by Region

ICMS 1995 (R$) Population 1991 ICMS (R$)REGION ('000) % of Total Absolute % of Total Per CapitaNorth 1,973,963 4.19 10,146,218 6.94 194.55Northeast 5,966,455 12.68 42,387,328 29.00 140.76Southeast 28,565,443 60.69 62,121,357 42.50 459.83South 7,528,065 15.99 22,079,703 15.11 340.95Centerwest 3,035,078 6.45 9,419,896 6.45 322.20Brazil 47,069,004 100,00 146,154,502 100.00 322.05Sources - ICMS: Secretariat of the National Treasury (Cash Concept); Population: 1991 Census, IBGE

An estimate of the spending potential of the public systems in each state of the Northeast ispresented in table 3. Throughout the entire region, the per pupil potential in the municipalschool systems is lower than that in the state systems.

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Table 3Enrollment in Grades 1 - 8, by System, and

Per Pupil Spending Potential in 1995

Per Pupil SpendingPotential

Enrollment (25% of Total Revenues)State Municipal State Municipal

STATE Schools Schools Schools SchoolsAlagoas l32,000 293,000 11T.6 218.13Bahia 1,161,000 1,111,000 508.79 279.28Ceara 436,000 642,000 740.36 258.15MaranhMo 407,000 777,000 508.06 134.01Paraiba 280,000 280,000 569.34 313.21Pernambuco 718,000 704,000 500.64 251.91Piaui 248,000 295,000 505.12 217.10Rio Grande do Norte 258,000 223,000 531.28 306.60Sergipe 194,000 147,000 671.84 302.55Northeast Total 3,833,000 4,472,000 564.81 248BRAZIL 17,655,000 ,9,000 628.11 495.75Sources: ICMS and Constitutional Funds: Secretariat of the National Treasury (Cash Concept);Enrollment: SEEC/SEDIAE/MEC.

To date, transfers from the Foundation for Student Assistance (FAE) and the National Fundfor the Development of Education (FNDE) have been the federal government's response tothis educational spending inequality. Unfortunately, they have had little impact for tworeasons. First, the lion's share of the funds is in general programs with no geographic focus.Second, the amounts are insufficient in the face of the dimensions of educational expenditure.In 1995, the educational expenditures of the states and municipalities would have beenapproximately sixteen billion reais (R) if the states and municipalities had complied with theconstitutional provision requiring that they apply 25 percent of their revenues to education.The amount transferred by the FNDE was only 2 billion, which is 12 percent of the spendingpotential of the states and municipalities.

The Analytical Framework

The overall objective of the PPO is to examine the causes of low enrollment and low schoolpersistence. Since these outcomes result from either inadequate demand for enrollment orpersistence in school, or inadequate supply of school places, the PPO commissioned thirteenstudies to examine these two issues. The results of these thirteen studies are presented in thenext chapter. This section provides an overview of the analytic framework.

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Inadequate Demand for Schooling

Parents' interest in sending their children to school, and children's interest in attendingregularly and completing the primary cycle, are directly related to what they both believethey will gain from this investment in time, effort, and money. Children drop out when theyand their parents conclude that the benefits of additional schooling do not exceed the directand indirect costs of going to and staying in school. The benefits considered by parents andchildren in this demand equation would include the immediate benefits associated withlearning and participation in the schooling process, along with thefuture benefits associatedwith recognition that earnings may be higher for those who complete more schooling.

Benefits

Immediate benefits can serve to increase demand for children to attend school and persistuntil school completion to the degree that children enjoy the learning that takes place, theschool experience itself, and the satisfaction of progressing through the educational cycle.

Future benefits are the expected additional earnings or other returns associated withadditional years of educational attainment. These are benefits that accrue to the learners afterthey have completed their schooling and are employed in the labor market. Although familiesand children do not evaluate the findings of inferential statistics on household survey data,they may still observe or hear reports that people with higher levels of educational attainmentalso have higher standards of living. Future benefits can serve to increase demand to thedegree that: (a) parents and children believe that these benefits can really be collected in thefuture; (b) they are able to defer gratification (have a low discount rate); and (c) they haveconfidence that they will succeed in attaining a level of education that is associated withadditional earnings (that is, they are not too risk averse).

Benefits of Schooling are a Function of School Quality. The immediate benefits of schoolingare a function of the school's ability to generate learning and make it meaningful to thestudents. Research shows that the production of learning, in turn, can be broken down into:(i) the availability and quality of the material conditions required for learning to take place,which would include books, textbooks, teacher guides, didactic materials, paper, pencils,chalk, and so on; (ii) the quality and appropriateness of teaching, including the effectivenessof the teacher's instructional strategies and teaching behaviors; (iii) the social conditions forlearning that are present in the classroom (classroom climate), including classroomorganization and student discipline; and (iv) the support for learning by the children's familyand the community. Future benefits, too, are a fiunction of school quality. To the degree thatfuture productivity depends on educational achievement, as the human capital modelpostulates, and not just on grade attainment, then individuals who acquire higher levels oflearning and content mastery as a result of a higher quality schooling program are going to bemore productive in the labor market, benefit more from on-the-job training, and be rewardedin terrns of additional earnings and job satisfaction.

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Costs

The costs that a family considers in its calculation of demand for schooling may include thepersonal costs experienced by the child associated with going to school, as well as the moretraditional costs associated with the forgone earnings of child labor and the forgone returnsfrom domestic help. Although it may not be quantifiable, a young child may experience asignificant personal cost associated with constant exposure to failure, persistent repetition,low expectations, and an unpleasant or unsafe environment.

Families may have to bear the costs associated with forgone earnings to the degree thatschool-age children are required by their parents to bring income into the family from workin the labor market, or to provide domestic help to parents who themselves may be workingoutside the home. In addition, families have to bear direct costs associated with uniforms,educational materials, and in some cases, transportation costs. These two types of costs areadded to the personal costs of school attendance and serve to reduce demand for schoolattendance and completion.

Supply of School Places

Low enrollment and persistence rates in the Northeast may be a consequence of aninsufficient supply of places in general, or in specific localities or grades. Thus, for example,a lack of schools offering classes beyond fourth grade, or a lack of places in fifth gradeclassrooms, may contribute to the poor indicators reported above.

At the beginning of the PPO process, the Northeast Basic Education Project carried out aschool macro-planning study to examine this question. The study found that although there isa surplus of classrooms in certain localities in the Northeast, there is a deficit in other regions.This is characteristic of an imbalance in the supply and demand for school places. Theaggregate data show a lack of fit of the school system to population migration, highlightingthe need for more flexible and careful planning with regard to school construction,expansion, or renovation. This same study reported that, if the present school infrastructurecontinues to experience today's level of maintenance by states and municipal educationsystems, then by the year 1999, 22,000 classrooms in the Northeast will be operating underunsuitable conditions (that is, with an excessive number of students per class, a reduced dailyschool period, or the need for an additional period between the morning and the afternoonclasses) and there will be an extreme shortage of school buildings for first through eighthgrade students. Finally, the macro-planning study found that the classroom deficit is mostlyconcentrated in the urban areas, where the problem of low school persistence is notsignificant, when compared to non-urban locations.

In summary, the macro-planning study found that although the availability of school facilitiesmay partly contribute to low enrollment and school persistence, particularly for populationslocated in the urban periphery, inadequate supply of school places is not the main cause ofthe low school enrollment and persistence characteristic of the Northeast.

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Summary: The Determinants of School Enrollment and Completion

The above section points out that, from a purely theoretical standpoint, low levels of primaryschool enrollment and completion have two main causes: (a) inadequate demand by parentsand children for beginning or additional schooling; and (b) an inadequate supply of schoolplaces. Nonetheless, the macro-planning analysis conducted in 1996 shows that inadequatesupply is not today a significant explanatory variable. Consequently, the PPO concentratedon the demand side of the equation. Demand for additional education, as discussed above,depends upon the expected benefits and costs associated with schooling, which are, in turn,determined by the quality of the educational services being supplied. Finally, as reportedbelow, the Consultative Group concluded on the basis of an analysis of the studiescommissioned by the PPO that educational quality is determined by four principal factors:(i) how the educational systems are managed; (ii) the degree to which schools' resources arefocused on children's learning; (iii) the relationship between the school and the community;and (iv) the preparation of teachers and principals.

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III. Results from the Commissioned Studies

This chapter reports on the results from thirteen commissioned studies designed to analyzeissues related to supply and demand.5 A variety of methodologies were employed to obtain abroad understanding of the demand by parents and children for school attendance,persistence, and completion; the components of demand, including the perception of theimmediate and future benefits of schooling; the relationship between these components andschool quality; and finally the relationship between school quality and system performance.The groundwork for these studies was laid by the EDURURAL study, research carried out inthe preparation of the Northeast Basic Education Project, the Parana Primary EducationQuality Project, the Minas Gerais Proqualidade Project, the Aridas Project, and othersources.

Summary of the Results from the Commissioned Studies

1. Wages and Education in Brazil: Rates of Return to Education

* Econometric analysis confirms an average rate of return (association between adultwages and level of schooling) of around 13 percent for each grade of primaryschooling completed.

* Closer analysis of this average reveals that the increase in wages is moresubstantial for those who finish first and second grade, and is practically negligiblefor subsequent grade levels of primary school.

* The rate of return once again becomes attractive for those who finish eighth grade,and grows even more for high school graduates.

* These findings are quite robust and have been fairly stable for at least two decades.

2. Financing Primary Education in Brazil

* Inequalities in finance are due to inequalities across the regions of the country andwithin the states.

* Transfers from federal programs designed to reduce funding disparities, such as theprograms of FAE and FNDE, have had little impact on these inequalities.

. The Fund for the Maintenance and Development of Primary Education and theValorization of Teachers (FVM) will significantly reduce these funding

'Abstract of these studies are included in Annex I, the Annotated Bibliography, in this volume. Annex 2, aseparate volume, contains the series "Lessons and Practice," a collection of thirteen executive summariesespecially oriented toward educational practitioners. The full reports will be published in forthcoming volumes.

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inequalities and could serve to ensure at least a minimum level of operation for allschools in the country.

3. Lessons from the Classroom

* Many teachers have a mistaken view of the role of first grade in the schoolingprocess: they expect children to begin first grade already knowing how to read andwrite, and consequently do not concentrate on literacy.

* In the classroom, pedagogy is often limited to repetitive copying from theblackboard, which contributes little to the learning process.

* Student learning is diminished by the amount of time wasted in the school and theclassroom, reducing total instruction time to an average of three and a half hours.

* Student performance is better when teachers receive pedagogical supervision.

* Classroom interaction remains teacher-centered and directed at an impersonalcollective.

4. Dual School Systems

* Shared accountability and overlapping responsibilities of the states andmunicipalities contribute to keeping the schools in precarious and unequalconditions.

* The existence of these non-articulated education systems interferes with theoptimal use of resources.

* Patronage relationships are encouraged by administrative fragmentation and theabsence of clear lines of accountability.

5. Training Teachers to Use Textbooks: A Case Study

* The lack of clearly defined outcomes makes evaluation of teacher trainingprograms difficult.

* The possession and use of mathematics and Portuguese textbooks in the first fourgrades were observed in a large percentage of the classrooms.

* Teachers not using textbooks in classroom give the following explanations: theyreceive an insufficient quantity of textbooks, they receive the books after theschool year begins, the books were not selected by the teachers themselves, or acombination of these explanations.

6. Textbook Distribution in the Northeast: Problems and Solutions

* There are recurring problems with textbook distribution due to the great diversityof government agencies and other actors in the process.

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* There is a lack of role definition in the activities of FAE.

7. Dropping Out of School: A Case Study

* Adolescents give two main reasons for dropping out of school: the need to work,and poor school quality.

* Dropouts argue that school content is not relevant to their needs in the labormarket.

8. Teacher and Principal In-service Training: A Study in Bahia

* Teacher training programs do not provide for evaluation of classroom results,which makes modification and improvement difficult.

. The programs do not provide evidence of short-term impact on studentachievement.

* The training activities focus only on immediate needs.

9. Teacher Training in the United States: A Comparative Study

* In the U.S., schools are being transformed into centers for continual learning byboth teachers and students.

* Teacher training is being decentralized in the U.S. based on perceived needs andthe demands of the school staff instead of needs determined at the central level.

* Self-management by schools is increasingly encouraged in the U.S. in order topermit the resolution of problems at the school level, reducing the need forintervention by specialists from the central units.

10. School Management Improvement Program: A Pilot Project

* Barriers to change in public school management include poorly structurededucation secretariats, the absence of managerial tools, and a lack of minimalconditions for operation.

* A model of student-centered school management clearly establishes school valuesand objectives; administrative principles; and methods, techniques andinstruments for self-evaluation.

* A school that has the minimal conditions for functioning can draw up adevelopment plan and adopt appropriate managerial techniques to improve thequality of the services it provides.

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11. The School and its Community: A Beneficiary Assessment

* There is great psychological distance between the school and the community,related to unmet expectations on both sides.

* The school does not promote community involvement in such a way as tofacilitate parental participation in the education of their children.

* The parents' lack of familiarity with the school impedes them from objectivelystating their demands. The school is still seen as a black box: the parents areunaware of what goes on inside.

* Although the school is seen by the students as a place for social exchange,socialization is not an aspect that is valued by school professionals.

12. Factors Affecting Student Achievement in Brazil: An Analysis of the1995 National Assessment System Results

* Nationwide results indicate that few students show mastery of most of the contentof the national assessment exam.ination. In the Northeast, the results are belowthe national mean.

* The best results are observed in schools that: (i) exercise direct control over theirown resources; (ii) have active councils; (iii) develop pedagogical coordination;(iv) have professional staff with positive expectations of the students; and (v) keepparents informed of their children's progress.

13. Influence of Community and Family Factors on School Performance

- The average educational attainment of adults in the community has an impact onstudent performance three times greater than that of the average educationalattainment of teachers.

* The level of schooling of women in the community has a greater impact onstudent performance than that of men.

* There is a clear positive relationship between level of urbanization andeducational performance.

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The Four Principal Causes of School Failure

This set of research studies, conducted with different methodologies, coverage, and focuses,confirms the scenario described in previously published research, and adds new details. Theresults have been broken down into four categories, as presented below.

1. Educational Systems are not Organized to Promote SchoolEfficiency

Public school systems do not and cannot promote school efficiency, giventheir organizational structure. There are many reasons for this, including thelack of coordination and articulation between state and municipalgovernments, the lack of planning, and the continued presence of politicalpatronage. As a result, public schools are neither organizationally normaterially prepared to carry out their educational function. A large majorityof schools do not guarantee minimal conditions for teaching and learning.

Several studies have highlighted the importance of school system organization, both to showtheir shortcomings and to point out the positive impacts of certain policies that have beenimplemented. The SAEB results (Lessons & Practice (L&P), no. 12) show that thosesystems whose schools exercise direct control over their resources obtain significantly betteroutcomes than those that do not. The poor performance of schools whose principals arepolitical appointees is also highlighted by the research study, Lessons from the Classroom(L&P, no. 3). The lack of evaluation of teacher training programs (L&P, no. 8), themultiplicity of actors in textbook distribution (L&P, no. 5), and the lack of systematicpedagogical supervision of and support to the schools are other problems associated withpoor school system management.

What are the reasons for these problems? The study on school system organization suggeststhat the overlapping of administrative systems makes it more difficult to optimize resources,engenders inequality of opportunities, and paves the way for political patronage (L&P, no.4). The presence of a state education system and hundreds of municipal education systemswithin the states, functioning in parallel but without coordination, and competing forresources, makes the administration of public schooling very complex. The situation isaggravated by various projects and programs operating through regional and federal agencies.The result is a system patched together by an impenetrable jumble of agreements andconflicting interests. One particularly critical point is the lack of clear regulations regardingthe interaction of the agents participating in this complex system, which engendersinefficiency, waste, and inequality of opportunities. Even more serious is the fact that thefinal responsibility for supplying quality education is not clearly assigned to any of the levels.Finally, the chief consequence of this disordered arrangement is that the secretariat'sresponsibility to strengthening schools is not a priority.

According to the school systems study (L&P, no. 4), the existence of overlapping networksis associated with:

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a) a duplication of services and administration expenditures, which makes it difficult tooptimize resource allocation, plan appropriately, and obtain reliable and integrateddata;

b) the fragmentation of authority and of administrative control over resources acrossstate and municipal governments, which generally compete for funding, resulting indifferentiated treatment of the schools, and consequently an unequal opportunity tolearn for the children;

c) the continued practice of political patronage, which impedes the establishment ofclear-cut rules for distribution of resources;

d) the virtual impossibility of coordinating educational initiatives across the publicschool system.

One of the reasons why the existence of overlapping networks is so prejudicial lies in thestructure of primary school finance. The study on this topic (L&P, no. 2) shows that thecountry's tax structure itself contributes to unequal funding. As a consequence of theuncoordinated jumble of agreements and of the insufficient amounts involved, FAE andFNDE federal transfers to date have had little impact on this inequality. Not infrequently, thepopulation of the same neighborhood is served by schools with very different opportunities tolearn. This inequality further reduces the educational opportunities of the poor.

The irrational organization of the educational system represents a serious obstacle toovercoming the situation of extreme need and unequal distribution of physical facilities andequipment. Many parents and students, when asked about the causes of educational failure,referred to the lack of maintenance of the schools, unsatisfactory sanitary conditions, and anabsence of teaching materials (L&P, no. 11). On-site classroom assessments showed that alarge percentage of classrooms lack even the most minimal conditions for functioning. Forexample, classrooms lack windows, ventilation, and adequate illumination (L&P, no. 3).Furthermore, the November 1995 report of the National System of Evaluation of PrimaryEducation (SAEB/95) shows that an overwhelming majority of schools in the Northeast lacksother amenities, such as libraries, televisions, laboratories, auditoriums, and playing fields forsports (L&P, no. 12).

The classroom observation studies also show an almost total lack of teaching materials suchas games for mathematics classes, alphabet posters, and maps (L&P, no. 3). One study foundthat in spite of the progress in textbook distribution, many teachers do not make use oftextbooks and reading books in the classroom (L&P, no. 5).

These shortfalls due to poor school system management are also reflected in the teachingstaff in the region. In rural areas, where the schools are severely stripped of financial andmaterial resources, the problems outlined above are even more complex. The lack ofresources constrains the recruitment of qualified teachers and principals.

Finally, rural schools suffer from even more inferior conditions. State secretariats ofeducation do not have effective programs aimed at addressing the specific needs of schools inthese areas. According to the results of school micro-planning studies, the majority of schoolsin the Northeast are smaller than those in the rest of the country, and most function with onlyone or two classrooms. Most lack a principal or master teacher, and maintain only a tenuous

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relationship with the central administration of their secretariat. Furthermore, small ruralschools have a lower probability of having drinking water, electricity, and other basicservices.

2. The School Does Not Prioritize Student Learning

Research shows that student performance improves substantially in schools inwhich the school staff give priority to educational achievement. However,most of the schools conduct their activities without a direct focus on thisobjective.

Responsibility for the failure of most of the schools cannot be attributed solely to systemmanagement. Another important factor, pointed out in prior research and confirmed by thePPO research, is the lack of focus by many schools (or their professional staffs) on whatshould be their main objective: student learning.

The influence of the school's principal and teaching staff on academic achievement wasanalyzed by SAEB/95. According to the published results, schools with a master teacher andprofessional staff with positive expectations of students attain markedly superior outcomeson average (L&P, no. 12). Furthermore, a school's autonomous control over at least someeducational finances is associated with a 10 percent growth in student performance. Anotherstudy, done in 1996 for the IDB,6 found a strong positive relationship between studentperformance and the selection of principals based on technical criteria.

According to a pilot study of school management (L&P, no. 10), schools that (a) areexcessively concerned with norms and regulations, (b) have weak leadership, and (c) whosestructures do not permit rapid problem-solving have an impaired capacity to provide qualityeducation. The same study showed that the mere drafting of a plan for the school has a lowerchance of improving educational outcomes than the development of a more comprehensivestrategic plan with ample participation of the school staff and community.

The lack of a school's focus on students extends to the classroom, where activities continue tobe teacher-centered and the teachers' interaction is with an indiscriminate collective: theclass. Few observations of one-on-one relationships between teacher and pupil wererecorded. Those that were observed were intended to call attention to misbehavior andmaintain discipline (L&P, no. 3). Furthermore, neither teachers nor principals value peerlearning or consider socialization aspects of schooling important to the educational process(L&P, no. 11). The concentration of teacher activities on the blackboard and on lecturing, asopposed to group activities, strengthens this impression.

Cross-tabulation of data gathered through direct classroom observation with test resultsshows that students with active, communicative, and motivated teachers obtain better results(L&P, no. 3).

6 Ricardo Paes de Barros and Rosane Mendonca, "Consequences of Repetition on Educational Performance,"IPEA, 1996 (supplementary study for PPO).

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The lack of commitment on the part of some teachers was mentioned by many students as amotive for dropping out (L&P, no. 1 1). Although some teachers continue to blame thestudents for their failure in school, the students consider their teachers unprepared to teach.There are even complaints of abuse and disrespect, as well as a high rate of teacherabsenteeism.

These problems are related to the low expectations of the teaching staff in relation to theirstudents. Data released by SAEB/90 show that a majority of school principals put studentlearning in fourth place in order of importance, behind (1) the relationships between schoolteachers and other employees;(2) administrative performance; and (3) teacher performance.The items considered least relevant are (1) dropping out; (2) repeating; and (3) passing to thenext grade. Also according to these data, student perfornance is highest precisely in schoolswhere learning is given top priority. In other words, when expectations are higher,perfornance is too.7

Several PPO studies have shown that the curriculum does not focus on student success. Manystudents say that the topics covered in the classroom have little relationship with their livesand daily needs; others stress that the curriculum does not prepare them for the labor market(L&P, no. 11). Classroom observation also revealed that, in general, little emphasis is placedon reading, mathematics, and small group activities, in spite of their potential motivatingeffect (L&P, no. 3). Results from cross-tabulation of data gathered through direct classroomobservation with student performance show that the best results are obtained when classesinclude activities in which students read and produce texts instead of just listeningandmechanically copying(L&P, no. 3).

Another conclusion is that according to the teachers' own declarations, their classes onlymanage to cover 60 to 70 percent of what they had hoped to cover in the curriculum (L&P,no. 12). One explanation for this may be the great gap, perceived in the classroomobservation study (L&P, no. 3), between the official length of the school day and its realduration. Although the average school functioning time is 229 minutes, the mean time spentin teaching is only 184 minutes. Moreover, these 184 minutes include recess and the lunchperiod, and does not account for interruptions associated with the teacher's need to addressclassroom disciplinary problems.

3. Schools are Out of Touch with their Communities

Enrolling one's children in school and keeping them there represents a majoreffort for families andfor the children themselves. This effort is only justifiedby the prospect of social advancement provided by schooling. However, thisexpectation is far from being met. Although most people may not be able toexpress their dissatisfaction, the low quality of education currently beingoffered by the public schools has been criticized by parents and students.

Families' understanding of the relationship between earnings and schooling is a determiningfactor in their decision as to whether or not to encourage their children to advance through

7Waiselfaiz, Jacob. Educacdo fundamental. Recife: Banco Interamericano de Desenvolvimiento, 1994.

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the primary school cycle. When parents believe that their children's future earnings willcompensate for today's investment in education, they make great efforts to have theirchildren progress through the schooling cycle. As reported in the study Wages and Educationin Brazil: The Rates of Return to Schooling (L&P, no. 1), the average return to an additionalyear of educational attainment is reasonable (approximately 13 percent), but the rates ofreturn vary considerably across the schooling cycle. For example, although the return to firstgrade is high (approximately 25 percent), it falls substantially thereafter. The rates of returnbegin rising again upon completion of the primary cycle and continue to climb throughoutthe secondary school cycle (attaining nearly 20 percent).

To the degree that parents and children have an intuitive knowledge of these economicoutcomes - which they should, given the stability and persistence of the rates of return -

the low levels of primary school completion are perfectly rational. First, every effort is madeto enroll children in first grade, given the high payoff associated with basic literacy. Afterthat, families compare their children's progress with the probability that they will completethe primary cycle. Research shows that that each time a child repeats a grade, he or she iseven more likely to repeat again.8 Consequently, if a child is progressing poorly in school, hisparents may conclude that he may not make it to secondary school and will not therefore reapthe benefits associated with secondary school. Following this reasoning, his parents are lesslikely to encourage him to "tough it out" after a number of repetitions.

Children themselves cite several reasons for not completing their primary school education.In addition to their complaint that they are expected to work in or outside the home inaddition to their schooling, (L&P, no. 7), children report another reason for their droppingout: their lack of interest in school. In the words of the students and parents interviewed inthe beneficiary assessment (L&P, no. 11), this lack of interest is related to poor quality ofteaching, lack of preparation of the teachers, lack of discipline in the classroom, andprecarious physical and sanitary conditions in the schools. Far from perceiving anyimmediate benefit associated with attending school, students consider the school anunpleasant environment, unable to compete with the attractions of the street.

As for parental involvement with the school life of their children, two studies (one conductedby the IDB in 1996,9 on the impact of educational innovations on school performance, andanother by SAEB, in 1995 [L&P, no. 12], on student scholastic achievement) reinforce thehypothesis that there is a strong relationship between the establishment of a school council,with parental participation, and student performance. Ratifying these conclusions, data fromSAEB/95 show that student performance is higher in schools in which the parents areroutinely informed about their children's progress.

However, beneficiary assessment interviews reveal that parents do not feel comfortable aboutbecoming involved in the school (L&P, no. 11). Many express the opinion that the teachersand principals see them as suppliers of materials or services, even though the teachers say

'Ricardo Paes de Barros and Rosane Mendonca, "Consequences of Repetition on Educational Performance,"IPEA, 1996 (supplementary study for PPO).

9 Ricardo Pes de Barros and Rosane Mendon,a."O Impacto de Gestao sobreo Desempenho Educacional." Abril1996 (IBD, Washington, DC).

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they offer the parents many opportunities to participate. At the same time, interview datafrom this study show that although the parents do value education on an abstract level, thisvaluing is essentially rhetorical, given that parents have only the most minimal knowledge ofwhat is happening, or ought to be happening, in the school and the classroom.

Another study conducted under the PPO analyzed the impact of social milieu variables onschool outcomes (L&P, no. 13). One important conclusion is that the average level ofschooling of the adults in the municipality has a significant impact on educational outcomes.In the Northeast, this impact is three times greater than that of the level of schooling of theteachers themselves. This conclusion seems to indicate that a community with a greaterconcentration of adults with higher levels of schooling has greater expectations regardingeducation, knows the mechanisms of the educational system better, and is better able to applypressure to obtain quality schooling for their children.

4. Programs for Staff Development are Ineffective andInconsistent

One fundamental factor in school success is the excellence of the school'shuman resources. The lack of a consistent policy of teacher compensation hasled the teaching career to progressively deteriorate; its main characteristicseems to be its limited attractiveness in the labor market. The result is thatmost of the professionals demonstrate neither the preparation nor themotivation requiredfor providing good quality education.

One critical variable in education is the qualifications and motivations of the professionalscomprising the school staff. To a great degree, they are the ones who make the differencebetween a school that offers good conditions for learning and one in which failure is the rule.

The data on teacher training show that in the Northeast there are approximately 47,000teachers who have not concluded the eight grades of primary school. Furthermore, dataanalyzed and published by SAEB in 1990, show that only one third of the teachers in theNortheast had been selected on the basis of technical criteria. For rural areas in the sameregion, only twenty percent of teachers were selected based on technical criteria (L&P, no.12). Furthermore, there is a shortage of trained pedagogical supervisors, the importance ofwhom is confirmed by SAEB data showing the relationship between student performance andpedagogical support (L&P, no. 12).

Much hope has been placed in training programs to improve the educational level of theteachers, but one consistent conclusion of various studies conducted in Brazil and abroad isthat short-term training courses are incapable of overcoming the deficiencies associated withinadequate initial training. Among these studies, the SAEB/95 and SAEB/90 reports and asurvey done in Bahia by the PPO (L&P, no. 8) confirm that most training activities,particularly short one-time courses for teachers or principals, have little or no correlation withstudent performance. According to other research conducted in Brazil and abroad, teachers'education and mastery of knowledge seem to have a significant positive effect on the studentachievement.

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Teacher training programs are generally oriented toward meeting demands defined by acentral body (secretariat, regional body), and do not encourage teachers to reflect on theiractivities, deepen their knowledge, or review their practice. Furthermore, there is no traditionof monitoring and evaluating these activities (L&P, no. 8). In the United States - anotherlarge federal republic with decentralized education - after years of research and intensiveevaluation, new programs are being developed by states and municipal school districts toattack this problem. Some of these programs include establishing continuous learningopportunities, encouraging self-education for teachers, and guaranteeing more available timefor reflection on practice. Furthermore, there is a movement toward decentralizing teachertraining delivery to the classrooms and schools themselves. This movement towarddecentralization is based on the recognition that teachers and school principals are in the bestposition to identify their own learning needs and the specific needs of their own students.Another aspect of U.S. teacher development programs is that they are increasingly beingdesigned to encourage the collaboration among teachers, researchers, and instructors atschools of education or other institutions involved in teacher development (L&P, no. 9).

The lack of an attractive career plan, with respectable salaries and incentives for teachers tocontinually seek to improve their teaching performance, clearly affects results across theentire system. One of the problems is that many teachers are forced to seek additionalemployment to compensate for low salaries. Half of the teachers interviewed in theevaluation studies had other occupations. In the Northeast, the situation is even worse:research done for the Aridas Project showed that in the rural Northeast in 1994, the averageteacher salary was just 20 percent of the national average. In that region, 11 percent of themonthly salaries were R$20.00 or less, and 17 percent of the rural teachers received less thanR$30.00 per month.

Implementation of the FVM should introduce a pattern of financing that will make it possiblefor the states and municipalities to establish minimum salary levels. It is up to the states andmunicipalities to make good use of this opportunity to improve the quality and motivation ofthe school staff.

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IV. Recommendations for Improving Schools

This chapter presents nine recommendations for making public education in the Northeaststrong, learning-focused, and efficient. They were developed out of a consensus-buildingprocess involving all participants in the PPO process, and are directed toward all of thestakeholders in the education system: state and municipal education secretariats, schoolprincipals and teachers, teacher training institutions, parents, and children.

Some of these recommendations are already included in the policy statements and initiativesof a number of state and municipal secretariats. This is because many government programshave been based on the research and practice of Brazilian educators over the course of manyyears. The fact that they are present in government action plans indicates that theserecommendations are practical in addition to being pertinent. Not all the recommendationsare to be implemented by the same executors. For example, some of the recommendations areto be adopted by the school itself, and others by the municipal secretariat, the statesecretariat, or the community.

1. Secretariats of Education Should Guarantee 'Opportunity-To-Learn' Standards in all Schools

Objective

'Opportunity-to-learn' standards express the presence of a minimal set of inputs andconditions required for conducting school activities related to physical facilities, equipment,teaching materials, human resources, curriculum, and management. As is the case with thedefinition of any standard, the local reality must be reflected in the parameters used. Anational standard will be established by the Ministry of Education, taking into account thefinancial potential of the poorest school systems and the FVM. Respecting this lower limit,the state and municipal systems should provide complementary definitions of their ownminimum standards.

In order to ensure that all Brazilian children have access to a functioning school, it isessential that these minimum 'opportunity-to-learn' standards be present in all the schools.

Actions

It is up to the Ministry of Education to define standards considered to be a viableminimum for the entire country. It is the responsibility of each education secretariat toadjust this minimum upward, based on the current state of the schools with regard to thisstandard and the finances available for investment and maintenance. Thus, there will beone national minimal standard, and different standards valid for all public schools (stateand municipal) in each state.

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* Once these standards have been set, it is up to the state and the municipal secretariats tomake an inventory of the status of the items present in each school in the system. On thebasis of this inventory, it will be possible to estimate the required investment to attain andmaintain the standards in each school.

. The state and municipal governments should widely publicize the definition of'opportunity-to-learn' standards, so that the parents and students may monitor theimplementation and maintenance of these standards.

* The implementation of the 'opportunity-to-learn' standards in all schools should beconsidered a strategic policy of the state. As this target is increasingly met, the standardsshould be progressively raised.

Financial Implications

Initial or Implementation Phase

The required investments, and the amount of time needed to raise all schools to theestablished standard will depend upon the funding available for investment. Externalfinancing may be necessary in the poorest regions.

Maintenance Phase

The increased funding derived from the FVM may be sufficient for maintenance of theminimum standards.

2. State and Municipal Governments in Each State ShouldRationalize their Public School System

Objective

In order to guarantee greater efficiency in resource allocation, less red tape for the schools,and equal opportunities for all children, it is necessary to strengthen state-municipalcoordination and assign clear lines of responsibility.

Actions

* It is up to the state governments to take the lead in the process of rationalizing publiceducation, although municipal governments should pursue this aim as well.

* State and municipal governments should collaborate in the provision of public schoolingin each municipality to ensure that all children in that municipality have the sameopportunity to learn and to complete their education.

. State governments should progressively transfer operational responsibility to agentscloser to the schools, such as municipal education secretariats, school councils, or otherlocal institutions.

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* State and municipal education secretariats should create or strengthen their informationsystem, with data on schools (such as the number of teachers, their salaries and ages, andthe school's physical facilities), and states and municipalities (such as the demand foreducational services, income levels, and tax base), in order to be able to plan the processof decentralization and management.

* The state secretariats should take on a greater responsibility for providing technicalassistance to the various partners involved in this process, for monitoring and evaluatingschool performance, as well as managing all phases of the process of rationalizing publiceducation.

• The state secretariats may also promote the strengthening of the municipal educationsecretariats and the creation of municipal education councils with parental participation.

* Capital cities and major urban centers should be given priority by the state in the divisionof functions and responsibilities.

* These actions should lead to a gradual reduction of the burden on the state secretariats,leaving them more time for other tasks such as (i) ensuring that all the public schools inthe state meet the 'opportunity-to-learn' standards; (ii) setting, measuring, and reportingon the achievement of these and other educational standards; (iii) coordinating, withmunicipalities, the implementation of educational policies; (iv) increasing every effort touniversalize primary education; and (v) expanding the provision of secondary education,as stated in the National Education Law (LDB).

Financial Implications

Initial or Implementation Phase

a. Training of local management teams

b. Remodeling of facilities before transferring them to the new management

c. Implementation or strengthening of the Management Information System

d. Reduction by the state secretariats of direct managerial expenditures

e. Increase in state and municipal expenditures on supervision

f. Increase in direct managerial expenditures by the municipal secretariats

3. Secretariats of Education Should Tailor Programs to SchoolsLocated in Rural Areas

Objective

Overcoming high rates of failure in the rural schools is an element of fundamentalimportance in the country's socioeconomic development agenda. Educational planning at all

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levels should take as its starting point the rural-urban differences, establishing appropriateguidelines and" strategies.

Actions

* The state secretariats, in close coordination with the municipal bodies involved, shouldevaluate the institutional and geographic factors relevant to the issue of providingschooling in rural areas in order to decide the most efficient way to maintain them: spreadout, but with a strong system of technical support; or grouped around central schools,regional agencies of the state secretariat, or municipal education units. This decisionshould be grounded in locale-specific considerations, including on-site administrative andtechnical capacity, socio-economic conditions, and local geography.

. Municipal and state secretariats should develop and implement appropriatemethodologies to meet the specific needs of rural schools, such as programs designed formulti-grade schools (for example, Escola Ativa from the Northeast Basic EducationProject), the adoption of a calendar compatible with agricultural activities, guaranteeddistribution of textbooks and other educational materials, and programs of technicalassistance for small schools without principals.

* The state and municipal secretariats should guarantee unlicensed teachers an opportunityto complete their studies, as provided for by the new LDB. These teachers are to beencouraged to upgrade their educational level, in order to benefit from the opportunitiescreated by the FVM.

Financial Implications

Initial or Implementation Phase

a. Meet with representatives of state and municipal public schools in the rural areas

b. Adapt and prepare appropriate teaching and teacher training materials

Maintenance

a. Sending professionals to provide pedagogical assistance to the schools

b. Acquisition and distribution of appropriate teaching materials

c. Provision of credential courses for unlicensed teachers, whenever possible utilizingdistance learning resources

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4. The Education Secretariat's Top Priority Should be toStrengthen SchoolAutonomy

Objective

The education secretariat needs to be clear about the central focus of its actions. Today, thesecretariat serves a diversified clientele of students, teachers, principals, the community,regional education bodies, and government leaders. Instead of attempting to focus on thesemany clients, the secretariat should give priority to its function as provider of services to theschool. Once this position has been clarified, it will be possible for the secretariat tostrategically direct their resources to strengthening the school and increasing the likelihood ofstudent success.

Actions

The education secretariat should focus its responsibility on the following functions:implementing the opportunity-to-learn' standards for the schools within its territory;budgeting for the costs of this implementation; developing and implementing a set ofstrategies to raise all the public schools to the minimum standards; supporting theexecution of this strategy and the dissemination of the results; and promoting greaterleeway for school decisionmaking, by creating an assessment system for selectingprincipals on the basis of technical criteria, forning school councils, and channelingfunds directly to the school.

Financial Implications

Initial and Maintenance Phase

The implications of this recommendation point much more in the direction of a moreefficient allocation of resources, rather than additional funding requirements.

5. The School's Top Priority Should Be Student Learning

Objective

It is of fundamental importance for the school to adopt a model of management that willimprove learning. This is related to the preparation of a school development plan, whichis an instrument of orientation for the entire school staff; and to the adoption ofmanagerial methods and techniques that stress teamwork, decisionmaking based on factsand data, parental participation, and a student focus. In contrast to a mere statement ofintentions, the school development plan should include a clear and explicit definition ofvalues, a vision of the future, a mission statement, and annual targets, as well as thestrategies and action plans that will support long-term objectives.

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Actions

• To be fully satisfactory, this measure assumes that the school has already attained the'opportunity-to-learn' standards. When the school lacks the minimum inputs forfunctioning, the implementation of the development plan may be compromised.

* Once the secretariat of education has made the school its top priority, it is up to theeducation secretariat to realign its actions to involve its team and its resources in theeffort to strengthen the school. It is the secretariat's responsibility to provide managerialinformation and operational conditions for each school to implement its developmentplan. To that end, it will be necessary to:

develop and distribute to the schools technical and managerial materials, with astep-by-step description of the methodology for preparing the school developmentplan and for effective management of the processes;

. establish a system to provide regular technical support to the schools, withmanagement training, direct transfer of funds, and subsequent evaluation;

, provide direct transfer of resources to the schools that prepare a schooldevelopment plan, so that they may employ them to fund their own priorities, asdefined in the plan;

# publicize the program for strengthening the school in the community;

# provide incentives for implementation of the school development plan and ofmodern management methods and techniques, while respecting the right of theschools to adopt other functional alternatives; and

* orient the school principals to lead the process of preparation, implementation,monitoring, and evaluation of the plan, in a participatory manner, involving theschool staff as well as the parents.

Financial Implications

Initial and Maintenance Phase

It is necessary to guarantee the direct transfer of funds to the schools, so that schools canspend their resources in accordance with their priorities.

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6. The School Should Establish an Environment that PromotesSuccess for all Students

Objective

Besides offering minimum 'opportunity-to-learn' standards and operating under a schooldevelopment plan, a good school is characterized by a profile of high expectations for allstudents, an environment that encourages learning, and a commitment to the scholasticand social success of the students. Other characteristics of such an environment includemotivated students, teachers who are interested in the success of the students, a rationaladministration, parents and students informed about scholastic performance, and a cleanand orderly school building - in short, a school that everyone respects and whereeveryone is respected.

Actions

* The principal and the teachers should recognize that all students can learn and have theright to do so, and that no student should be left back. This requires a commitment on thepart of the school team to the success of all of the students, expressed in teaching planswith learning activities prepared to support slow learners, whileensuring that the moreadvanced students feel stimulated. To facilitate this task, the teacher should employ groupdynamics and adopt strategies that are associated with student success.

* At the beginning of the school year, the principal should meet with the staff to togetherdetermine a series of basic measures and responsibilities-related expectations regardingthe students, relationships between the students and the school staff, and conservation offacilities and equipment. These rules should be written and distributed to all the teachers,students, and parents, stressing that their aim is the success of the students. Theaccomplishments of the school should be publicized within the school itself.

X The principal should ensure that the school is structured in such a manner as to guaranteemuch more time for teaching activities per se, especially in mathematics, reading, andstudent-directed writing. The principal should work with the teachers to make better useof each school day.

• With the aim of defining a curricular program that takes as its starting point the cultureand knowledge that the children bring with them to school, the principal shouldcollaborate with the school staff in the development of a curriculum that is compatiblewith the national parameters and guidelines of the state secretariat, as well as appropriateto the reality of their own school and environment. The objectives and means of studentevaluation should be clearly stated for each grade.

* The principal should establish a permanent program of classroom observation. The aim ofthis exercise is to increase the principal's knowledge about the teachers, as well as toenable him to suggest to the teachers the adoption of more efficient strategies, furtheringbetter dialogue between the parties.

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* The school principal should see to it that all first grade teachers develop a beginningliteracy program, because most of the students will not yet have learned to read and write.This measure may go against the expectations many teachers have that children alreadyknow how to read and write when they start school. The importance of the first year mustnot be underestimated, because many of the problems children face in subsequent gradesmay be traced, directly or indirectly, to that grade.

. Furthermore, in first grade, educational games and reading books should always beavailable in the classroom. The bridge between the real world and reading, writing, andmathematics needs to be built right away.

* The principal and the teachers should reach an agreement on the basic set of schoolmaterials that must exist in each classroom to support the teaching activities. Thesedefinitions should be guided by the minimum standards set by the secretariat, but not belimited by them. Each teacher should certify that the basic set of materials is in his or herclassroom. If the minimum package is incomplete, they should seek the support of theprincipal and, if necessary, the community.

* The teacher should be aware that all students can learn and have the right to do so, andthat no student should be left back. This requires a commitment to the success of all ofthe students, expressed in teaching plans with learning activities prepared to support slowlearners, while ensuring that the more advanced students feel stimulated. To facilitate thistask, the teacher should employ group dynamics and adopt strategies that have proven tobe associated with student success.

* The teaching team should plan the actions to be taken if failure occurs, such assimultaneous remedial activities, extension of the daily school period, reinforcementexercises, and student monitors.

Financial Implications

Initial or Implementation Phase

The reinforcement or remedial activities may benefit from the rationalization of the use of theschool facilities, or may require remodeling and expansion of the building.

Maintenance

The reinforcement or remedial activities may benefit from adoption of a single schoolperiod, or may require payment of overtime to the teachers responsible for them.

The introduction of literacy as a first grade content will require acquisition of appropriateteaching materials, as well as the inclusion of specific methodologies in the trainingactivities, with the corresponding need to prepare or acquire training materials.

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7. The Schools Need to Build Common Partnerships with theirCommunities

Objective

* Ensuring real family participation in the schools means much more than occasionalrequests for collaboration. Respect for local culture and the interests of parents manifestsitself in the way parent-teacher meetings are organized and conducted. From the issue ofwhen and how often parent-teacher meetings are held, to the type of language used, andthe content, these encounters can transmit a genuine interest on the part of the school tobuild a partnership with parents in the process of educating the children, or merelyconvey bureaucratic compliance with statutory obligation.

* When parents involve themselves with the school and the teaching process, they play avaluable role in the education of their children and the transmission of the culture of theirsocial group. This attitude translates into greater probability for student success.Furthennore, a well-informed community can find more efficient ways to press forimproved school quality.

Actions

* The principal should stimulate the creation of school councils, the composition andfiunctioning of which should increase the involvement of the adults of the community inthe school.

* The school principal should work together with local associations and organized groupsto map the socio-cultural characteristics of the community, such as its values, habits,problems, history, leaders, and so on. This exercise may yield three kinds of dividends: ithelps students and teachers to recognize the importance of the cultures of different socialgroups - for example, to value cultural diversity - which is the basis for tolerance anddemocratic fellowship; it increases the self-esteem of community members, throughbringing their culture into the school; and it strengthens the partnership between theschool and the community.

* It is the responsibility of the parent-teacher associations to reinforce the educationalwork.

* In the meetings with the parents, issues such as academic results, school performanceindicators (repeating, passing, and dropout rates), minimum standards of schooloperation, the school development plan, and parents' role in student success should bediscussed.

. The teachers should discuss the students' academic progress separately with theirrespective parents.

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Financial Implications

Initial or Maintenance Phase

Acquisition or preparation of publicity materials may be funded out of the direct transfers tothe school.

8. The Education Secretariat Should Establish Strategies andIncentives for the Career Development of School Staff

Objective

It is urgent that state and municipal education secretaries establish standards for teachersthat will increase the attractiveness of a teaching career vis-a-vis other professionaloptions. Differentiated remuneration and career advancement should be tied to factorsassociated with student performance, such as the teacher's mastery of the subject .Measures of this type should, in the medium term, result in better qualified professionalsand a true valuing of the teaching career.

Actions

* Entrants into the teaching career should comply with the minimum standards ofqualification established in the new LDB. The FVM can be used to create new salaryincentives to stimulate those qualified to teach to embark on a teaching career andmotivate others to attain these standards.

* The state and municipal secretariats should develop their promotion plans, taking intoaccount all categories of education professionals. In drawing up or redefining their careerplans, the secretariats should value professional advancement based on factors such ascumulative teaching experience and mastery of scholastic content, which may bemeasured through the voluntary administration of a standardized test, for example. TheFVM may also be used to finance incentives for teachers who show outstandingperformance.

* Secretariats should review, refine, and implement their respective school staff careerplans, in order to ensure that they include incentives to the professionals to broaden theirknowledge.

* It is the responsibility of the state and municipal secretariats to encourage the teachers'active participation in determining the content of the training opportunities to be offered.As much as possible, these activities should be conducted in their own schools.

. The state and municipal secretariats should promote cooperation between the schools andthe institutions responsible for the training programs, beginning in the planning stage. Inthis way, educators at those institutions will get a closer look at the problems of theschools, which will make their contributions more valuable.

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* Institutions responsible for teacher training programs should continually evaluate theresults of these activities based on to the degree to which the objectives of each activityhave been achieved.

* The state and municipal secretariats should provide incentives for adoption of full-timecontracts for teachers so that they include all of his or her hours in the same school. Thisshould result in greater teacher commitment to this school and its students, as well as in agreater degree of involvement.

Financial Implications

Maintenance

The costs, which will grow as qualifications improve, may be partly funded out of the FVMand the savings derived from optimization of the management of the school networks.

9. The Secretariat Should Utilize Technical Criteria when HiringSchool Principals

Objective

* The importance of the principal's performance in determining school results has beendemonstrated both in theory and in empirical research. The relationship between suchperformance and the process of selection of the occupants of that office has beenemphasized in research that shows lower results when the appointment is madeexclusively on the basis of political interests. Alternatives to establishing technicalcriteria for candidacy for the post, as well as a requirement that those chosen participatein specially designed training activities, should be encouraged. Selection of principalscould serve as a complementary mechanism, allowing parent associations to elect from apool of qualified candidates

Actions

* The education secretariat should take the first step, clearly announcing its intention tomodify prevailing practice and introduce a new way of choosing principals. As is the casein every change that affects established interests, the support of the population, andprincipally of parents, students, and education professionals, is crucial to the acceptanceof a new pattern of selection of principals.

* It is up to the school councils and the associations representing education professionalswho are committed to improved educational quality to support the state secretariat in theimplementation of the new model.

* The definition of criteria and forms of selection of principals should be clearly expressedand widely publicized. In this task, the education secretariats can count on theparticipation of school councils, universities, and other interested parties.

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Financial Implications

The costs are limited to holding the election, the public competition, and the trainingactivities.

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Annotated Bibliography

1. Wages and Education in Brazil: Rates of Return to Education

Authors

.Ricardo Paes de Barros and Rosane Mendonca

Objective

To evaluate the degree to which each additional year of schooling affects lifetimeearnings, and whether this may provide an incentive for children to remain in school.

Methodology

The methodology involved estimating the rates of return to education using a modifiedMincer-type model to regress mean log earnings on years of education and othervariables. The methodology employed permits the estimation of the lifetime earningsbenefit of each additional year of educational attainment from first grade throughuniversity education.

Universe

The universe includes nine regions or states aggregated in the following way: Rio deJaneiro, Sao Paulo, Minas Gerais and Espirito Santo; Maranhao and Piaui; Ceara, RioGrande do Norte, Paraiba; Pemambuco, Alagoas, and Sergipe; and Bahia.

Sample

* National Program of the Households (PNAD) from 1981 through 1990

* the 1991 IBGA national census

Reason for this study

Children's persistence in school until they complete the primary cycle is related to theperceived future earnings benefits of each additional year of education. This perception isinformed by the degree to which adults today earn more if they have more years ofschooling. Estimation of the rates of return to education is fundamental to the formulationof policies that are designed to increase demand for education. It is also critical to thedevelopment of policies to improve the equity of income distribution and reduction ofpoverty.

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Results

(1) The rates of return to education in the Northeast are W-shaped, as they are in other partsof Brazil, and as they have been for the past 20 years. The earnings benefit of completingthe first grade, compared with no schooling at all, is very high - in the order of 25percent. The rates of return to additional years drop below 10 percent, and then climb upto about 15 percent for completing fourth grade. After this, they drop down again to about10 percent and do not begin climbing again until secondary school. From 9th gradethrough secondary school the rates of return climb steadily to 20 percent, and continuerising through post-secondary education.

(2) The low economic returns associated with upper primary schooling reduce the incentiveto complete the primary cycle.

(3) Over the past 20 years, the economic returns to upper primary have been decliningsomewhat, although those to secondary and post-secondary have been increasing. Theseeffects are more pronounced in the Northeast than in other parts of Brazil.

Recommendations

A) Curriculum and Classroom:

Give children other reasons to like school. School must be valued as a place tobuild social relationships as well as to learn.

B) School-Community:

The schools should work together with parents to help them to understand thatlearning is a long-term process, and that an education is necessary to thrive intoday's society.

C) Secondary Education:

Provide more opportunities for children to advance to secondary education,where rates of return are higher. This may be an added incentive for childrento complete upper primary education, where rates of return are lower.

D) Compensatory Policies:

Adopt compensatory programs as a way to compete directly with the labormarket as a way to help keep all children in school.

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2. Financing Primary Education in Brazil

Author

* Sergei Soares

Objective

To analyze the mechanisms of the financing of basic education and to estimate the impactof the Fund for the Maintenance and Development of Primary Education and Valorizationof Teachers (Fundo de Valoriza,co do Magisterio [FVM])

Methodology

. Simulation

Data

* Administrative Financial System of the Union (SIAFI)

* Financial Systems of States and Municipalities (SIAFEM)

* Educational Census

* data made available by FAE and FNDE

Sample

3,651 school systems in 3,624 municipalities in twenty-four states

This sample accounts for 26,567,478 enrolled students in first through eighth grade (thatis, 96 percent of the 27,572,735 children enrolled in state and municipal schools in Brazilin 1995).

Reason for this study

To analyze the rules of the FVM as a possible instrument to reduce inequalities betweenmunicipalities and to establish minimum standards for educational inputs

Results

(1) The great inequality in educational financing is a consequence of the federal system ofdistribution of taxes and revenues. The voluntary federal transfers of FAE and of theFNDE have no impact on the inequality because they account for less than 10 percent ofstate and municipal educational revenues and they have no targeted geographic focus.

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(2) The impact of the FVM upon the equality of education financing will be very strong,especially in the Northeast. The increase in per-student investment will be R$28.00 inBrazil overall, but will approach R$65.00 in the Northeast. Nationally, 17.1 millionenrolled students will gain through this redistribution, and 7.8 millions will lose. Theapplication of measures of inequality indicates that the FVM will have a strong impact onincome distribution among municipalities.

Recommendations

A) Financing - The Ministry of Education should help the states establish 'opportunity-to-learn' standards for schools.

B) System Management

* (i) State: Improve the preparation of state secretaries to assume the multipleroles of manager, coordinator, and supervisor of all the networks in the state.In addition, the secretaries should establish a pennanent system of evaluationto assure the quality of teaching;

* (ii) Municipal: Technical assistance should be given to the municipalities toguarantee the most efficient use of the FVM resources. The implementation ofthe FVM will coincide with the new mayoral administration in 1997.

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3. Lessons from the Classroom

Authors

* Sofia Lerche Vieira and Adelia Luiza Portela

Objective

To describe what happens in the public school classrooms and to establish associationswith student performance

Methodology

Direct classroom observation, teacher questionnaires, school characteristics survey, socio-economic data of students, a standardized Portuguese achievement test

Universe

* First grade classrooms in public schools in Ceara and Bahia

Sample

* 140 classes in 94 municipal and state schools

Reason for this study

# To evaluate the conditions for learning present in classrooms

Results

(1) Repetition does not contribute to student achievement.

(2) The lack of discipline in the classroom makes teaching difficult.

(3) The teacher blames students for their poor performance.

(4) The political appointment of school principals compromises school performance.

(5) The classroom is focused on the teacher and teacher activities, rather than on thestudents.

(6) There is a lack of basic materials necessary for learning in many classrooms.

(7) When teachers have access to a pedagogic coordinator in the school, overall studentperformance improves.

(8) In-service teacher training courses are not able to address the weak initial preparation ofteachers.

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(9) The emphasis on routine activities does not motivate students.

(10)There is very little actual teaching accomplished during the school hours.

(1 )Less than 10 percent of class time is devoted to teaching mathematics; similarly, littletime is devoted to teaching reading. The predominant activity in the classroom is thecopying of material that the teacher has written on the blackboard.

(12)Student achievement is related to teacher verbal skills and literacy, as measured by ananalysis of teacher writing passages.

(13)Children perform better on standardized tests in classrooms that teachers have set up withactivities where students will be reading and writing, and not merely listening.

Recommendations

A) System - Introduce initial literacy training (introduction of the alphabet) into firstgrade, since most students do not know how to read and write when they enter. Introducealternative programs to upgrade the skills and knowledge of repeaters (such asaccelerated teaching) so that they can be assigned to classrooms with children their ownage. Pedagogic supervision should be integrated with in-service teacher training.

B) System - Teacher in-service training programs should be highly focused on helpingpracticing teachers model their teaching strategies and behaviors on those that are provenmost effective in engaging students and raising their achievement, such as aninstructional dynamic that is more active and engaging.

C) System - Establish as a prerequisite to school principal selection a minimum set ofcandidate qualifications.

D) Physical Structures and Material - Guarantee minimum 'opportunity-to-learn'standards for all schools.

E) Teacher - Teachers should use their time more effectively in the classroom, includingdevoting more class time to teaching math, writing, and reading.

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4. Dual School Systems

Author

* David Plank

Objective

To analyze the state and municipal systems, their interconnection and prospects forunification

Methodology

+ Interviews with administrators and policymakers, policy documents, state and municipalfinancial studies

Universe

* School administration and management in the Northeast

Sample

* Case studies in Bahia and Ceara

Reason for this study

To analyze how the presence of dual education systems gives rise to a duplication ofservices and unnecessary expenditures, complicates educational planning, and perpetuatescronyism.

Results

(1) The existence of parallel school systems impedes the optimal use of resources, adequateplanning, and the procurement of reliable data. The fragmentation of authority and ofadministrative control of resources, together with the proliferation of administrativeagencies, results in the differential treatment of schools, generating inequalities ofopportunity.

(2) Clientelism makes possible administrative discontinuity, inequalities between schoolsand school systems, and impedes the establishment of transparent rules for thedistribution of resources.

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Recommendations

A) Management of the system

* Provide equal treatment for all schools, with transparent administrativeresponsibility in each school

* Encourage community involvement through the establishment of communitycouncils that could help to supervise municipal schools.

B) Linkages between the systems

Encourage more cooperation between the various agencies, establishing astandard for communication and regular exchange of information between theagencies involved

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5. Training Teachers to Use Textbooks: A Case Study

Author

* Wilsa Maria Ramos

Objective

* To evaluate a teacher training program that accompanied the adoption of textbooks

Methodology

* Analysis of interviews, questionnaires, and institutional documents

Universe

0 Teachers in Ceara

Sample

* 326 teachers from 192 schools in 52 municipalities of Ceara, including Fortaleza

Reason for this study

To determine if the objectives of the program to train teachers how to use textbooks werereached

Results

* The training partially achieved the intended objectives, taking into account the reducedtime devoted to it.

* The absence of a set of previously defined expected results made the evaluation difficult.

* The study indicated that a large percentage of students in the first four grades bothpossess and use mathematics and Portuguese books.

* Of those students who did not have access to the textbooks, reasons given included:personal choice of the teacher, late arrival of the textbooks, or insufficient number oftextbooks upon arrival.

Recommendations

A) School Management--

Train school directors in how to oversee the use of textbooks.

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B) Management of the System-

* (i) State Level: Develop a decentralized monitoring system to oversee thearrival of textbooks in the school.

* (ii) Federal Level: MEC/NEBE campaigns to encourage the use of textbooks.Follow-up to training programs on textbook use. University research andevaluation of the impact of textbook use on student performance.

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6. Textbook Distribution in the Northeast: Problems andSolutions

Author

* Rodolfo SanjurJo

Objective

To analyze the textbook distribution process and recommend procedures that optimizethis operation

Methodology

* Direct observation of the process, through managers and beneficiaries of the textbooks

Universe and Sample

T The Northeast - Distribution of 47 million textbooks to 6 million children in 80,000schools

Reason for this study

To understand why textbooks continue to arrive late or in insufficient quantity, whichimpedes teaching and learning

Results

T he transport and storage of textbooks is difficult, as is the monitoring of the process.

There are many different actors in the process, from the time the books leave thepublishers until they arrive at the school.

There is a lack of clear definition of the roles of: the state secretaries of education, themunicipal secretaries of education, and representative of FAE in the states. Attempts torationalize book distribution between schools and systems (state and municipal) are donelocally on an ad hoc basis, with insufficient information.

Recommendations

A) System Management - In order to improve accountability, each government agencyshould be assigned a prescribed task in book distribution, and the community should beincluded in the process.

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B) Equipment, Physical Plant, and Materials -To introduce more control into the process,book requests and receipts should be routinely registered, which would also aid periodiccensus data.

C) Resource Allocation - Resources should be made available to schools so that they candirectly acquire textbooks.

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7. Dropping Out of School: A Case Study

Author

* Paulo Roberto de Holanda Gurgel

Objective

To analyze the causes of school dropout among poor, urban youth residing in Salvador,Bahia

Methodology

* Mini-beneficiary assessment

Universe

* School dropouts living in Salvador, Bahia

Sample

Young dropouts between the ages of eleven and eighteen, five male and five female, andtheir parents, living in Salvador, Bahia

Reason for this study

Though it is known that the major cause for dropping out is repetition, it is still importantto try to understand from the parents' point of view the main reasons that their childrenleft school.

Results

These children did not see school as a possible way to improve their future. The parentsalso did not clearly see a link between school and a better life.

* Work (outside the home for boys and inside the home for girls) was one of the principalreasons these young people left school, but not the only reason.

* They also cited lack of discipline in the classroom, poor quality of school, dislike forschool, and their attraction to street activities that are fun as additional reasons for leavingschool.

* The youth also noted that teachers were not prepared, and also cited poor physical andsanitary condition of schools.

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The parents tended to blame the children for their poor school performance as the causeof school failure and dropout.

Recommendations

A) School Management - More community involvement in school management.

B) Equipment and Physical Plant - Schools must be brought up to minimum standards(MOSS).

C) Integration of the school and community - (i) Create simple instruments for a schoolevaluation system; (ii) Institute work-study programs; (iii) Put more emphasis on theenjoyable aspects of learning; and (iv) promote a closer relationship with parents.

D) Teachers - Pay teachers dignified salaries, provide punishments for absenteeism, rewardefficiency and responsibility, and require that teachers make a commitment to theirstudents.

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8. Teacher and Principal In-service Training: A Study in Bahia

Authors

* Ana Lucia Magalhaes and Coriolinda de Carvalho

Objective

* To examine teacher training programs in order to inform their designers

Methodology

* Study of documents, field study, direct observation, and questionnaire responses

Universe

A) The state of Bahia

a At the state level - Projects of the Instituto Anisio Teixeira (IAT/SEC-BA)and of the Instituto de Radiodifusdo Educativa de Bahia (IRDEB/SEC-BA)

* At the municipal level - Municipalities of Stage 1 in the ProgramaComunidade Soliddria (PCS-1) and the population surveyed during thebeneficiary assessment study

Sample

* Fifty-five in-service teacher training programs including courses, pedagogic workshops,study sessions, seminars, pedagogic meetings, and informal in-service training

Reason for this study

* To evaluate in-service teacher training courses

Results

* Few training programs included an evaluation to identify the courses' effects on both theteachers and students.

* In spite of the preoccupation of the states and municipalities with teacher training, itseems to have little effect on teaching. The interviewees affirmed that teacher traininggenerally was given as a response to an immediate need, and that it did not permitreflection, the deepening of learning, or attitudinal changes.

+ They also criticized the fact that political considerations affected teacher training courses.

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Recommendations

A) Unlicensed teachers - Provide these teachers with the opportunity to complete theireducation and then to compete through a selection process based on technical merit

B) Teachers and Principals - Improve work conditions, define a career plan that rewardsfurther education, and encourage teachers to work full-time

C) Teacher Training Programs - Design and evaluate teacher training programs in terms ofcosts, their potential effects on the participants' teaching and on school organization.Evaluation and consolidation of partnerships with universities. Provide teachers timeduring the school day to participate in training courses. Introduce clear objectives toteacher training programs.

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9. Teacher Training in the United States: A Comparative Study

Author

# Terri Demsky

Objective

To describe problems affecting teaching preparation in the U.S., another large federalrepublic with decentralized education, and the approaches to teacher training programsdesigned to overcome these problems

Methodology

* Analysis of documents and interviews with U.S. agency directors

Universe

* Teachers and teacher training programs in the United States

Reasons for this study

* To identify possible models for Brazilian professional teacher development programs

Problems affecting the Teaching Force in the U.S.

(1) Initial teacher education is considered poor even in the U.S..

(2) There is still a very high proportion of non-certified teachers in the classroom.

(3) Most teachers have little time for preparation and too many students.

(4) Investment in teacher development and salaries is considered low by U.S. experts.

New Models for In-service Teacher Programs are being Implemented inthe U.S.

A) Teacher development is increasingly being considered a life-long process, and schoolsare being treated as centers of continuous learning for teachers as well as students.

B) Teacher development is increasingly decentralized and demand-driven, with content andskill-training demands determined by the teachers themselves.

C) Teachers and schools are being encouraged to solve their own problems instead ofrelying on experts from the central office to do so. Furthermore, teachers are being givenmore time for reflection and self-evaluation.

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D) Efforts are being made to encourage more collaboration between teachers within aschool, and especially across schools.

E) Teacher networks are being developed for teachers with common interests.

F) Incentives are increasingly being provided to encourage active research by teachers intheir own classrooms.

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10. School Management Improvement Program: A Pilot Study

Authors

* Jose Amaral Sobrinho and Ant8nio Carlos Resurreicao Xavier

Objective

To create and evaluate pilot projects in several states in the Northeast to test a schoolmanagement model focused on improving educational quality as measured by studentperformance

Reason for this study

In order to improve educational outcomes in Brazil, it is necessary to develop anddisseminate school management models that can improve school efficiency. These casestudies of pilot projects were designed to help point out how that should be accomplished.

Lessons learned

* To improve quality, the school team must come together to articulate a development plan.All school staff must be included in developing this plan, which clearly defines thatschool's values and priority mission, the school's management principles, methods,techniques and instruments for self-evaluation.

* This type of school management depends on the cooperation of the school staff and theircommitment to both improving school quality and serving each school's students,parents, and community.

Recommendation

A) At the secretariat level: The state secretary should make a political commitment tostrengthening school management devoted to quality, and create the structures to providethe necessary technical and financial support as well as follow-up and continuousevaluation to bring it about. The NEBE could work together with the state secretariats todevelop a guide that would serve to walk schools through the process of developing theirown school plans.

B) At the school level - With the support of the state secretariat, the school shouldelaborate its own development plan, in which the strategic vision of the school (values,mission, and principle objectives for the long term) is defined. The central objective ofthe school development plan is to identify the means to reach the proposed objectives andgoals, assign responsibilities, and determine time frames for their implementation.

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11. The School and its Community: A Beneficiary Assessment

Authors

* Adelia Luiza Portela e Sofia Lerche Vieira

Objective

To understand the perceptions that beneficiaries and users of public education have of theschooling process

Methodology

* Qualitative, based on an analysis of interviews

Universe

* Schools and communities in Bahia and Ceara

Sample

* Phase 1: 126 open-ended interviews or discussions with students, parents, teachers, andother community members - 62 individuals in Bahia, the municipalities of Itabuna andSalvador; and 64 in Ceara, the municipalities of Jucas and Maracanaui

* Phase 2: (data collected and under analysis): An additional 553 individuals in 24municipalities in Ceari and Bahia

Reason for this study

The principal actors involved with the school are not ministers, governors, or statesecretaries of education, but people from the community. To understand the vision thateach of these social groups has of the others is of fundamental importance for developingpolicies to improve quality in the public schools.

Results

(1) Students do not find the curriculum content relevant or interesting.

(2) The social aspect of schooling is valued by the students, but not recognized by teachersor other adults in the community.

(3) The school is a black box to parents: they have no idea what is happening within theclassroom, or what should be happening there.

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(4) Though nearly everyone interviewed stated that they value education, deeper analysisand an assessment of the reports from students, teachers, and other adults on their ownactions, indicates that this valuing of educationis essentially pro forma.

(5) Parents, teachers, and other community members consistently blame the students forpoor academic performance.

Recommendations

A) At the school level - Make school more interesting: improve the curriculum andorganize the class so that instruction is more active and engaging (for example, throughgroup learning rather than copying from the blackboard). Identify children havingdifficulties and at-risk of dropping out and provide early interventions such as classes ofaccelerated teaching.

B) At the state secretariat level - In-service teacher training should be developed based onrequests from the schools, and the necessary evaluation and follow-up should beprovided. Essentially, the secretariats should provide more financial, administrative, andpedagogic autonomy to the schools. In addition, the secretariats should review andredevelop the curriculum with the goal of making it more relevant and interesting.Finally, the state secretariats should make every attempt to inform parents and studentsconcerming their rights, and what they should be able to expect from their schools.

C) At the secretariat and ministerial level - Assure that all schools have manipulativematerials so critical to learning in the early grades.

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12. Factors Affecting Student Achievement in Brazil: An Analysisof the 1995 National Assessment Results

Authors

Maria Helena Guimaraes de Castro, Maria Ines Pestana, Maria In8s Fini, Luiza Vema,Jacobo Waiselfisz

Objectives

* To measure the quality and competency of teaching

* To verify the factors that are related to quality

* To accompany the evolution of these factors and their effect on students over the longterm

Methodology

* National spiral-bib sampling methodology with test instruments developed on the basis ofitem response theory

* Correlation between students' test scores on Portuguese and mathematics tests

* A variety of school and community factors were used to produce the findings in thisreport.

Universe

Students from grades four, eight, and the third year of secondary school (1995 was thefirst year that any national testing of secondary school was conducted)

Sample

Portuguese and mathematics tests were given to 90,500 students in 2,289 public schoolsand 51 1 private schools in all 26 states and the Federal District of Brasilia.

Reason for this study

* To evaluate the impact of various educational policies on student learning

Results

(1) Nationally, scores in both mathematics and Portuguese are well below desired levels,although there are substantial differences across the geographic regions. Overall, the

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number of fourth grade students performing at a minimal proficiency level inmathematics was 65 percent, though in the Northeast only 51 percent performed at thislevel. In Portuguese the results were similar: for the country as a whole, 68 percent of thestudents performed at a minimal proficiency level, although only 56 percent of studentsin the Northeast did.

(2) Student performance is higher in schools that have direct control over resources, ascompared to students in schools that do not.

(3) Student performance is higher in schools with active Conselhos de Classe or ConselhosEscolares (indicating that parents are more involved).

(4) Student performance is higher in schools where there is a pedagogic coordinator.

(5) Student performance is higher in schools in which school staff report having highacademic expectations for students.

(6) Student performance is higher in schools where parents are routinely informed of theirchildren's progress.

Recommendations

A) Support for increased school autonomy

B) Provide incentives for schools to take responsibility for student performance

C) Support and strengthen teacher collaboration and cooperation

D) Strengthen school communication with parents, to inform them of their children's'progress

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13. The Influence of Community and Family Factors on SchoolPerformance

Authors

* Rosane Mendonca and Ricardo Paes de Barros

Objective

To identify and quantify the influence of community variables on school enrollment andrepetition

Methodology

A variety of methodologies were used from an exploratory data analysis to two-stagemultiple regression techniques using the following variables: average educationalattainment of adults schooling levels, income distribution, degree of urbanization, andexogenous factors such as the quality of educational inputs.

Universe

* Five states: Ceara, Bahia, Minas Gerais, Rio Grande do Sul, and Pemambuco

Sample

* The demographic census for each of the last three decades: 1970, 1980, and 1991

Reason for study

To identify the social factors that determine the low and unequal results of the Brazilianeducational system

Results

(1) The average educational attainment of adults in the community had an impact on studentperformance three times larger than that of the average educational attainment ofteachers. In the Northeast, this effect is even greater.

(2) In all states studied, the average educational attainment of women in the community hadthe greatest impact on student performance. This impact is substantially stronger in theNortheast than in the South.

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(3) The impact of the average educational level of women in the community on studentperformance (repetition rate) was considerably stronger than any other variable, includingthe impact of the educational attainment of the student's own mother or parents.

(4) The correlation between the repetition and average educational attainment in thecommunity remains stable over time; even as educational attainment gradually increases.

Recommendations

A) Encourage Adult Education - Because adult educational attainment has such a largeimpact on educational repetition, adult education programs or programs for adulteducation associated with children's schools should be considered.

B) School Community - It is critical to stimulate parental participation in the educationalprocess since familial factors generate such a large impact on educational results.

C) Improve Information on School Performance - One possible reason why repetition andenrollment are considerably higher in communities with better-educated parents isbecause a better-educated community is more likely to demand that schools perform well.As long as the only information on school performance is repetition, the pressure thecommunity puts on schools may be limited to improving this particular indicator. Wheninformation on the schools' student achievement results is made available, the communitymay exercise pressure to improve that indicator.

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