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REPLAYING HISTORY: LEARNING WORLD HISTORY THROUGH PLAYING

CIVILIZATION III

Kurt D. Squire

submitted to te !"#u$t% o! te S#oo$ o! Edu#"tio&

i& '"rti"$ !u$!i$$me&t o! te requireme&ts

!or te de(ree

Do#tor o! Pi$oso'%

i& te I&stru#tio&"$ S%stems Te#&o$o(% De'"rtme&tI&di"&" U&i)ersit%

*"&u"r% +,,-

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A##e'ted b% te Gr"du"te "#u$t%/ I&di"&" U&i)ersit%/ i& '"rti"$ !u$!i$$me&t o! te

requireme&ts !or te de(ree o! Do#tor o! Pi$oso'%.

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S"s" A. 1"r"b/ P.D.

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Tom"s Du!!%

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Lee Em"&

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He&r% *e&2i&s

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3OPYRIGHT PAGE

# 4+,,-5Kurt D. Squire

ALL RIGHTS RESER6ED

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Kurt Squire

Re'$"%i&( Histor%: Le"r&i&( Wor$d Histor% trou( '$"%i&( Civilization III

Di(it"$ ("mes is "& emer(i&( e&tert"i&me&t medium t"t "& ire"si&( &umber o!edu#"tors "re e7"mi&i&( "s too$s !or e&("(i&( $e"r&ers. Yet/ !e8 mode$s e7ist !or o8 touse #o&tem'or"r% ("mi&( medi" i& !orm"$ $e"r&i&( e&)iro&me&ts. A #ommer#i"$istori#"$ #om'uter str"te(% ("me su# "s Civilization III is "& i&tri(ui&( "rti!"#t toe7"mi&e i& #$"ssroom #o&te7ts be#"use o! its 8ide "''e"$/ desi(& so'isti#"tio&/ "&du&ique "!!ord"es "s " 8or$d istor% simu$"tio&. Civilization III re'rese&ts 8or$d istor%&ot "s " stor% o! #o$o&i"$ domi&"tio& or 8ester& e7'"&sio&/ but "s "& emer(e&t 'ro#ess"risi&( !rom o)er$"''i&(/ i&terre$"ted !"#tors.

Te 'ur'ose o! tis stud% is to e7'$ore 8"t "''e&s 8e& Civilization III," #om'$e7#om'uter ("me de)e$o'ed i& e&tert"i&me&t #o&te7ts e&ters !orm"$ $e"r&i&( e&)iro&emt&s.

Tis dissert"tio& 'rese&ts tree &"tur"$isti# #"se studies i& 8i# Civilization III8"s used"s te b"sis !or " u&it o& 8or$d istor% i& urb"& $e"r&i&( e&)iro&me&ts. I e7"mi&e o8te ("me e&("(ed '$"%ers/ te so#i"$ i&ter"#tio&s t"t o##ur/ o8 u&derst"&di&(s emer(e/"&d 8"t ro$e ("me '$"% ser)es i& medi"ti&( stude&ts9 u&derst"&di&(s.

I& "$$ tree #"ses/ e&("(eme&t 8"s " #om'$e7 'ro#ess o! "''ro'ri"tio& "&d resist"e/8ereb% tepurposeso! ("me '$"% 8"s &e(oti"ted "mo&( stude&ts9 ide&tities/ #$"ssroom(o"$s/ "&d te "!!ord"es o! Civilization III. Civilization III e&("(ed e"# stude&t i&u&ique 8"%s/ "&d tis e&("(eme&t "!!e#ted te 2i&ds o! questio&s stude&ts "s2ed o! teir("mes/ te 2i&ds o! #oe'tu"$ u&derst"&di&(s t"t "rose trou( ("me '$"%/ "&d tei&ter'ret"tio&s te% m"de "bout istor%. Histor% "&d (eo(r"'% be#"me too$s !or ("me

'$"% "&d su##ess!u$ stude&ts de)e$o'ed #oe'tu"$ u&derst"&di&(s "#ross 8or$d istor%/(eo(r"'%/ "&d 'o$iti#s. Tese #"ses su((est te 'ote&ti"$ !or usi&( simu$"tio& ("mes i&8or$d istor% edu#"tio&/ but "$so te si(&i!i#"&t/ u&so$)ed #"$$e&(es i& i&te(r"ti&( su#" #om'$e7 ("me 8iti& #$"ssroom setti&(s.

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Dedication

Dedi#"ted to *"mes Dou($"s "&d *"&et Krets#mer/ t8o 'eo'$e 8o t"u(t

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Table of Contents

I. I&trodu#tio& 7

II. G"me;1"sed Le"r&i&( i& Wor$d Histor%

III. : A!ter;S#oo$ 3om'uter 3$ub

6II. 3o$usio&s

6III. Im'$i#"tio&s

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3"'ter I: I&trodu#tio&

!tate"ent of t#e $roble"

A (ro8i&( &umber o! rese"r#ers "&d s#o$"rs "re "#2&o8$ed(i&( te #u$tur"$

im'"#t o! di(it"$ ("mes 4Gee/ +,,>? Ki&( @ 1or$"&d/ +,,>? Poo$e/ +,,=5. Di(it"$ ("mi&(

is &o8 "& =B bi$$io& ($ob"$ i&dustr% t"t m"&% medi" s#o$"rs see "s bei&( " domi&"&t

C$i)e$% "rtC i& te u'#omi&( de#"des 4*e&2i&s/ i& 'ress5. As *im Gee 4+,,>5 "r(ues/ ("mes

"re &ot o&$% 'usi&( te #re"ti)e bou&d"ries o! i&ter"#ti)e di(it"$ medi" but "$so

su((esti&( 'o8er!u$ mode$s o! &e7t;(e&er"tio& i&ter"#ti)e $e"r&i&( e&)iro&me&ts. Tose

i& te edut"i&me&t i&dustr%/ "s 8e$$ "s te te"#ers "&d stude&ts 8o su''ort it/ "''e"r

to "(ree. Ye"r "!ter %e"r/ so#i"$ studies edut"i&me&t ("mes su# "s T#e !i"s/ !i"Cit%/

A&e of '"pires/ (ailroad T%coon"&d Civilizationdomi&"te te P3 ("mi&( s"$es #"rts

4Squire/ +,,+5.


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mi(t 8e $e)er"(e tese ("mes !or use i& !orm"$ or i&!orm"$ $e"r&i&( e&)iro&me&ts

W"t "''e&s 8e& %ou bri&( " #om'$e7 8or$d istor% simu$"tio& ("me su# "s

Civilization IIIi&to te #$"ssroom Does su# " #om'$e7 ("me o&e t"t o!te& 'ositio&s

'$"%ers i& situ"tio&s 8ere "#"demi# 2&o8$ed(e "&d u&derst"&di&( #"& be $e)er"(ed

!or re"$ use i& 'rob$em;so$)i&( 'ro)ide o''ortu&ities !or su''orti&( &e8 2i&ds o!

$e"r&i&( Or mi(t te sim'$i!i#"tio&s 4ee distortio&s5 i&ere&t i& "&% simu$"tio&

rei&!or#e/ or e)e& #"use mis#oe'tio&s "bout im'ort"&t istori#"$/ #u$tur"$/ or

(eo(r"'i#"$ 'e&ome&"

T"t simu$"tio& ("mes #"& 'ote&ti"$$% distort te 'e&ome&" te% "re me"&t to

mode$ "s bee& 8ide$% "#2&o8$ed(ed. I& is #ritique o! !i"Cit%/ #it% '$"&&er Ke&&et

Ko$so& 4=FFJ5 &otes t"t !i"Cit%distorts te 'o8ers o! " m"%or i& 'ub$i# '$"&&i&(/

dis#ou&ts te istori#"$ im'ort"e o! r"#e "&d et&i#ities i& te e)o$utio& o! #ities/ "&d

o)erestim"tes te "''e"$ o! 'ub$i# tr"&s'ort"tio& to most Ameri#"&s. Simi$"r$%/ 1"r2i&

4+,,=5 &otes t"t i& "ttem'ti&( to #"'ture/ qu"&ti!% "&d o'er"tio&"$ie te d%&"mi#s o!

#u$ture/ Civilization IIIo!!ers "& oste&sib$% 'rob$em"ti# #oe't o! #u$ture dr"8& !rom

re "&d Germ"& teories o! #u$ture t"t is !orei(& to "&% "&tro'o$o(ist. Tis 'rob$em

o! sim'$i!i#"tio&Mdistortio& o! re"$it% i& ("mes is e7"#erb"ted b% te !"#t t"t

edut"i&me&t 'rodu#ts "re t%'i#"$$% de)e$o'ed "&d m"r2eted "s e&tert"i&me&t 'rodu#ts

!irst/ "&d te& "''ro'ri"ted !or use i& #$"ssrooms se#o&d. Oter te&sio&s/ su# "s te

te&sio& bet8ee& '$"%i&( te ("me "s " bou&ded semioti# s%stem )ersus re!$e#ti&( o& te

("me "s " mode$ re'rese&ti&( some more subst"&ti"$ 'e&ome&" i& te 8or$d be%o&d it/

m"% )er% 8e$$ be e&demi# to te medium.

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Civilization III/ de)e$o'ed b% ir"7is "&d 'ub$ised b% I&!o(r"mes i& +,,=/

'ro)ides u&ique o''ortu&ities !or ti&2i&( "bout te ro$e o! ("mes i& 8or$d istor%

4Squire/ +,,+5. Wor$d istor% is "& emer(i&( "re" o! s#o$"rsi' "&d te"#i&( 8i#

see2s to u&derst"&d bro"d '"tter&s i& um"& "#ti)it% '"tter&s t"t #ut "#ross

tr"ditio&"$ "&tro'o$o(i#"$/ (eo(r"'i#/ istori#"$/ "&d dis#i'$i&"r% bou&d"ries. rom tis

'ers'e#ti)e/ te e&tire 8or$d is i$uded/ es#e8i&( Euro#e&tri# or #o$o&i"$ist

'ers'e#ti)es t"t ")e istori#"$$% #"r"#teried simi$"r rese"r#. 3o&tem'or"r% 8or$d

istori"&s su# "s *"red Di"mo&d/ 8i&&er o! te =FFF Pu$iter !or uns, er"s, and

!teel/ "re e7#e$$e&t e7"m'$es o! su# i&terdis#i'$i&"r% s#o$"rsi'. Li2e8ise/ i&

Civilization III/ te e&tire 8or$d is "("i& ior'or"ted i&to te ("me. I& it/ te '$"%er

$e"ds " #i)i$i"tio& !rom -,,, 13 to te 'rese&t/ m"&"(i&( te #i)i$i"tio&9s &"tur"$

resour#es/ !i&"es "&d tr"de/ s#ie&ti!i# rese"r#/ #u$tur"$ orie&t"tio&/ 'o$iti#"$ 'o$i#ies

"&d mi$it"r%. I be$ie)e t"t Civilization III m"2es " '"rti#u$"r$% i&tri(ui&( too$ !or

stud%i&( 8or$d istor% i& t"t it "$$o8s stude&ts to e7"mi&e re$"tio&si's "mo&(

(eo(r"'%/ 'o$iti#s/ e#o&omi#s/ "&d istor% o)er tous"&ds o! %e"rs "&d !rom mu$ti'$e

'ers'e#ti)es.

3o&tem'or"r% di(it"$ ("mi&( mode$s su# "s t"t u&der$%i&( Civilization III"re

'ote&ti"$$% 'o8er!u$ $e"r&i&( too$s t"t "re u&derstudied "s " )i"b$e edu#"tio&"$ resour#e.

Stud%i&( $e"r&i&( i& di(it"$ ("mes mi(t te"# i&stru#tio&"$ te#&o$o(ists )"$u"b$e

$esso&s "bout o8 to desi(& i&ter"#ti)it%/ su''ort o&$i&e #o$$"bor"tio&/ or e&("(e users.

U&derst"&di&( o8 su# ("mes "re used i& !orm"$ $e"r&i&( e&)iro&me&ts mi(t

'rodu#ti)e$% i&!orm te desi(& o! edu#"tio&"$ ("mes 4G"mes;to;Te"# Te"m/ +,,>5. At

te )er% $e"st/ edu#"tio&"$ te#&o$o(ists #ou$d be&e!it !rom '"%i&( #$oser "tte&tio& o8

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'$"%ers "re "$re"d% i&ter"#ti&( 8it su# edut"i&me&t ("mes "&d o8 te% "re bei&(

used i& #$"ssrooms 4Squire/ +,,>5.

Des'ite te $"#2 o! !orm"$ i&quir% i&to te 'ote&ti"$ !or di(it"$ ("mes to su''ort

$e"r&i&(/ tere is " $o&( tr"ditio& o! usi&( '"'er;b"sed ("mes "&d simu$"tio&s i& so#i"$

studies #$"ssrooms 4e.(. 3$e((/ =FF=5. U&!ortu&"te$%/ most uses o! ("mes ")e bee&

"teoreti#"$? r"re$%/ i! e)er "re te% tied to #o&tem'or"r% &otio&s o! o8 'eo'$e $e"r& or

te bro"der (o"$s o! so#i"$ studies edu#"tio&. Di(it"$ ("mes/ 8i# bri&( 8it tem &e8

"!!ord"es/ 'ossibi$ities/ "&d 'ote&ti"$ 'rob$ems/ ")e %et to be serious$% studied i&

#$"ssroom #o&te7ts.

1ui$di&( o& tis '"st rese"r# i& 4$"r(e$% '"'er;b"sed5 ("mes i& so#i"$ studies

edu#"tio&/ I "r(ue t"t edu#"tors &eed to e7"mi&e &ot ust te ("me '$"%er s%stem/ but

te bro"der so#i"$ #o&te7ts o! ("me '$"%. 3oo'er"ti)e "&d #om'etiti)e so#i"$

"rr"&(eme&ts !r"me ("me '$"% "#ti)it%. I& some #"ses/ te so#i"$ #o&te7t o! ("me '$"%

te 2i&ds o! re!$e#tio& "#ti)ities/ dis#ussio&/ #o$$"bor"tio&/ "&d #om'etitio& t"t emer(e

i& ("me '$"% "re "s im'ort"&t "s te ("me itse$! i& determi&i&( 8"t "#ti)it% emer(es "&d

8"t $e"r&i&( o##urs. Prior rese"r# "s "ssumed " 'riori 8"t te $e"r&i&( (o"$s "&d

out#omes o! ("me;b"sed $e"r&i&( e&)iro&me&ts sou$d be/ tre"ti&( ("mes "s #o&te&t

tr"&smissio& s%stems "s o''osed to too$s to ti&2 8it. I "r(ue t"t ("mes mi(t be more

#o&du#i)e to #o&stru#ti)ist i&stru#tio&"$ "''ro"#es/ 8ereb% $e"r&i&( is "& i&!ere&ti"$/

i&ter'reti)e 'ro#ess "&d $e"r&i&( out#omes "re i&tri#"te$% tied to te (o"$s/ i&te&tio&s/ "&d

moti)"tio&s o! te $e"r&er 4e.(. 1ed&"r/ 3u&&i&("m/ Du!!% @ Perr%/ =FFJ5.

I&deed/ i! te "#ti)it% outside o! te ("me 4dis#ussio&s/ rese"r#/ 2&o8$ed(e

s"ri&(5 "re "s im'ort"&t "s te ("me itse$!/ te& edu#"tio&"$ ("me rese"r#ers &eed "

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teoreti#"$ mode$ 8i# "##ou&ts !or bot stude&t;("me i&ter"#tio&s "&d stude&t;stude&t

i&ter"#tio&s. I "r(ue !or " #u$tur"$;istori#"$ "''ro"# to u&derst"&di&( $e"r&i&( i& ("me;

b"sed $e"r&i&( e&)iro&me&ts/ "s it "$$o8s rese"r#ers to e7"mi&e &ot o&$% te ro$e o! te

("me i& $e"r&i&(/ but o8 so#i"$ stru#tures medi"te "#ti)it%.

T#eoretical -oundation

U&der$%i&( tese deb"tes "bout te 'ote&ti"$ o! ("mes to su''ort $e"r&i&( "re

teoreti#"$ questio&s #e&tr"$ to i&stru#tio&"$ desi(&/ edu#"tio&"$ te#&o$o(%/ ide&tit% "&d

$e"r&i&(/ te"#i&( 8or$d istor%/ "&d te $e"r&i&( s#iees more (e&er"$$%. 1ot

'ro'o&e&ts "&d #riti#s o! di(it"$ ("me;b"sed $e"r&i&( ")e "bitu"$$% "ssumed obe#ti)ist

e'istemo$o(ies "&d tr"&smissio& mode$s o! $e"r&i&(/ 8ereb% te ("me #o&t"i&s !i7ed

me"&i&(s 8i# "re bro"d#"sted to " '"ssi)e ("me;'$"%i&( re#i'ie&t 4e.(. Pre&s2%/ +,,=?

Pro)e&o/ =FF=5. Ho8 '$"%ers i&!er me"&i&(s !rom ("me '$"%/ #o&stru#t u&derst"&di&(s

"bout ("me 8or$ds/ "&d te& re$"te tese e7'eriees to &o&;("mi&( e7'eriees is &ot

e&tire$% #$e"r? 8ere do '$"%ers dr"8 $i&es bet8ee& !"&t"s% "&d re"$it% Ho8 do '$"%ers

2&o8 8e& " ("me is re"$isti# "&d 8e& it is &ot Ho8 do '$"%ers e7'$ore ("me 8or$ds

"s s%stems "&d o8 do te% tre"t tese u&derst"&di&(s o! ("me s%stems


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'$"%ers 8or2 to(eter to so$)e 'rob$ems 48eter it be i& si&($e '$"%er or mu$ti'$"%er

("mes5/ or sim'$% e7#uses !or !rie&ds "&d !"mi$ies to so#i"$ie. ? Pre&s2%/ +,,=5/ tis #"$$e&(e o! o8 to

"##ou&t !or bot te 'erso&;too$ i&ter"#tio& "&d te bro"der so#i"$ #o&te7ts i& 8i#

("mi&( is situ"ted "&d ("me me"&i&(s "re #re"ted is #ru#i"$ 4Squire/ +,,+5. E$se8ere

4e.(. Squire/ +,,+5/ I ")e "r(ued !or "do'ti&( " so#io;#u$tur"$ $e"r&i&( 'ers'e#ti)e to

u&derst"&d ("mi&( 4I& #at Video a"es /ave to Teac# 0s About Learnin& and

Literac%/ *im Gee "$so dr"8s !rom so#io;#u$tur"$ $e"r&i&( teor% i& des#ribi&( o8

$e"r&i&( o##urs trou( ("mi&(5. So#io;#u$tur"$ $e"r&i&( teor% 4de!i&ed more 're#ise$%

i& te teoreti#"$ se#tio&5 o!!ers ("me;b"sed edu#"tors se)er"$ i&si(ts i&to $e"r&i&(

trou( ("me '$"%: 4=5 K&o8$ed(e is des#ribed &ot "s !"#ts to be memoried but "s too$s

8i# medi"te "#ti)it% 41"r"b/ H"%/ 1"r&ett/ @ Squire/ +,,=? 6%(ots2%/ =FQB5? 4+5 So#io;

#u$tur"$ $e"r&i&( teor% eour"(es rese"r#ers to )ie8 ("me '$"% &ot "s 'ure$% " um"&;

#om'uter i&ter"#tio& 'e&ome&"/ but "s " so#io;#u$tur"$ o&e medi"ted b% #$"ssroom

mi#ro#u$tures "&d bro"der so#i"$ #o&te7ts/ i$udi&( #$"ssroom #u$ture? 4>5 So#io;#u$tur"$

$e"r&i&( teor% 'ro)ides " !r"me8or2 !or u&derst"&di&( stude&ts9 (o"$s "&d i&te&tio&s

"&d o8 tese #o&tribute to tr"e#tories o! stude&ts9 ide&tities/ "&d 4-5 " $"&(u"(e 4"

teor% o! si(&s/ or semioti#s5 !or ti&2i&( trou( o8 2&o8$ed(e is re'rese&ted i&

("mes "&d o8 tis 2&o8$ed(e de)e$o's i& " $e"r&i&( e&)iro&me&t. O! '"rti#u$"r i&terest

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to me is o8 so#io;#u$tur"$ $e"r&i&( teor% mi(t 'ro)ide " $"&(u"(e !or e7"mi&i&(

#$"ssroom 'r"#ti#e medi"ted b% ("me '$"% "&d situ"ted 8iti& #$"ssroom #u$tures.

A#ti)it% teor%/ " &eo;6%(ots2i"& so#io;#u$tur"$ teor% emer(i&( !rom te

Russi"& S#oo$ o! 's%#o$o(ists o!!ers " '"rti#u$"r$% i&teresti&( $e&s !or edu#"tors

i&terested i& e7"mi&i&( ("me;b"sed $e"r&i&( e&)iro&me&ts. A#ti)it% teor% t"2es um"&

8or2 "s its u&it o! "&"$%sis. or "#ti)it% teorists/ 8or2 is or("&ied b% "& obe#t/ 8i#

s"'es "#ti)it% "&d re#i'ro#"$$% is i&!$ueed b% um"& "#tors/ "s medi"ted b% too$s "&d

so#i"$ i&stitutio&s. 1% t"2i&( 8or2 "s te u&it o! "&"$%sis/ "#ti)it% teorists e7"mi&e te

too$s/ si(&s/ "&d $"&(u"(e 8i# medi"te um"& i&ter"#tio& 8it obe#t/ "s 8e$$ "s te

so#i"$ stru#tures/ i$udi&( #ommu&it% &orms "&d di)isio&s o! $"bor 8i# !r"me "#ti)it%.

As su#/ "#ti)it% teor% t"2es te 'erso& 'er!ormi&( i& so#i"$ #o&te7ts/ i$udi&( te

so#i"$ "&d 'o$iti#"$ e&)iro&s i& 8i# te% "re situ"ted "s te mi&im"$ me"&i&(!u$ u&it o!

"&"$%sis. Im'ort"&t$%/ "#ti)it% teorists re("rd um"&s "&d te obe#ts o! teir "#ti)it% i&

di"$e#t"$ re$"tio&s/ s"'i&( "&d res"'i&( o&e "&oter trou( time.

A#ti)it% teor% is "& i&tri(ui&( teoreti#"$ !r"me8or2 !or u&derst"&di&( ("mi&(

be#"use it !o#uses rese"r#ers9 "tte&tio&s &ot o&$% o& o8 " too$ su# "s Civilization III

medi"tes $e"r&i&( o! so#i"$ studies/ but "$so !o#uses rese"r#ers o& o8 ("me '$"% is

medi"ted b% so#i"$ stru#tures/ 8i# mi(t i$ude s#oo$ #u$tures or i&!orm"$ (rou'i&(s.

Gi)e& t"t ("mes "re 'ro!ou&d$% so#i"$ e7'eriees 4Ki&( @ 1or$"&d/ +,,>5/ it is #riti#"$

t"t ("me rese"r#ers !o#us &ot ust o& um"& "&d #om'uter i&ter"#tio&s/ but o& o8

emer(e&t ("me #u$tures s"'e ("mi&( "#ti)ities "&d te im'"#t t"t tese "#ti)ities ")e

o& #o(&itio&. 1% e7"mi&i&( te obe#t/ or !o#us o! "#ti)it%/ "#ti)it% teorists "re "$so

i&terested i& o8 '"rti#i'"&ts )ie8 "&d u&derst"&d "#ti)it%/ '"rti#u$"r$% '"rti#i'"&ts9

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obe#ts/ (o"$s/ or moti)es. Emer(i&( teor% i& ("me studies su((ests t"t ("mers

"''ro"# ("mes i& u&ique 8"%s/ "&d o&e #"&&ot "ssume " 'riori to 2&o8 " '$"%er9s (o"$s

"&d i&te&tio&s 8i$e ("mi&( 4e.(. 1"rt$e/ +,,>5.

I&!$ueed b% He(e$ "&d


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S'e#i!i#"$$%/ tis dissert"tio& e7"mi&es 8"t #$"ssroom 'r"#ti#es emer(e "&d o8

$e"r&i&( o##urs 8e& Civilization IIIis used "s te b"sis !or $e"r&i&( "bout 8or$d istor%

i& t8o $e"r&i&( e&)iro&me&ts 4=5 "& Hum"&ities e&ri#me&t #ourse i& " . Ho8 does $e"r&i&( o##ur trou( ("me '$"%/ s'e#i!i#"$$%/ o8 does'$"%i&( Civilization IIIremedi"te stude&ts9 u&derst"&di&(s o! istor%-. W"t "re te 'ed"(o(i#"$ 'ote&ti"$s 4"!!ord"es5 o! usi&( ("mes

4s'e#i!i#"$$% Civilization III5 i& 8or$d istor% #$"ssrooms. Ho8 sou$d 8e desi(& $e"r&i&( "#ti)ities "&d e&)iro&me&ts 8e& usi&(

("mes i& !orm"$ $e"r&i&( e&)iro&me&ts

Dissertation Overvie2

3o&siste&t 8it 3obb "&d #o$$e"(ues 43obb/ Ste'"&/


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8i$$i&(&ess to '"rti#i'"te i& tis e7'erime&t"$ 'ro(r"m "&d "bi$it% to i$$umi&"te rese"r#

issues/ "&d e"# #"se i&)o$)ed "''ro7im"te$% +, ours o! i&stru#tio&"$ time.

I use St"2e9s 4=FF5 #"se stud% te#&iques to "ddress tese rese"r# questio&s.

St"2e9s #"se stud% te#&ique is '"rti#u$"r$% use!u$ be#"use it is responsive to te

'"rti#u$"rities o! " #"se/ i$udi&( te u&i&te&ded #o&sequees. Wit &o re"$ em'iri#"$

rese"r# o& 8"t "''e&s i& ("me;b"sed $e"r&i&( e&)iro&me&ts/ $itt$e is 2&o8& "s to

8"t 8i$$ "''e& 8e& ("mes e&ter #$"ssrooms/ $et "$o&e 8"t t%'es o! $e"r&i&( o##urs.

Tere "re oter im'ort"&t questio&s "bout o8 #$"ssroom #u$tures 8i$$ "''ro'ri"te

("mi&( medi"/ o8 &o&;("mers re"#t to ("me;b"sed $e"r&i&( u&its/ o8 ("mes #om'ete

8it oter $e"r&i&( "#ti)ities !or stude&ts9 "tte&tio&/ or o8 (ir$s t"2e to ("me;b"sed

$e"r&i&( e&)iro&me&ts 4See 3"sse$$ @ *e&2i&s/ =FFB !or " dis#ussio& o! (e&der "&d

("mi&(5. St"2e9s metodo$o(% em'"sies te im'ort"e o! &ot o)er;'res#ribi&( d"t"

#o$$e#tio& "&d rese"r# 'ro#edures/ but o! "$$o8i&( d"t" #o$$e#tio& to emer(e i& res'o&se

to emer(i&( temes. I use St"2e9s #"se stud% metodo$o(% 4=FF5 !or e"#/ usi&(

obser)"tio&s/ i&ter)ie8s/ "&d do#ume&t "&"$%sis to bui$d &"rr"ti)e "##ou&ts o! e"#

#$"ssroom.

I& e"# #"se I 8"s " dire#t '"rti#i'"&t. A$tou( I "d '$"&&ed to '"rti#i'"te i&

e"# #"se "s $itt$e more t"& "& obser)er/ $o#"$ &eeds dem"&ded t"t I '$"% "& "#ti)e ro$e

i& s"'i&( #$"ssroom "#ti)it%. As " resu$t/ I ired " rese"r# "ssist"&t to "ssist i& d"t"

#o$$e#tio& "&d "&"$%sis. 3o&siste&t 8it 3obb/ 3o&!re%/ diSess"/ Lerer/ "&d S#"ub$e/

4+,,>5/ I "''ro"# tis desi(& e7'erime&t equ"$$% "s " te"#i&( e7'erime&t/ 8ereb%

i&ter"#ti&( 8it '"rti#i'"&ts "&d te #"se %ie$ds !ruit!u$ d"t" "bout te desi(& o! $e"r&i&(

e&)iro&me&ts. Rese"r#ers #"& modi!% te $e"r&i&( e&)iro&me&t 4e.(. i&trodu#i&( &e8

16


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$e"r&i&( m"teri"$s/ m"&i'u$"ti&( so#i"$ "rr"&(eme&ts5 i& order to i$$umi&"te rese"r#

temes. I& tis tese #"ses/ I tr% to m"2e tis #%#$e o! m"&i'u$"ti&( te e&)iro&me&t "&d

e7"mi&i&( resu$ts "s e7'$i#it "s 'ossib$e/ so t"t te re"der #"& 'er"'s )i#"rious$%

e7'eriee some o! te de#isio& m"2i&( 'ro#ess I e7'erieed. Ne(oti"ti&( tis ro$e 8"s

o!te& tri#2%/ "&d I tr% to (i)e te re"der " se&se o! tese stru(($es i& e"# #"se stud%.

1e#"use te rese"r# questio&s i&)o$)e e7"mi&i&( 8"t 'r"#ti#es emer(ed 8e&

Civilization III8"s brou(t i&to te #$"ssroom/ "s o''osed to dire#t$% #om'"ri&( " ("me;

b"sed $e"r&i&( e&)iro&me&t to " tr"ditio&"$ e&)iro&me&t/ tis stud% ")oids some o! te

more ob)ious tre"ts to )"$idit%/ su# "s t"i&ti&( te rese"r# e&)iro&me&t. At te s"me

time/ m% '"rti#i'"tio& i& te #"se m"2es te "''$i#"bi$it% o! tese !i&di&(s to oter

#o&te7ts some8"t $imited/ "s I "m &ot te t%'i#"$ te"#er. Tese $imit"tio&s "re e7'$ored

!urter i& te &e7t se#tio&.

Li"itations of !tud%

Tis stud% is desi(&ed to e7"mi&e 8"t "''e&s 8e& Civilization IIIis used "s

te b"sis !or " u&it i& $e"r&i&( 8or$d istor%. 6er% $itt$e is 2&o8& "bout 8"t "''e&s

8e& " ("me "s #om'$e7/ "bstr"#ted/ "&d simu$"tio&;b"sed "s Civilization IIIis used to

stud% 8or$d istor%/ "&d "$tou( m%se$! "&d oters ")e "r(ued !or di!!ere&t mode$s !or

ti&2i&( "bout o8 ("mes #"& be used to su''ort $e"r&i&(/ $itt$e is 2&o8& "bout o8

tese "''ro"#es '$"% out i& 'r"#ti#e. Im'ort"&t$%/ tis stud% e7"mi&es o&e ("me

4Civilization III5 bei&( used !or se$e#t 'ur'oses i& tree )er% s'e#i!i# setti&(s. As su#/

tis stud% "s $imited "''$i#"bi$it% o8 oter ("mes 4su# "s 'uropa 0niversalis/

$atrician/ or 34* AD5 mi(t be used i& 8or$d istor%/ o8 ("mes su# "s Colonization

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mi(t be used i& #o$o&i"$ istor%/ or o8 ("mes su# "s /idden A&endami(t be used i&

moder& istor%. I be$ie)e t"t tese #"ses sou$d 'ro)ide use!u$ i&si(ts !or edu#"tors

e7'$ori&( su# mode$s/ but #"utio& "("i&st e7tr"'o$"ti&( too !"r !rom tese resu$ts.

Conte5ts of t#e case studies

O&e o! te bi((est $imit"tio&s o! tis stud% is te s"m'$es #ose&. Tese s"m'$es

8ere #ose& !or #o&)e&iee s'e#i!i#"$$%/ !or "##essibi$it% "&d 8i$$i&(&ess to

e7'erime&t 8it "& i&&o)"ti)e u&it. A$$ o! tese #"ses i&)o$)ed stude&ts !rom 8or2i&(;

#$"ss b"#2(rou&ds/ 'o'u$"tio&s o! stude&ts 8o "re 2&o8& to resist $e"r&i&( istor%

4Loe8e&/ =FF5.


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tese '"rti#i'"&ts 8ere u&$i2e '"rti#i'"&ts i& m"&% "!ter;s#oo$ e&)iro&me&ts. Te%

"tte&ded re(u$"r$%/ "d $itt$e #oi#e "mo&( oter "#ti)ities/ "&d seemed to "do't te so#i"$

mores o! s#oo$/ 'er"'s be#"use te #"m' o##urred o& s#oo$ (rou&ds "&d i& "

#om'uter $"b. Desi(&ers o! "!ter;s#oo$ setti&(s su# "s 1o%s "&d Gir$s 3$ubs m"% !i&d

t"t te so#i"$ mores o! tis #"se be"r $itt$e resemb$"e to tose te% !"#e/ "&d t"t tere

is $itt$e tr"&s!er"bi$it% !rom tis #"se to teir situ"tio&s.

(ole of researc#er

I& bot #"ses/ I '$"%ed "& "#ti)e ro$e i& s"'i&( te $e"r&i&( e&)iro&me&t. I

de)ised "#ti)ities/ o!!ered e$' o& ("me '$"%/ de)ised ust;i&;time $e#tures/ "&d tried to

#o&&e#t stude&ts9 ("mes to istori#"$ e)e&ts. I ")e s'e&t tous"&ds o! ours '$"%i&(

Civilization III"&d &e"r$% t"t s"me "mou&t ti&2i&( trou( tis dissert"tio&. It is

u&re"so&"b$e to e7'e#t t"t " t%'i#"$ te"#er 8ou$d ")e te e7'eriee or e&er(% to do

te s"me. I ")e "ttem'ted to #"'ture 8"t I $e"r&ed !rom tese e7'eriees i& u&it '$"&s

"&d trou( su((estio&s !or desi(&i&( #urri#u$" 8it Civilization III4see A''e&di#es A

"&d 1 !or s"m'$e u&it '$"&s usi&( Civilization III i& oter "re"s o! 8or$d istor%5?

&e)erte$ess/ i! te te"#er is " #riti#"$ #om'o&e&t o! " ("me;b"sed $e"r&i&( e&)iro&me&t/

te& m% ro$e &eeds to be "##ou&ted !or. 4Tis issue is !urter e7'$i#"ted i& desi(&

rese"r# i& (e&er"$ i& 1"r"b @ Squire/ i& 'ress5.

Curricular Inte&ration

At te s"me time/ I #"me i&to e"# o! tese #"ses "s "& outsider to te s#oo$ or

#"m' #u$tures "&d 8"s dis"d)"&t"(ed i& terms o! i&te(r"ti&( te ("me i&to s#oo$ "&d

#$"ssroom #u$tures "&d "&ti#i'"ti&( o8 ("me '$"% 8ou$d meet stude&ts9 &eeds. O&e #"&

im"(i&e t"t " 8or$d istor% te"#er 8o '$"%s Civilization IIIm"% be "b$e to better

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su''ort mu$ti'$e ("me str"te(ies. As "& emer(i&( medium/ ("mes "re o!te& tre"ted

mo&o$iti#"$$%/ "s i! te 'r"#ti#e o! '$"%i&( u"2e/ " !irst;'erso& "#tio& ("me is te s"me

"s '$"%i&( Civilization III/ " re$"ti)e$% s$o8;'"#ed str"te(% ("me 4See "$so G"mes;to;

Te"# Te"m/ +,,>5.


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3"'ter II: Di(it"$ G"mes i& Wor$d Histor% Edu#"tio&


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Per"'s usti!i"b$%/ oter edu#"tors m"% b"$2 "t te ide" o! bri&(i&( #om'uter

("mes i&to te #$"ssroom. 3om'uters ("mes su# "s Civilization "re )er% #om'$e7

"rti!"#ts. G"me '$"%ers de)e$o' e7'ertise "&d m"ster% o! te ("me s%stem o&$% "!ter

u&dreds o! ours o! ("me '$"%. urter/ e)e& " )er% 'o'u$"r ("me su# "s Civilization

IIIdoes &ot "''e"$ to e)er%o&e? questio&s 'ersist "bout o8 &o&;("mers 4or &o&;str"te(%;

("mers5 mi(t "''ro'ri"te su# " #om'$e7 s%stem o! ru$es "&d s%mbo$s "&d o8 te

("me/ i& retur&/ re#ruits its '$"%ers. G"me '$"% is " so#i"$$%;medi"ted "#ti)it%/ "&d ("mes

!reque&t$% e&(e&der bot #oo'er"ti)e "&d #om'etiti)e be")iors. Ho8 te so#i"$

d%&"mi#s o! ("me '$"% i&terse#t 8it s#oo$ #u$tures is u&2&o8&. G"mers qui#2$% !orm

"!!i&it% (rou's "&d re$% o& tem to "#ie)e m"ster% o)er te ("me 4Gee/ +,,>5. P"st

rese"r# o& bri&(i&( di(it"$ te#&o$o(ies i&to s#oo$s so8s o8 $o#"$ #u$tures ")e te

'o8er to res"'e te#&o$o(ies/ t8isti&( "&d re!ormi&( tem "s te% "re "##ommod"ted

i&to #$"ssroom #u$tures 4Squire/


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stru#tures. I& te #"se o! ("mi&(/ "#ti)it% teor% "$$o8s us to e7"mi&e o8 too$s medi"te

our #oe'tio&s o! 'e&ome&" 8i$e "#2&o8$ed(i&( o8 so#i"$ "&d #ommu&it%

stru#tures "$so remedi"te tis 'ro#ess. 1ri&(i&( #ommer#i"$ e&tert"i&me&t ("mes i&to

!orm"$ $e"r&i&( e&)iro&me&ts me"&s #rossi&( t8o )er% di!!ere&t 4i! &ot #o&!$i#ti&(5

"#ti)it% s%stems t"t o! ("mi&( )ersus t"t o! !orm"$ s#oo$i&(. Te &otio& o!

#o&tr"di#tio&s 8iti&M"mo&( "#ti)it% s%stems 4E&(estrm / =FFF5 (i)es us " teoreti#"$

mode$ !or t"$2i&( "bout o8 te "$i(&me&ts "&d te&sio&s bet8ee& tese t8o s%stems o!

"#ti)it% emer(e "&d u&!o$d. i&"$$%/ "#ti)it% teor%9s &otio& o! out#omes is use!u$ !or

des#ribi&( 8"t $e"r&i&( emer(es !rom "#ti)it% s%stems 4e.(. 1"r"b et "$./ +,,+5.

(esearc# on a"es and !i"ulations in !ocial !tudies 'ducation

Des'ite te $o&( tr"ditio& o! ("mes "&d simu$"tio&s i& so#i"$ studies edu#"tio&

4e.(. We&t8ort @ Le8is/ =FQ>5/ )er% $itt$e is 2&o8& "bout te im'"#t o! ("mes o&

$e"r&i&( 43$e((/ =FF=5. Des'ite te 'o'u$"rit% o! ("mes su# "s 'uropa 0niversalis/

$atrician/ or Civilization III8i# o!!er o''ortu&ities to stud% 8or$d istor%/ $itt$e is

2&o8& "bout o8 ("me '$"% remedi"tes u&derst"&di&(s o! istor%. Rese"r# o& di(it"$

or #om'uter ("mes "s bee& rem"r2"b$% #o&siste&t 8it !i&di&(s !rom rese"r# o& '"'er

("mes/ ro$e;'$"%i&( ("mes/ "&d bo"rd ("mes "s 'redi#ted b% 3$"r2 4=FB>5. S'e#i!i#"$$%/

("mes #"& be e&("(i&( but !reque&t$% $e"r&ers ")e di!!i#u$t% m"2i&( #o&&e#tio&s

bet8ee& te ("me s%stem "&d te re!ere&t so#i"$Mm"teri"$ s%stem te ("me is i&te&ded to

re'rese&t 43$e((/ =FF=5. Wi$e tere "s bee& e7te&si)e use o! mode$s "&d simu$"tio& to

su''ort s#iee $e"r&i&(/ tere is $itt$e #om'e$$i&( rese"r# o& te be&e!its o! usi&(

edu#"tio&"$ ("mes "&d simu$"tio&s i& so#i"$ studies edu#"tio&. As


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4=FFJ5 des#ribes i& er re)ie8 o! rese"r# o& edu#"tio&"$ ("mes "&d simu$"tio&s/ tere

"s bee& $itt$e #o&se&sus o& 8"t " ("me or simu$"tio& is/ 8"t teir ro$e i& i&stru#tio&

mi(t be/ or 8"t edu#"tio&"$ (o"$s te% mi(t be used to su''ort.

Li2e m"&% rese"r#ers/ Gred$er 4=FFJ5 disti&(uises bet8ee& ("mes "&d

simu$"tio&s "s e7'erie&ti"$ !orms o! i&stru#tio& #om'"red to more tr"ditio&"$ !orms o!

i&stru#tio& t"t "re/ 'resum"b$%/ &ot e7'erie&ti"$. Gred$er o!!ers &eiter e)idee &or

e7'$"&"tio& !or o8 or 8% ("mes mi(t be #o&sidered e7'erie&ti"$ 8ere"s " $e#ture b%

" Nobe$ Prie 8i&&er or " 8e$$ desi(&ed set o! e7er#ises is &ot. Di(it"$ ("mes "re "$so

'ur'orted to be !"ster;'"#ed/ more i&ter"#ti)e/ "&d more e&("(i&( t"& oter

i&stru#tio&"$ !orms 4e.(. Pre&s2%/ +,,=5 e)e& 8e& it #ou$d be "r(ued t"t " (ood deb"te/

dis#ussio&/ or #o$$"bor"ti)e 'roe#t;b"sed $e"r&i&( e7er#ise #ou$d be equ"$$%/ i! &ot more/

i&ter"#ti)e or !$o8;i&du#i&( t"& most di(it"$ ("mes 4#!. 3si2se&tmi"$%i/ =FFJ5. Te

(o"$s o! tis se#tio& "re to re;e7"mi&e e7isti&( rese"r# o& te use o! ("mes "&d

simu$"tio&s !or $e"r&i&( "&d to su((est "& "$ter&"ti)e teoreti#"$ !r"me8or2 !or o8

("mes mi(t be re#oe'tu"$ied "s "& edu#"tio&"$ resour#e. irst/ I des#ribe te e7isti&(

rese"r# o& ("mes "&d simu$"tio&s i& so#i"$ studies edu#"tio&. Ne7t/ I de)e$o' " r"tio&"$e

!or ("mes "&d simu$"tio&s i& 8or$d istor% b% dr"8i&( to(eter m"t#es bet8ee& issues

8iti& te dom"i& "&d te "!!ord"es o! ("mes 42ee'i&( i& mi&d teir $imit"tio&s "s

8e$$5. i&"$$%/ I su((est "#ti)it% teor% "s " use!u$ !r"me8or2 !or te stud% o! ("mes i&

so#i"$ studies edu#"tio&.

'ducational Tec#nolo&% (esearc# on a"es and !i"ulations

Te terms ("mes/ simu$"tio&s/ "&d simu$"tio& ("mes "re !reque&t$% used

i&ter#"&(e"b$% to dis#uss i&ter"#ti)e "#ti)ities t"t "re medi"ted b% ru$es or m"teri"$s

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t"t s"'e be")ior. Hei&i# "&d #o$$e"(ues 4=FFJ5 o!!er 8"t "s be#ome te #$"ssi#

distitio& bet8ee& ("mes "&d simu$"tio&s !rom "& i&stru#tio&"$ te#&o$o(ists9

'ers'e#ti)e:

A ("me is "& "#ti)it% i& 8i# '"rti#i'"&ts !o$$o8 'res#ribed ru$es t"tdi!!er !rom tose o! re"$ $i!e "s te% stri)e to "tt"i& " #"$$e&(i&( (o"$. Tedistitio& bet8ee& '$"% "&d re"$it% is 8"t m"2es ("mes e&tert"i&i&(Asimu$"tio& is "& "bstr"#tio& or sim'$i!i#"tio& o! some re"$;$i!e situ"tio& or'ro#ess. I& simu$"tio&s/ '"rti#i'"&ts usu"$$% '$"% " ro$e t"t i&)o$)es tem i&i&ter"#tio&s 8it oter 'eo'$e or 8it e$eme&ts o! te simu$"tede&)iro&me&t 4Hei&i#/ 5.

Wi$e Gred$er9s distitio&s "re e$'!u$/ te% qui#2$% bre"2 do8& 8e& o&e

e7"mi&es most #o&tem'or"r% di(it"$ ("mes/ '"rti#u$"r$% edut"i&me&t ("mes. irst/ m"&%

#o&tem'or"r% ("mes/ "#ross (e&res 4i.e. str"te(%/ ro$e '$"%i&(/ m"ssi)e$% mu$ti'$"%er/

"#tio& M "d)e&ture/ "d)e&ture/ 'u$e5 ")e "b"&do&ed or de)"$ued s#ori&( me#"&isms/

use ro$es "s b"#2stor%/ met"'or !or ("me '$"%/ or "s " me"&s o! #o&)e%i&( i&ter"#ti)e

stor%te$$i&(. I& ("mes su# "s 1ua6e/ T#ief/Deus '5/ or e)e&onopol%/ '$"%ers 'ro(ress

trou( $e)e$s '$"%i&( "s " '"rti#u$"r ro$e.


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$i&e"r medium "s ("me '$"% is te emer(e&t #re"tio& o! '$"%ers9 "#ti)it% 8iti& bou&d"r%

ru$e sets. i&"$$%/ most ("mes "re rooted i& some met"'or o! re"$it% "&d te

#o&sequees o! "#ti)ities "re #ommu&i#"ted trou( t"t met"'or/ "s i& te st"&d"rd

ro$e;'$"%i&( ("me (e&re 8ere " '$"%er "s e"$t/ i&te$$e#tu"$ stre&(t/ "&d e&dur"e.

As *"&et


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sooter ("me "&d is e7'eriees i& " #or'or"te e&)iro&me&t "&d tereb% ("i& i&si(t

"bout is 8or2'$"#e. 3o&siste&t 8it #o&stru#ti)ist "&d 'r"(m"tist semioti#

e'istemo$o(ies/ tis &otio& o! simu$"tio& "s "#ti)it% #oe'tu"$ies te ("me '$"%i&(

e7'eriee i& essee/ te me"&i&( m"2i&( 'ro#ess itse$! &ot "s " sim'$isti# #ou'$i&(

o! te '$"%er "&d te simu$"tio& but r"ter "s " d%&"mi# i&ter"#tio& bet8ee& "s'e#ts o!

te '$"%er9s 'rior e7'eriee "&d te simu$"tio& itse$! su# t"t te ide"/ "#tio&/ or "rti!"#t

resu$ti&( !rom ("me '$"% is its me"&i&(.

To " #ert"i& e7te&t/ te &e#essit% o! #o&sideri&( simu$"tio&s 8iti& teir "#tu"$ use

"&d i& te #o&te7t o! te '$"%er9s e7'eriee "s $o&( bee& re#o(&ied b% i&stru#tio&"$

te#&o$o(ists. or m"&% i&stru#tio&"$ desi(&ers/ te debrie!i&( "#ti)ities surrou&di&(

("me '$"% ")e bee& re("rded "s 'ossib$% more im'ort"&t !or e&(e&deri&( $e"r&i&( t"&

te ("me;'$"%i&( itse$! 4Hei&i#/ ? Ti"("r""&/ =FFB5. Hei&i# et "$. 4=FFJ5 re#omme&d " !our;ste' debrie!i&(

'ro#ess !o$$o8i&( ("me '$"% i&)o$)i&( te !o$$o8i&( questio&s: 4=5 Ho8 did %ou !ee$

8i$e '$"%i&( te ("me 4de#om'ressi&( !ee$i&(s5? 4+5 W"t "''e&ed duri&( te

("me 4des#ribi&( !"#ts 5? 4>5 Ho8 does tis "#ti)it% #om'"re to oter 'e&ome&"

4dr"8i&( #om'"riso&s e&"i&( tr"&s!er5? 4-5 W"t mi(t %ou '$"& to do di!!ere&t$% i&

!uture "#ti)it% 4deri)i&( $esso&s "''$i#"tio&5. Wi$e Hei&i# et "$. "d)o#"te tese

"#ti)ities so t"t $e"r&ers #"& "''re#i"te te me"&i&( or si(&i!i#"e o! te "#ti)it% 4'.

>>J5/ Ti"("r""& su((ests t"t i&stru#tio&"$ desi(&ers be o'e& to $e"r&ers e7'$ori&( te

u&i&te&ded #o&sequees o! ("mes. R"ter t"& #oe'tu"$ie te (o"$ o! te simu$"tio&

"s to #ommu&i#"te i&!orm"tio& i& te simu$"tio&/ tus 'ri)i$e(i&( te "sso#i"tio&s "&d

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i&te&tio&s o! te i&stru#tio&"$ desi(&er/ Ti"("r""& su((ests t"t desi(&ers ti&2 o!

("mi&( "#ti)ities "s e7'eriees trou( 8i# $esso&s #"& be $e"r&ed.

As " ru$e;b"sed "rti!"#t i& 8i# te '$"%er '$"%s " ro$e i& i&ter"#ti&( 8it "

simu$"ted/ d%&"mi# s%stem t"t is usu"$$% re'rese&ted trou( "#tu"$ or met"'ori#"$

re'rese&t"tio&s/ most "&% i&ter"#ti)e "''$i#"tio& #"& be tou(t o! "s " simu$"tio&.

Ho8e)er/ tere is "& im'ort"&t distitio& to be m"de bet8ee& simu$"tio&s "&d dri$$;"&d;

'r"#ti#e ("mes or !r"me ("mes 8ere te 'rim"r% ("mi&( "#ti)it% is re#"$$i&( !"#tu"$

i&!orm"tio& 8iti& " ("me !r"me8or2 t"t is i&de'e&de&t o! te #o&te&t. L$o%d Reiber

4=FFJ5 "$so m"2es tis distitio&/ di!!ere&ti"ti&( bet8ee& endo&enous("mes 8ere te

#o&te&t is i&se'"r"b$e !rom ("me '$"% "&d e5o&enic("mes 8ere te ("me '$"% is "

reus"b$e !orm"t t"t is $"%ered o& to' o! ("me #o&te&t/ "s i& #ross8ord 'u$es/ m"t#i&(

("mes/ or tri"$;"&d;error ("mes 4e.(. H"&(m"&5. To m"2e tis distitio& is &ot to

#ritique te )"$ue o! su# ("mes i& '"rti#u$"r #o&te7ts or to de&% te 'ossibi$it% o! "

#re"ti)e ("me desi(&er or '$"%er usi&( su# " ("me "s " simu$"tio&. R"ter/ it is to

i($i(t o&e t%'i#"$ (e&re o! ("mes "&d disti&(uis bet8ee& it "&d ("mes t"t mi(t be

tou(t o! "s simu$"ti&( "s'e#ts o! re"$it%.

Conte"porar% T#eorizin& of a"e8!i"ulation Tec#nolo&ies

As #om'uter ("mi&( ire"ses i& so'isti#"tio&/ it is be#omi&( e)ide&t t"t to

some e7te&t/ distitio&s bet8ee& simu$"tio&s "&d ("mes m"% be "s mu# " m"tter o!

so#io;#u$tur"$ #o&stru#tio&/ so#i"$ 'ur'ose "&d #o&te7t o! te "#ti)it% "s it is "&%

u&der$%i&( dee' stru#ture i&ere&t o! te "rti!"#t 4Gred$er/ =FFJ5. I&deed/ " (ro8i&(

&umber o! rese"r#ers "&d ("me desi(&ers "#2&o8$ed(e t"t ("mes eom'"ss su# "

bro"d #"te(or% o! "#ti)ities t"t te term )ideo("me m"% ")e out$i)ed its use!u$&ess.

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or e7"m'$e/ !"mi$i"r "#ti)ities su# "s Tic9Tac9Toe/ :ic69t#e9Can/ onopol%/ (is6/

1ua6e/ !i"Cit%/ 'ver;uest/ -inal -antas% s ate II/

8i# "s o)er =,,, ours o! 'ote&ti"$ ("me '$"%/ te $i2e$iood o! e)er !i&isi&( te

("me 4ere/ te stor%5 is s$im "t best. Simi$"r e7"m'$es e7ist !or 'e& "&d '"'er;b"sed

ro$e;'$"%i&( ("mes. I& "dditio&/ m"&% ("me desi(&ers ")e "r(ued t"t mu$ti;'$"%er

("mes $i2e 'ver;uest "re re"$$% )irtu"$ #ommu&ities "&d sou$d be tre"ted "s )irtu"$

so#ieties/ #ommu&ities/ or 8or$ds/ but &ot "s ("mes. i&"$$%/ tous"&ds o! ("mes su#

"s T#e !i"sor(ailroad T%cooneiter si' 8it &o ru$es/ or ")e ru$es t"t '$"%ers i(&ore

outri(t i& usi&( te ("mes to bui$d )irtu"$ s%stems. A$tou( "$$ o! tese "#ti)ities "re

#ommo&$% re!erred to "s ("mes/ it is ob)ious t"t te% do &ot "$$ s"re #ommo& e$eme&ts

"&d t"t tere m"% be dr"sti#"$$% di!!ere&t re"so&s bei&d 8"t m"2es tem #om'e$$i&(

!or '$"%ers.

Wi$$ Wri(t 4+,,+5/ desi(&er o! T#e !i"s"&d !i"Cit%"r(ues t"t di(it"$ ("mes

mi(t be !ruit!u$$% di)ided i&to tree o)er$"''i&( "#ti)ities: #o&tests/ obbies/ "&d

i&ter"#ti)e stories 4See i(ure +.=5. 3o&tests "re i&ter"#ti)e e7'eriees 8ere

#om'etitio&/ 8i&&i&(/ "&d $osi&( "re 2e% e$eme&ts o! te e7'eriee. Wri(t #ites 0nreal

=I& re"$it%/ it tur&s out t"t tere is " 8i&;#o&ditio& !or P"# / =FFF/ 1i$$%


32/416

Tourna"ent/adden -ootball"&d 1ua6e"s t%'i#"$ o! su# ("mes "&d #om'"res tem to

oter #om'etiti)e "#ti)ities su# "s s'orts. Hobb% ("mes i&)o$)e #re"ti&(/ #o$$e#ti&(/

"&d s"ri&( #re"tio&s 8it oter obb%ists. T#e !i"s/ !i"Cit%/ "&d(ail(oadT%coon"re

e7"m'$es o! su# ("mes. It is 8ort &oti&( t"t/ i& " obb% ("me/ '$"%i&( te "#tu"$

("me is o&$% " mi&im"$ '"rt o! te e7'eriee "s bui$di&( #"r"#ters or s#e&"rios/

'ub$isi&( tem o& te 8eb/ "&d e7'eriei&( oter '$"%ers9 #re"tio&s "re "$$ " #riti#"$

'"rt o! te e7'eriee. i&"$$%/ tere "re 8"t Wri(t #"$$s i&ter"#ti)e stor% ("mes/ 8ere

te ("me e7'eriee is "bout '"rti#i'"ti&( i& "& i&ter"#ti)e stor%/ su# "s i& -inal

-antas% s ate. Wri(t "$so "#2&o8$ed(es t"t tere is o)er$"' "mo&(

#"te(ories "&d t"t di!!ere&t users mi(t '$"% ("mes di!!ere&t$%. So/ 8ere"s 0nreal

Tourna"entm"% be " #o&test "#ti)it% !or most 8o '$"% te ("me/ " si(&i!i#"&t &umber

o! '$"%ers "$so bui$d s2i&s/ #"r"#ters/ $e)e$s/ or mods. rom tis 'ers'e#ti)e/ '$"%i&(

0nreal Tourna"entmi(t be see& "s more o! " obbiest 'ursuit. P$"%i&( Civilization III

!"$$s bet8ee& " obb%ist 'ursuit "&d " #om'etitio& !or most '$"%ers. Civilizationis " )er%

#om'etiti)e ("me? ust 2ee'i&( te ("me (oi&( i&)o$)es !e&di&( o!! rut$ess #om'uter;

#o&tro$$ed #i)i$i"tio&s t"t "ttem't to #o&tro$ "&d #o&quer %our #i)i$i"tio&. At te s"me

time/ o8e)er/ Civilization IIIsi's 8it robust s#e&"rio bui$di&( too$s "&d "s " robust

!"& #ommu&it% i& 8i# '$"%ers #re"te s#e&"rios "&d modi!% te ("me !or teir o8&

e7'ressi)e e&ds. A $"r(e 'er#e&t"(e o! Civilization III '$"%ers deb"te te istori#"$

"##ur"#% o! te ("me "&d modi!% its '"r"meters "##ordi&($%. I& !"#t/ te m"' bei&( used

i& tis stud% 8"s #re"ted b% " !"& diss"tis!ied 8it te "##ur"#% o! te st"&d"rd m"' "&d

modi!ied b% " se#o&d !"& to m"2e te m"' istori#"$$% more "##ur"te.

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obb%ists s'e&d tous"&ds o! ours '$"%i&( ("mes/ de)e$o'i&( str"te(ies/ m"steri&(

"r#"&e istori#"$ !"#ts/ #ritiqui&( ("me '$"%/ #re"ti&( ("me s#e&"rios/ "&d "r(ui&( !or te

istori#"$ "##ur"#% or i&"##ur"#% o! s#e&"rios i& ("mi&( #ommu&ities su# "s

A'o$%to&.&et. Civilization IIIis &ot u&ique i& tis re("rd: simi$"r ("mes t"t e&("(e teir

'$"%ers i& #om'"r"b$e 8"%s i$ude(ise of Nations/$irates+/ ett%sbur&/$atrician/A&e

of '"pires/ 34* AD/ "&d'uropa 0niversalis. Ho8 tese ("mes e&("(e $e"r&ers "&d

o8 '$"% remedi"tes '$"%ers9 u&derst"&di&(s o! 8or$d istor%/ o8e)er/ is iterto &ot

u&derstood.

Sie "$most te ie'tio& o! )ideo ("mes/ 's%#o$o(ists ")e tried to u&derst"&d

o8 te% e&("(e or moti)"te $e"r&ers. I& =FB=/ Tom


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4+,,=5 des#ribes r"ter t"& te sim'$e dri$$;"&d;'r"#ti#e ("mes o! 3ordo)" "&d

Le''er9s d"%.

3ordo)" "&d Le''er9s 4=FFJ5 !r"me8or2 o! moti)"tio&/ 8i$e use!u$ i& e$'i&(

's%#o$o(ists disti&(uis bet8ee& i&tri&si# "&d e7tri&si# moti)"tio&/ o!!ers $itt$e e$' !or

edu#"tors tr%i&( to de)e$o' e&do(e&ous edu#"tio&"$ ("mes/ ("mes 8ere te !"&t"s%

("me #o&te7t "&d ("me (o"$s o)er$"' dire#t$% 8it edu#"tio&"$ 'r"#ti#es. Re#"$$ Rieber9s

4=FFJ5 distitio& bet8ee& e7o(e&ous ("mes/ i& 8i# te !"&t"s% #o&te7t is $"r(e$%

se'"r"ted !rom te 'rob$em o! te ("me s'"#e "&d is esse&ti"$$% i&ter#"&(e"b$e/ "&d

e&do(e&ous ("mes/ i& 8i# te ("mi&( #o&te7t is i&e7tri#"b$% $i&2ed to te ("me '$"%.

3ordo)" "&d Le''er9s rese"r# 8"s #o&du#ted o& te e7o(e&ous ("me Ho8 te West

8"s Wo&? Civilization III/ o& te oter "&d/ is "& e&do(e&ous ("me: Te "#"demi#

#o&te&t is i&e7tri#"b$% $i&2ed to ("me '$"%.+ T"t te #o&te&t o! te ("me "&d te

("me '$"% itse$! is mutu"$$% #o&stituti)e is im'ort"&t: As I ")e "r(ued 're)ious$% 4e.(.

Squire/ +,,+5/ te bi((est 'ote&ti"$ o! ("mes "s "& edu#"tio&"$ medium $ies i& usi&(

("mes to #re"te " ri# #o&te7t !or ti&2i&( "&d "#ti)it% o&e 8ere te ("me i&du#es

#o&te7tu"$it% !or te $e"r&er so t"t te $e"r&er is so$)i&( "ute&ti#/ #om'$e7 'rob$ems i&

te ("me s'"#e.

U&der$%i&( tis &otio& o! e&do(e&ous ("mes "s " moti)"ti&( #o&te7t !or so$)i&(

#om'$e7 'rob$ems is " so#io;#u$tur"$ mode$ o! moti)"tio&/ o&e t"t )ie8s moti)"tio& &ot

+Te #riti#"$ re"der mi(t &ote t"t tot"$ #o&)ersio& modi!i#"tio&s o! Civilization/ su# "s " !tar arsre&ditio& o!

Civilizatione7ist/ su((esti&( t"t te $i&e bet8ee& e&do(e&ous "&d e7o(e&ous ("mes is more s$i''er% t"& Rieber8ou$d su((est. Te b$urri&( o! e&do(e&ous "&d e7o(e&ous ("mes i& te #"se o! Civilization III#"& be tou(t o! i& "t$e"st tree 8"%s: =5 Te ("me "s m"$$e"b$e ru$e sets t"t desi(&ers #"& "d"'t/ su((esti&( t"t te% "re i& !"#t #re"ti&(&e8 ("mes trou( #"&(i&( ("me ru$es? +5 E)e& i! te ("me ru$es "re &ot subst"&ti"$$% #"&(ed/ te #ore !o#us o! te("me rem"i&s te s"me. I& tis #"se/ te ("me is $"r(e$% "bout m"rs"$$i&( (eo(r"'i# resour#es/ de#idi&( "mo&(so#i"$ obe#ti)es 4i.e. s#iee/ mi$it"r%5/ "&d di'$om"#%? "&d >5 Simu$"tio&s "re "$8"%s !$e7ib$e e&tities 8i# #"& betou(t o! "$o&( " #o&ti&uum o! $o8 to i( !ide$it%. I&deed/ o&e #"& im"(i&e ti&2i&( o! tis !tar ars("me "s $o8;!ide$it% or s"tiri#"$ istori#"$ simu$"tio&. Te u'sot o! tis dis#ussio& is t"t te !$e7ibi$it% o! #o&tem'or"r% ("me too$ssu((ests t"t Rieber9s distitio& m"% &ot be "s "rd "&d !"st "s oe #o&sidered/ "$tou( I be$ie)e t"t it is sti$$ "use!u$ distitio& !or edu#"tors.

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"s " st"ti# )"ri"b$e but r"ter "s "& emer(e&t 'ro'ert% bet8ee& $e"r&er "&d #o&te7t. rom

tis situ"ted )ie8/ all$e"r&ers "re moti)"ted? te% ust m"% &ot be moti)"ted i& te 8"%s

t"t edu#"tors 8"&t tem to be. Le"r&ers "re "#ti)e/ (o"$;dri)e& #o&stru#tors o! me"&i&(.

Tis so#io;#u$tur"$ 'ers'e#ti)e e#o$o(ies te $e"r&er. Te 'rob$em o! moti)"tio& is &ot

!r"med "s " m"tter o! i( M $o8/ i&tri&si# M e7tri&si#/ but r"ter "s " so#i"$;'s%#o$o(i#"$

'rob$em o! e&("(i&( $e"r&ers i& "#ti)it% 8e& tere "re #om'eti&( or di!!eri&( (o"$s "&d

i&te&tio&s 4e.(. 1"r"b 3er2es;*u$2o8s2i/ S8e&so&./ et "$./ =FFF5. Prob$ems o! e7tri&si#

moti)"tio& mi(t be re!r"med "s issues 8it "utorit% or di!!eri&( "(e&d"s/ o! de)e$o'i&(

di!!eri&( (o"$s/ or o! !"i$i&( to dete#t '"ts to8"rd meeti&( teir (o"$s i& te

e&)iro&me&t. rom " #u$tur"$ )ie8/ $e"r&i&( (o"$s m"% &ot be #om'e$$i&( to $e"r&ers or

m"% be "t odds 8it teir ide&tities "s $e"r&ers 4e.(. S#o$$e&/ =FB=5. Le"r&ers9 (o"$s "&d

i&te&tio&s "re so#i"$$% "&d #u$tur"$$% situ"ted/ "&d u&derst"&di&( $e"r&ers9 (o"$s "&d

i&te&tio&s is " #om'$e7 'ro#ess t"t is !ruit!u$$% studied b% e7"mi&i&( re$"tio&si's

"mo&( ide&tities/ #ommu&ities/ $e"r&i&( #u$ture "&d 'r"#ti#e 4We&(er/ =FFB5.

Witi& ("mi&( dis#ourse/ " &umber o! m"ssi)e$% mu$ti'$"%er desi(&ers ")e

be(u& "do'ti&( 1"rt$e9s 4=FFJ5 !r"me8or2 !or u&derst"&di&( 8"t moti)"tes 'eo'$e to

("me b% #"r"#terii&( ("me '$"% "s " so#i"$ 'r"#ti#e 4i(ure +.+5. Trou( qu"$it"ti)e

obser)"tio& o! ("mers/ 1"rt$e !i&ds t"t '$"%ers #"& be di)ided "$o&( t8o "7es: 4"5 "#ti&(

)s. i&ter"#ti&(/ o& 4b5 te 8or$d )s. oter '$"%ers. 1"rt$e $"be$s tese !our ro$es 2i$$ers

4"#ti&( o& '$"%ers5/ so#i"$iers 4i&ter"#ti&( 8it '$"%ers5/ "#ie)ers 4"#ti&( o& te

8or$d5 "&d e7'$orers 4i&ter"#ti&( 8it te 8or$d5. W"$2i&( te re"der trou( te

be")ior o! e"# '$"%er t%'e/ e "r(ues t"t tese !our 8"%s o! '$"%i&( "re st"tes t"t

'$"%ers "do't 8i$e i& ("me t"t "re b"sed o& teir #urre&t moti)"tio&s. or 1"rt$e/ it is

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te i&ter"#tio&s "mo&( tese di!!eri&( '$"%ers t"t (i)e ("me 8or$d9s teir $i!e. Oter

("me desi(&ers seem to "(ree: R"' Koster/ #re"ti)e desi(&er o! 0lti"a Online"&d te

&e8$% re$e"sed !tar ars ala5ies/ rem"r2ed t"t 1"rt$e9s modes o! '$"% "$so o$d u' i&

si&($e;'$"%er ("mes 8it e7'$orers more moti)"ted to '$"% ro$e;'$"%i&( ("mes "&d

"#ie)ers more moti)"ted to '$"% %'er;#om'etiti)e ("mes/ '"rti#u$"r$% !irst;'erso&

sooters 4Kim/ Koster/ @ 6o(e$/ +,,=5. 1% !ore(rou&di&( te !"#t t"t ("mi&( is

torou($% " so#i"$ 'r"#ti#e/ 1"rt$e9s !r"me8or2 is i&si(t!u$ !or edu#"tors be#"use it

e$'s s'e#i!% te '"rti#u$"r re"so&s t"t '"rti#i'"&ts ("me i& te '"rti#u$"r 8"%s te% do.

Retur&i&( to Wri(t9s &otio& o! di!!ere&t ("me (e&res/ tere "re o!te& $"r(e distitio&s

bet8ee& ("me t%'es "&d it m"% &ot e)e& be se&sib$e to t"$2 "bout te 'r"#ti#e o! '$"%i&(

1ua6e/ !or e7"m'$e/ i& te s"me 8"% t"t 8e t"$2 "bout te 'r"#ti#e o! '$"%i&(

Civilization III. Edu#"tors o'i&( to use ("mes i& edu#"tio& &eed to u&derst"&d di!!ere&t

("me (e&res/ ("me 'r"#ti#es/ "&d modes o! ("me '$"% i& order to e!!e#ti)e$% $e)er"(e te

u&ique "!!ord"es o! s'e#i!i# ("mes to situ"te $e"r&ers i& "#"demi#"$$% )"$u"b$e #o&te7ts

4Ho$$"&d/ *e&2i&s/ @ Squire/ +,,>? Squire/ +,,+5.

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i(ure +.+ 1"rt$e9s 4=FFJ5 t"7o&om% o! moti)"tio& i& mu$ti'$"%er ("mi&(.

a"es in !ocial !tudies 'ducation in eneral

Di(it"$ ("mes su# "s Civilization IIIo'e& &e8 o''ortu&ities to su''ort $e"r&i&(

"s '$"%ers m"&i'u$"te #om'$e7 s%stems/ test teir "ssum'tio&s "bout (eo(r"'% b%

bui$di&( )irtu"$ em'ires/ "&d #om'"re te u&!o$di&( o! teir 3i)i$i"tio& 8it te

istori#"$ re#ord. Wi$e su# e7'eriees m"% seem u&'re#ede&ted to some 4e.(.

Pre&s2%/ +,,=5/ tere is " $o&( tr"ditio& o! ("mes "&d simu$"tio&s i& edu#"tio&"$

te#&o$o(% "&d so#i"$ studies s'e#i!i#"$$% t"t 'ro)ides some (uid"e !or o8 " ("me

su# "s Civilization IIImi(t be used to su''ort $e"r&i&(.

I& is re)ie8 o! rese"r# o& ("mes "&d simu$"tio&s i& so#i"$ studies/ 3$e(( 4=FF=5

m"2es te !o$$o8i&( obser)"tio&:

Stude&ts usi&( #om'uter simu$"tio&s demo&str"ted ire"ses i& "!!e#ti)eout#omes su# "s i&terest/ moti)"tio&/ e&o%me&t/ se&se o! 'erso&"$ #o&tro$/ "&d8i$$i&(&ess to 'erse)ere i& #om'$eti&( $e"r&i&( t"s2s. 3oo'er"ti)e str"te(ies 8it

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#om'uter ("mes ire"sed bot $o8er "&d i(er order $e"r&i&( "&d te&ded tobe&e!it !em"$e stude&ts more t"& m"$es 4'. +Q5.

I&deed/ tere seems to be stro&( "(reeme&t "mo&( rese"r#ers t"t ("me '$"%i&( #"& $e"d

to ire"sed e&tusi"sm/ #oo'er"ti)e $e"r&i&( str"te(ies/ "&d (o"$;dire#ted be")ior

41e#2er/ =FB,? Em"& @ G$e&&/ =FBQ? Gred$er/ =FFJ? Li)i&(sto& @ Sto$$/ =FQ>5. 5 re'orted t"t

'$"%ers 're!erred '$"%i&( Inter9Nation !i"ulaton to tr"ditio&"$ $e#ture "&d ome8or2

e7er#ises. We&t8ort summ"rie " &umber o! oter studies e7"mi&i&( oter ("mes

resu$ti&( i& simi$"r !i&di&(s 41"2er/ =FJJ? 3oe&/ =FQ,? 3ordt/ =FQ,? Doo$e%/ =FJF?

St"ds2$e)/ =FJF? Wi&(/ =FJJ5. Tese studies/ "$$ o! 8i# !it te '"tter& o! 8"t

i&stru#tio&"$ desi(&ers #ommo&$% #"$$ smi$e tests/ "re some8"t use!u$ !or ("u(i&(

stude&ts9 i&terest i& usi&( s'e#i!i# ("mes "&d simu$"tio&s i& s'e#i!i# ("mi&( #o&te7ts but

do $itt$e to i$$umi&"te o8 ("me;'$"%i&( "!!e#ts '$"%ers9 "ttitudes to8"rd sube#t m"tter

or dis#i'$i&"r% "bi$ities.

I&stru#tio&"$ ("mes "&d simu$"tio&s i& so#i"$ studies m"% ")e it teir e&it i&

te =FQ,s 8e& doe&s o! studies 8ere #o&du#ted e7"mi&i&( te im'"#t o! most 'e& "&d

'"'er edu#"tio&"$ ("me '$"%i&( o& $e"r&i&(. I& te m"orit% o! tese studies/ ("mes !"red

&o better &or 8orse t"& oter $e"r&i&( e7'eriees i& terms o! teir e!!e#t o& stude&t

"#ie)eme&t 4i.e. '"'er "&d 'ei$ s#ores5 4We&t8ort @ Le8is/ =FQ>/ '. ->5. Si7

studies 8ere te e7#e'tio&: 5 !ou&d t"t

stude&ts '$"%i&( " istor% ("me 'er!ormed 8orse o& #o&te&t s#ores t"& tose i& #o&tro$

(rou's. We&t8ort 4=FQ+5 !ou&d simi$"r resu$ts 8it stude&ts '$"%i&( " ("me #"$$ed

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ar6etplace/ "$tou( te ("me;'$"%i&( stude&ts did 'er!orm better t"& te #o&tro$ i&

u&derst"&di&( s%stem d%&"mi#s. Du2e 4=FJ-5/


41/416

O& te sur!"#e/ #ettom"% seem $i2e " 'romisi&( edu#"tio&"$ too$: P$"%ers $e"r&

"bout te di!!i#u$ties "&d o'e$ess&ess o! 'o)ert% !irst"&d "s te% m"2e #oi#es i& te

("me. I& m% o8& e7'eriees/ I ")e !ou&d t"t '$"%ers qui#2$% re"$ie t"t te ("me is

bi"sed "("i&st tem "&d t"t tere is )er% $itt$e #"e o! su##eedi&(. Tis e7'eriee #"&

(i)e rise to #o&!$i#ti&( emotio&s t"t #"& 'ro)ide te !ue$ !or !ruit!u$ dis#ussio&? %et/ i&

e"# o! Li)i&(sto&9s studies/ e !"i$ed to !i&d #om'e$$i&( e)idee t"t '$"%i&( #etto

si!ted '"rti#i'"&ts9 "ttitudes to8"rd te 'oor/ e)e& 8it so$id debrie!i&( e7er#ises. or

e7"m'$e/ Li)i&(sto& "&d Sto$$ 4=FQ>5 !ou&d t"t $o8;"bi$it% stude&ts "d mu# more

di!!i#u$t% m"2i&( #o&&e#tio&s bet8ee& teir ("mi&( e7'eriees "&d urb"& 'o)ert% t"&

i( "bi$it% stude&ts. Li)i&(sto& "&d Sto$$ "r(ued t"t $o8;"#ie)ers learn to pla% te

("me r"ter t"& learn fro"te ("me.

Tis series o! studies i$$umi&"tes te di!!i#u$ties i& usi&( o&e;sot ("mi&(

e7'eriees to #"&(e stude&ts9 "ttitudes trou( ("me '$"%i&(. To ti&2 t"t " t8o;our

("mi&( sessio& 8ou$d #"use " dr"m"ti# si!t i& '$"%ers9 "ttitudes "ttitudes bui$t o)er "

$i!etime o! e7'eriee to8"rd " to'i# "s emotio&"$$% "&d 'o$iti#"$$% #"r(ed "s 'o)ert%

is &")e i! &ot im'ude&t. Te ("me 8or$d o! #etto is #$e"r$% "& "rti!i#i"$/ #o&stru#ted

8or$d desi(&ed to e$i#it emotio&s. Te ("me is &ot mode$ed o& "&% '"rti#u$"r #ommu&it%

or setti&(/ so/ 8itout "&% #$e"r (rou&di&( i& '"rti#u$"r istori#"$ #o&te7ts/ '$"%ers "re

"s2ed to m"2e #o&&e#tio&s bet8ee& te ("me "&d re"$it% o& " $e"' o! !"it. Wit to'i#s

"s emotio&"$$% #"r(ed "s urb"& 'o)ert%/ most i&stru#tio&"$ desi(&ers 8ou$d de)ote

#o&sider"b$e time to its #o&sider"tio&/ #ombi&i&( se)er"$ metods o! i&stru#tio& i& order

to m"2e o)ert #o&&e#tio&s bet8ee& #oe'ts o! 'o)ert% "&d o8 'o)ert% is e7'erieed

i& s'e#i!i# istori#"$ situ"tio&s. Good te"#ers mi(t "$so use )ideos/ #"se studies/

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i&ter)ie8s 8it urb"& d8e$$ers/ or !ie$d tri's to !$es out stude&ts9 o8& e7'eriees 8it

urb"& 'o)ert%.


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I& o&e o! te !irst studies o! ("mes "&d simu$"tio&s i& so#i"$ studies #$"ssrooms/

Het&er 4=FQ+5/ #ited i& Do8&e% @ Le)sti#2/ 4=FF=5/ !ou&d t"t se#o&d"r% s#oo$

stude&ts 8o '$"%ed " 'o$iti#"$ #om'uter simu$"tio& "d st"tisti#"$$% si(&i!i#"&t i(er

me"& s#ores o& tests o! i&terest/ (o"$;dire#ted be")ior/ "&d "''$i#"tio& o! 'rii'$es

re$"ted to #"reer de)e$o'me&t t"& stude&ts i& " #o&)e&tio&"$ #$"ss i& #"reer i&!orm"tio&.


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e"r$ier rese"r# o& '"'er;"&d;'ei$ ("mes "&d simu$"tio&s/ is s'or"di#/ questio&"b$%

desi(&ed/ "&d io$usi)e. Re!$e#ti&( o& te $"#2 o! rese"r# i& tis "re"/ Em"& "&d

G$e&& 4=FF=5 8rite Tere "re so !e8 studies t"t be"r o& te questio& o! te im'"#t o!

i&ter"#ti)e te#&o$o(ies o& te so#i"$ studies te"#er9s ro$e t"t it 8ou$d be 'resum'tuous

to #o$ude t"t 8e u&derst"&d tis "re".


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de#re"sed "#"demi# 'er!orm"e. Desi(&i&( $e"r&i&( e&)iro&me&ts #om'rised

e7#$usi)e$% o! ("mi&( "#ti)ities "&d &oti&( e$se "''e"rs to be r"ter sort si(ted.

O! #ourse/ te im'ort"e o! te "#ti)it% stru#ture i& 8i# " (i)e& too$ !or

$e"r&i&( is embedded "s $o&( bee& re#o(&ied i& te !ie$d o! i&stru#tio&"$ te#&o$o(%.

or e7"m'$e/ !or de#"des/ i&stru#tio&"$ desi(&ers ")e re#o(&ied te #ru#i"$ ro$e o!

debrie!i&( e7er#ises !o$$o8i&( ("me '$"%? 'er"'s edu#"tio&"$ rese"r#ers 8ou$d be 8e$$

"d)ised to !or(o "ttem'ts to iso$"te te e!!e#ts o! ("mi&( "&d i&ste"d !o#us o&

rese"r#i&( te out#omes o! i&t"#t 'ed"(o(ies !or $e"r&i&( trou( ("me '$"%.

Edu#"tio&"$ desi(&ers &eed &ot st"rt !rom s#r"t#? (o"$;b"sed s#e&"rios 4S#"&2/ =FF-5/

'rob$em;b"sed $e"r&i&( 4S")er% @ Du!!%/ =FF5/ #o(&iti)e "''re&ti#esi's 41ro8&/

3o$$i&s @ Ne8m"&/ =FF=5/ "&d mode$i&( 41"r"b/ 1"r&ett/ @ H"%/ +,,=5 "$$ 'ro)ide

'ed"(o(i#"$ mode$s i& 8i# stude&t;dire#ted "#ti)it% is te !o#us o! te "#ti)it% s%stem

"&d i&stru#tio&"$ su''orts "re !o$ded i&to te #o&te7t o! stude&t;dire#ted "#ti)it%.

T#e li"ited value of traditional e5peri"ental researc#. Tus !"r/ rese"r# o&

("mes i& so#i"$ studies "s most$% bee& #o&du#ted usi&( #$"ssi# 'ositi)ist e7'erime&t"$

metodo$o(ies 8ere " ("me;b"sed e7'erime&t"$ #o&ditio& is #re"ted "&d te& #om'"red

to " #o&tro$ (rou'. I& most #"ses/ o&$% stude&ts9 'er#e'tio&s o! te e7'eriee "&d

"ttitudes to8"rd so#i"$ studies "re te me"sured out#ome )"ri"b$es. Su# "''ro"#es

de&% rese"r#ers te o''ortu&it% to e7"mi&e o8 s'e#i!i# i&stru#tio&"$ str"te(ies "$o&e

or i& #ombi&"tio& su''ort $e"r&i&( i& s'e#i!i# 8"%s. or e7"m'$e/ i&stru#tio&"$

str"te(ies su# "s ust;i&;time $e#tures ")i&( bee& !ou&d to e&"e $e"r&i&( 8e&

#ombi&ed 8it stude&t;dire#ted "#ti)ities 43TG6/ =FF>? 1"r"b/ Squire @ 1"r&ett/ =FFF5?

te rese"r# re)ie8ed "bo)e/ o8e)er/ o!!ers &oti&( t"t mi(t be"r o& simi$"r

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'ed"(o(i#"$ desi(&s/ desi(&s t"t/ i& trut/ "re !"r more simi$"r to "#tu"$ i&stru#tio& i&

re"$ #$"ssrooms.


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T#e i"portance of social interactions in t#e &a"in& e5perience . 1ot #ommo&

i&stru#tio&"$ desi(& 'r"#ti#e "&d em'iri#"$ rese"r# o& ("mi&( su((est t"t te so#i"$

i&ter"#tio&s t"t e&)e$o' te !orm"$ ("me stru#tures m"% be more im'ort"&t to $e"r&i&(

out#omes t"& te ("me itse$! 43$e((/ =FF=? Hei&i# et "$./ =FFJ? *o&so&/ et "$./ =FB?

Ti"("r""&/ =FFB5. 3$e(( 4=FF=5 &otes t"t:

Tere "s bee& )irtu"$$% &o rese"r# o& su# i&ter)e&i&( )"ri"b$es "si&ter'erso&"$ re$"tio&s/ $e"dersi'/ te"m membersi'/ "&d te de#isio&;m"2i&( 'ro#ess. A$tou( tere "s bee& mu# teor% "&d rese"r# i&'s%#o$o(% "&d or("&i"tio&"$ de)e$o'me&t o& tese to'i#s/ tere "sbee& &o #"rr% o)er i&to te studies o& simu$"tio& i& so#i"$ studies#$"ssrooms. Too o!te& debrie!i&( "t te e&d o! te ("me o&$% (ets s#"&t

"tte&tio& 41roo2er/ =FBB5 su((ested t"t #"re!u$ dis#ussio& "&d"&"$%sis o! te issues duri&( debrie!i&( "re "s im'ort"&t "s '$"%i&( te("me itse$! 4'. +B5.

Wi$e most rese"r#ers "re qui#2 to re#o(&ie te so#i"$$% situ"ted &"ture o! ("me '$"%

"&d te 'ed"(o(i#"$ "$$ure o! #om'etiti)e "&d #oo'er"ti)e s#e&"rios/ most rese"r#

desi(&s ")e i(&ored te so#i"$ dime&sio&s o! ("mi&(. I&ste"d/ ("mi&( is tre"ted "s "

'ure$% =:= i&ter"#tio& bet8ee& te '$"%er "&d te ("me.


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O)er te '"st te& %e"rs/ " &e8 (e&er"tio& o! edut"i&me&t ("mes $i2e !i"Cit%"&d

Civilization "s be#ome ")"i$"b$e !or so#i"$ studies edu#"tors/ redoub$i&( i&terest i&

usi&( tese "''$i#"tio&s i& !orm"$ $e"r&i&( e&)iro&me&ts 41erso&/ =FFJ? Ho'e/ =FFJ?

Ko$so&/ =FFJ? Lee/ =FF-? Te"(ue @ Te"(ue/ =FF5. Te ire"sed (r"'i#"$/

#ommu&i#"tio&/ "&d #om'ut"tio&"$ 'o8er o! des2to' #om'uters/ #ombi&ed 8it te

ire"sed desi(& so'isti#"tio& o! #om'uter ("mes "&d simu$"tio&s/ #re"tes &e8

"!!ord"es !or su''orti&( $e"r&i&(. Di(it"$ ("mes "&d simu$"tio&s "$$o8 te '$"%er to

e7"mi&e te de)e$o'me&t o! so#i"$ s%stems i& !our dime&sio&s 4"#ross tree;dime&sio&"$

s'"#e '$us time5 "&d to '"rti#i'"te i& su# s%stems !rom oter8ise u&"tt"i&"b$e

'ers'e#ti)es !or e7"m'$e/ !rom te 'ers'e#ti)e o! "& "$$;'o8er!u$ em'eror or te #"r

o! " sm"$$ is$"&d #ou&tr% i& Tropico 4Squire/ +,,+5. Studies o! o8 su# simu$"tio&

("mes remedi"te $e"r&ers9 u&derst"&di&( o! so#i"$ studies 'e&ome&" "re &o8 more

&e#ess"r% t"& e)er.

Des'ite te i&tuiti)e "''e"$ "&d (ro8i&( (r"ssroots 'o'u$"rit% o! usi&( #om'$e7/

i&!orm"tio&;$"de&/ "&d robust simu$"tio& ("mes su# "s Civilization IIIi& so#i"$ studies

#$"ssrooms/ $itt$e 8or2 "s bee& do&e to #o&&e#t te "!!ord"es o! su# ("mes to

#o&tem'or"r% issues i& te $e"r&i&( s#iees/ '"rti#u$"r$% issues i& te emer(i&( !ie$d o!

8or$d istor% edu#"tio& 4e.(. Ste"r&s/ Sei7"s/ @ Wi&ebur(/ +,,,5. Tis se#tio& i($i(ts

se)er"$ #e&tr"$ #oe'ts i& istor% edu#"tio&/ 'ro)idi&( re"ders &ot !"mi$i"r 8it te

#urre&t dis#ourse 8iti& te dom"i& some se&se o! 8"t issues "&d ide"s ")e re#e&t$%

emer(ed. Te m"i& "r(ume&t I m"2e i& tis se#tio& is t"t istori#"$ simu$"tio& ("mes

su# "s Civilization III")e tepotentialto "ddress m"&% o! tese issues. Tis is not to

"r(ue/ o8e)er/ t"t Civilization III or "&% ("me !or t"t m"tter o$ds "$$ te "&s8ers

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!or istor% edu#"tio&. Tere "re im'ort"&t #oer&s t"t so#i"$ studies edu#"tors ou(t to

#o&sider "bout te 'ro'erties o! ("mes "s i&stru#tio&"$ medi". Te dis#ussio& "d)"ed

ere is i&te&ded to 'ose questio&s "&d o'e& deb"te i&!ormed b% 8or$d istor%;s'e#i!i#

'ed"(o(i#"$ issues #e&tr"$ to #o&tem'or"r% teor% "&d 'r"#ti#e/ &ot to o!!er some '"&"#e"

!or istor% edu#"tio& i& #o&tem'or"r% #$"ssrooms.

'n&a&in& t#e Identities of Learners in t#e !tud% of /istor%

I& te '"st/ istor% "s bee& 'resumed to be "& "'o$iti#"$ e&ter'rise "&d $e"r&i&(

istor% " $i&e"r de)e$o'me&t"$ 'ro#ess 8ereb% stude&ts e&ter te #$"ssroom "s &")e

ti&2ers "&d (r"du"$$% "#quire !"#ts i& order to e)e&tu"$$% be#ome s2i$$ed 4Do8&e% @

Le)sti#2/ =FF=5. A!ter re)ie8i&( te $iter"ture/ Do8&e% "&d Le)sti#2 4=FF=5 su((est t"t

te s"$$o8 #u$tur"$ $iter"#% "''ro"# to te"#i&( istor% $e"ds to mis#oe'tio&s "bout

te &"ture o! te dom"i& "&d dri)es stude&ts "8"% !rom its stud% 4see "$so 1"r&ett/ 1"r"b/

S#"t/ @ W"rre&/ +,,,? Good$"d/ =FB-? Gree&e/ =FF-? Loe8e&/ =FF? Per2i&s/ =FF+?

Sei7"s/ +,,,5. Wi&ebur( 4+,,=5 e#oes tese se&time&ts/ "r(ui&( t"t most

's%#o$o(i#"$$%;i&s'ired rese"r# i& so#i"$ studies "s &ot bee& (rou&ded i& "&%

re#o(&i"b$e mode$ o! e7'ert 'r"#ti#e or dom"i&;s'e#i!i# re"so&i&( "&d 'rob$em;so$)i&(.

Sei7"s 4+,,,5/ (oes o&e ste' !urter/ "r(ui&( t"t 8"t '"sses "s istor% te

memori"tio& o! " #o$$e#tio& o! !"#ts/ #"us"$ e7'$"&"tio&s "&d s"tio&ed &"rr"ti)es

mi(t better be des#ribed "s te #o&stru#tio& o! m%t or erit"(e t"& doi&( istor% i&

"&% re"$ se&se.

I&deed/ #riti#s o! te Cbest stor%C "''ro"# ")e &oted o8 $itt$e tis 'ro#ess o!

$e"r&i&( istor% re!$e#ts o8 "#tu"$ istori"&s e&("(e i& istori#"$ i&quir% 4e.(. Ste"r&s/

Sei7"s/ @ Wi&ebur(/ +,,,5. Were"s stude&ts re"d te7tboo2s/ memorie !"#ts/ "&d re#ite

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re"d%;m"de 2&o8$ed(e/ "#"demi#s/ #ur"tors/ our&"$ists/ "&d so#i"$ "#ti)ists #o&sider

rese"r# to'i#s o! teoreti#"$ "&dMor 'r"#ti#"$ im'ort"e/ #o&su$t ori(i&"$ sour#es/

'rodu#e "r(ume&ts/ i&ter'ret d"t" i& di"$o(ue 8it e7isti&( teor%/ "&d &e(oti"te !i&di&(s

8iti& so#i"$ #o&te7ts 43ou&se$$/ +,,,? Gree&e/ =FF-? 6"&S$edri(t/ =FFB5. Wi&ebur(

4=FF+? =FFF5 "r(ues t"t Ameri#"& stude&ts "re 'rese&ted te resu$ts o! istori#"$ i&quir%

8itout "&% "''re#i"tio& !or te te&t"ti)e&ess o! #o&tem'or"r% istori#"$ #$"ims or te

#o&te&tious&ess o! #urre&t deb"tes i& te !ie$d. As " resu$t/ te m"orit% o! stude&ts

'er#ei)e istor% "s te me"&i&($ess re#it"tio& o! &"mes/ d"tes/ "&d !"#ts est"b$ised b%

"utorities "&d !"i$ to u&derst"&d te metods "&d 'r"#ti#es trou( 8i# istori"&s

#o&stru#t "&d ud(e istori#"$ "r(ume&ts 4Sei7"s/ +,,,5. Not sur'risi&($%/ most stude&ts

dis$i2e stud%i&( istor%/ !reque&t$% $isti&( istor% "s Cte most bori&(C o! "$$ += sube#ts

studied i& s#oo$ 4Loe8e&/ =FF5.

$rovidin& ar&inalized !tudents $at#2a%s into orld /istor%

Te most d"m&i&( im'$i#"tio& o! tis "''ro"# #"& be !ou&d 8ere s#o$"rs ")e

e7'$ored o8 m"r(i&"$ied or o''ressed 'eo'$es &e(oti"te tese o!!i#i"$$% s"tio&ed

istories 8it teir $i)ed e7'eriees/ !"mi$% istories/ "&d o8& i&ter'ret"tio&s o! so#i"$

#o&ditio&s. *im Werts# "&d oters ")e !ou&d t"t/ e)e& 8e& stude&ts $e"r& o!!i#i"$$%

s"tio&ed s#oo$ istories/ te% do &ot &e#ess"ri$% be$ie)e it. I& te =FF,s/ Werts#

4+,,,5 did " series o! studies i&ter)ie8i&( Esto&i"& #itie&s "bout teir u&derst"&di&( o!

te USSR9s "&&e7"tio& o! Esto&i" i& =F-,. Sur'risi&($%/ Esto&i"&s 2&e8 bot o!!i#i"$ "&d

u&o!!i#i"$ istories o! o8 Esto&i" be#"me " '"rt o! te So)iet U&io&/ 8it most #itie&s

2&o8i&( !"r more o! te o!!i#i"$ istori#"$ "##ou&t t"u(t i& So)iet s#oo$s. At te

s"me time/ most #itie&s disre("rded tis istor% "s !"$se/ "&d i&ste"d subs#ribed to "&

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"$ter&"ti)e istor% t"t #"$$e&(ed o!!i#i"$ istori#"$ &"rr"ti)es o&e t"t de)e$o'ed

trou( !"mi$ies/ !o$2$ore/ "&d u&der(rou&d #"&&e$s. Ameri#"& edu#"tors !rom te

#riti#"$ 'ed"(o(% tr"ditio& ")e m"de simi$"r #$"ims "bout te te"#i&( o! r"#e i&

Ameri#"& s#oo$s/ &oti&( t"t m"&% Ameri#"& stude&ts $e"r& o!!i#i"$$% s"tio&ed s#oo$

istor% but ret"i& teir 're;e7isti&( be$ie!s "bout Ameri#"& istor% or #o&tem'or"r%

#u$ture 4Em"&/ =FB,? Loe8e&/ =FF?


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"re o&e o! te 8"%s t"t so#i"$ order is m"i&t"i&ed. S#oo$s/ te&/ "re o&e o! te m"i&

so#i"$ i&stitutio&s t"t rei!% e(emo&i# stru#tures.

A #"$$e&(e to istor% edu#"tors/ te&/ is o8 to 'ro)ide s'"#es 8ere stude&ts

#"& 8or2 trou( tese issues o! r"#e/ 'o8er/ #$"ss/ "&d ide&tit%. I! Loe8e& 4=FF5 is

#orre#t/ te& istor% edu#"tors #"&&ot sim'$% i(&ore 're)"i$i&( stereot%'es/ m%ts/ "&d

istori#"$ "##ou&ts. Stude&ts &eed o''ortu&ities !or e7'$ori&( "&d #o&!ro&ti&( tem/

&e(oti"ti&( teir $i)ed ide&tities 8it tose 'romu$("ted i& s#oo$s. Ho8 to (o "bout tis

'ro#ess is &ot e7"#t$% #$e"r: I! stude&ts #ome to s#oo$ disi&terested i&/ s2e'ti#"$ o!/ or

e)e& ree#ti&( s#oo$;s"tio&ed istories/ o8 do 8e e&("(e stude&ts i& te "rd "&d

'"i&!u$ 8or2 o! e&("(i&( i& ide&tit% 'o$iti#s te 'ro#esses o! see2i&( out "&d e&("(i&(

8it mu$ti'$e istories/ 'r"#ti#i&( i&tros'e#tio&/ "&d e7'$ori&( o&e9s o8& 4mu$ti'$e5

ide&tities Witi& " 8or$d istor% #o&te7t/ o8 do 8e o&or stude&ts9 desire to "!!i$i"te

temse$)es 8it #u$tur"$ tr"ditio&s 48eter Euro'e"&/ N"ti)e Ameri#"&/ Asi"&/ or

A!ri#"&5 8it te )er% re"$ 'o$iti#s o! #o$o&i"$ istor% Ho8 do 8e e$' Ameri#"&

stude&ts 8o ide&ti!% temse$)es "s o! Euro'e"& des#e&t u&derst"&d istori#"$ e)e&ts i& "

8"% t"t e&"b$es tem to #o&!ro&t teir istori#"$ "&d so#i"$ 'ositio& i& " #o&stru#ti)e

m"&&er Ho8 do 8e e&("(e stude&ts 8o ide&ti!% temse$)es "s ")i&( des#e&ded !rom

#o$o&ied 'o'u$"tio&s i& te '"i&!u$ 'ro#esses o! #o&!ro&ti&( teir so#i"$ "&d istori#"$

'ositio&s 8i$e i& di"$o(ue 8it s#oo$;s"tio&ed &"rr"ti)es

$rovidin& =ac6&round :no2led&e

A& emer(i&( bod% o! rese"r# i& so#i"$ studies edu#"tio& so8s t"t stude&ts

!reque&t$% $"#2 te b"#2(rou&d 2&o8$ed(e &e#ess"r% to u&derst"&d e)e& te most b"si#

istor% te7ts 41e#2 @


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stude&ts eou&ter te7ts/ 1e#2 "&d


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istori#"$ #o&te7ts/ #re"ti&( istor% museums/ or e7"mi&i&( istori#"$ "rt8or2s. Le)sti2

"&d 1"rto& e7'"&d &otio&s o! istor% edu#"tio& to i$ude modes o! i&quir% t"t #ut

"#ross se)er"$ !ie$ds/ i$udi&( m"teri"$ istor%/ "r#ite#tur"$ istor%/ #u$tur"$ istor%/

so#i"$ istor%/ "&d 'o$iti#"$ istor%. O&e 2e% !e"ture o! tis "''ro"# to istor% edu#"tio&

is res'e#ti&( bot te 'ositio&"$it% o! stude&ts "&d te "#ti)it% o! istori#"$ i&quir% itse$!

"s so#i"$$%;medi"ted i&te$$e#tu"$ e&ter'rises 46"&S$edri(t/ =FFB5. Histori"&s do &ot "s2

questio&s or #o&du#t istor% i& " )"#uum: Histor% is "$8"%s tem'or"$$% situ"ted trou(

te 'er#ei)er9s questio&s/ modes o! i&quir%/ so#i"$ 'ur'oses/ "&d eom'"ssi&( dis#ursi)e

#ommu&ities. Le)sti2 "&d 1"rto& 4+,,=5 (o o&e ste' !urter/ remi&di&( edu#"tors t"t

tere is &o o&e !ie$d o! istor%/ "&d t"t do#ume&t"ri"&s/ mi$it"r% istori"&s/ "#"demi#

istori"&s/ 'reser)"tio&ist istori"&s et#. e"# "''ro"# teir 8or2 di!!ere&t$%. De'e&di&(

o& te 'ur'oses o! te istori#"$ i&)esti("tio& "&d te #ommu&ities o! i&quir% i& 8i#

te istor% is !r"med/ 8"t #ou&ts "s istor% mi(t 8i$d$% di!!er. Tus/ " #"$$e&(e !or

8or$d istor% edu#"tors is o8 to s#"!!o$d stude&ts i& 8"%s t"t "$$o8 stude&ts (e&ui&e

i&quir%.

a"es as /istorical !i"ulations


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8it obser)ed d"t"/ #o&stru#t "r(ume&ts/ "&d &e(oti"te tem 8iti& " #ommu&it% o!

i&quir% 4e.(. 1"r&ett/ 1"r"b/ @ H"%/ +,,=5. or m"&% s#iee edu#"tors/ te )"$ue o!

mode$i&( "&d simu$"tio& is &ot i& te #o&te&t 'er se but i& te mode$i&(;bui$di&( 'ro#ess

itse$!. As #o&stru#ted mode$s/ di(it"$ ("mes su# "s Civilization III #o&t"i&

re'rese&t"tio&s o! 'e&ome&"/ embedded $"&(u"(e/ re$"tio&si's/ "&d ide"s t"t stude&ts

#"& e7'$ore. As " resu$t/ '$"%i&( mode$;bui$di&( "&d simu$"tio& ("mes "re " 'r"#ti#"$

8"% to 'ro)ide stude&ts o''ortu&ities to e&("(e i& more #om'$e7 i&quir%;b"sed "#ti)ities

t"& tr"ditio&"$ #urri#u$" m"teri"$s 'ro)ide 4K$o'!er @ Squire/ +,,>5.

Simu$"tio& ("mes "$$o8 '$"%ers to '"rti#i'"te i& )irtu"$ so#i"$ s%stems "&d to

"do't 'ers'e#ti)es t"t te% &orm"$$% m"% &e)er ")e "##ess to. I& te ro$e;'$"%i&(

simu$"tio&s/idden A&endaor Tropico/ !or e7"m'$e/ $e"r&ers #"& "ssume te 'ositio& o!

" 'o$iti#"$ $e"der i& " 3e&tr"$ Ameri#"& #ou&tr%/ $e"r&i&( "bout e#o&omi#s/ istor%/

'o$iti#s/ so#io$o(%/ "&d #u$ture i& te 'ro#ess. Getti&( stude&ts to "do't su# "$ter&"ti)e

'ers'e#ti)es is " #ore !"#et o! $e"r&i&( to ti&2 istori#"$$% 4Do8&e% @ Le)sti#2/ =FF=?

Wi&ebur(/ =FF+5/ %et is o!te& di!!i#u$t to "#ie)e i& tr"ditio&"$ $e"r&i&( e&)iro&me&ts. I&

#o&tr"st/ ("mes $i2e Civilization III "$$o8 stude&ts to e7'$ore u&!o$di&( (eo(r"'i#"$

'ro#esses/ to i&)esti("te te i&ter'$"% o! !"#tors #"usi&( so#i"$ 'e&ome&"/ "&d e)e& to

)ie8 ($ob"$ so#i"$ s%stems o)er tous"&ds o! %e"rs o! time b% sim'$% "$teri&( te mode$9s

time s#"$e someti&( &ot e"si$% "##om'$ised b% oter me"&s.

Simu$"tio& ("mes $i2e Civilization III"re d%&"mi# )isu"$i"tio& "&d %'otesis;

testi&( too$s t"t 'ro)ide stude&ts 8i&do8s i&to )"rious #"us"$ sequees t"t "re

t%'i#"$$% obs#ured. Te user #"& dr"m"ti#"$$% si!ts time s#"$es/ !or e7"m'$e/ s'eedi&( u'

'ro#esses t"t "re &orm"$$% s're"d out o)er tous"&ds o! %e"rs so t"t $o&(;term

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#o&sequees o! de#isio&s #"& be &ot o&$% 'redi#ted "&d "$so/ "&d #ru#i"$$%/ i&s'e#ted "s

8e$$. 1e#"use Civilization III"$so ser)es "s "& i&ter"#ti)e m"'/ '$"%ers #"& "$so e7"mi&e

te i&ter"#tio&s o! '%si#"$ !e"tures 4e.(./ 8"ter8"%s/ mou&t"i&s/ &"tur"$ resour#es5 8it

#u$tur"$ !"#tors 4e.(./ tr"de routes/ #o$o&i"tio& '"tter&s/ 8"r "&d 'e"#e5. Teir i&ter'$"%

is dr"m"ti#"$$% i($i(ted i& su# ("mes: 3u$tur"$ bou&d"ries emer(e i& res'o&se to

'%si#"$ bou&d"ries "&d/ i& tur&/ '%si#"$ (eo(r"'% is s"'ed b% #u$tur"$ "&d 'o$iti#"$

!or#es. I& e!!e#t/ '$"%ers #"& e7'eriee te i&ter"#tio&s o! bro"d !"#tors su# "s

(eo(r"'%/ #u$ture/ "&d 'o$iti#s "t bot te $o#"$; "&d s%stemi#;$e)e$/ re&deri&(

dis#er&ib$e re$"tio&si' "mo&( !"#tors su# "s &"tur"$ resour#e s#"r#it%/ i&ter&"tio&"$

tr"de/ "&d $o#"$ 'o$iti#s.

Simu$"tio& ("mes su# "s Civilization III/ "&d Si"Cit%"$$o8 '$"%ers to e7'$ore

te be")ior o! #om'$e7 s%stems t"t emer(es !rom sim'$e $o#"$ ru$es 4Res&i#2/ =FF-5. I&

Civilization III/ '$"%ers "re eour"(ed to !i&d $i&2s bet8ee& e#o&omi#/ 'o$iti#"$/

(eo(r"'i#"$/ "&d istori#"$ stru#tures "s te% #o&stru#t )i"b$e str"te(ies !or teir

#i)i$i"tio& to !$ouris b% m"&i'u$"ti&( )"ri"b$es su# "s t"7 r"tes/ $u7ur% s'e&di&(/ !orm

o! (o)er&me&t/ or s#ie&ti!i# rese"r# "&d obser)i&( te resu$ts. I& !i"Cit%/ '$"%ers $e"r&

t"t tere is &o o&e ti&( t"t te% #"& do to dri)e do8& #rime r"tes/ re)i)e "&

e#o&omi#"$$% stru(($i&( s%stem/ or r"ise te st"&d"rd $i)i&( o! " #it% "s su# )"ri"b$es "re

te 'rodu#t o! m"&% #om'$e7 s%stemi# i&ter"#tio&s. U&derst"&di&( so#i"$ 'e&ome&"

!rom su# dee'/ s%stemi# 'ers'e#ti)es i& tese 8"%s mi(t e$' stude&ts see be%o&d

#ommo& stereot%'es/ s#ri'ts/ or sim'$i!i#"tio&s o! #om'$e7 istori#"$ 'e&ome&".

Tis 2i&d o! "''ro"# to stud%i&( istor% su((ests t"t ("mes #ou$d remedi"te

stude&ts9 e7'eriee o! istor% i& !u&d"me&t"$ 8"%s. Histor% is 'rese&ted &ot "s " bod% o!

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some '"rti#u$"r #u$tur"$;istori#"$ 'ers'e#ti)es. G"mes/ o8e)er/ u&$i2e te7tboo2s or

!i$ms/ eour"(e '$"%ers to ide&ti!% tese bi"ses i& order to e7'$oit tem. Eour"(i&(

'$"%ers to #om'"re ("me simu$"tio&s 8it teir o8& 'erso&"$ u&derst"&di&( o! te

'e&ome&" t"t te ("me s%stem 'ur'orted$% re'rese&ts is o&e 8"% to eour"(e

re!$e#tio& o& teir o8& $i!e e7'eriees i& " !r"me8or2 o! "$ter&"ti)es. I& su# 8"%s/

edu#"tors #"& #"'it"$ie o& " simu$"tio&9s bi"s "&d i&"##ur"#ies i& order to !oster #riti#"$

re!$e#tio&. Ho8 stude&ts eou&ter ("mes "s "utored te7ts is sti$$ $"r(e$% u&2&o8&/ %et/

re("rd$ess o! 8eter "& edu#"tor embr"#es 8or$d istor% simu$"tio& ("mes or i(&ores

tem/ te% 8i$$/ i& "$$ $i2e$iood/ #o&ti&ue to te"# stude&ts "$re"d% i&!$ueed b% su#

te7ts.

Learnin& T#rou $la%? Trans&ressive $la% and Li"inal !paces

As Gred$er 4=FFJ5 'oi&ts out/ tere "s bee& " &oti#e"b$e $"#2 o! "&% #$e"r

#o&&e#tio& bet8ee& edu#"tio&"$ ("mes "&d dis#i'$i&"r% teories o! 2&o8i&( bet8ee&

("me desi(& "&d some #oere&t u&der$%i&( teor% o! $e"r&i&(. Te e"r$iest edu#"tio&"$

("mes rese"r# 8ere most$% b"sed o& be")iorist mode$s o! $e"r&i&( $e!t im'$i#it or o&

&o u&der$%i&( teor% o! $e"r&i&( "t "$$ 4Gred$er/ =FFJ5.


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so#io$o(ists "$$ de!i&e '$"% i& terms o! teir o8& !ie$ds. E)e& 8iti& !ie$ds/ de!i&itio&s o!

'$"% te&d to !$o8 !rom te eom'"ssi&( teoreti#"$ s%stem !rom 8i# te% s'ri&(: To "

6%(ots2i"&/ '$"% m"% $oo2 $i2e " #u$tur"$$%;medi"ted "#ti)it% t"t !utio&s "s " too$ !or

medi"ti&( #i$dre&s9 "''ro'ri"tio& o! obe#ti)es/ moti)es/ "&d &orms o! te re$"tio&s i&

"du$t "#ti)it% 4E$92o&i&/ =FQ=5. To " Pi"(eti"&/ o& te oter "&d/ '$"% mi(t $oo2 $i2e "

#o(&iti)e #"$$e&(e 8ereb% te #i$d is '$"%i&( trou( de)e$o'me&t"$ st"(es/ testi&(

out 'ossib$e &e8 u&derst"&di&(s o! te 8or$d "rou&d tem mu#. 3o&siste&t 8it "&

"#ti)it% teor% "''ro"#/ I tre"t '$"% "s " #u$tur"$;istori#"$ "#ti)it%/ (rou&ded i&

'"rti#u$"r istori#"$ tr"e#tories o! "#ti)it% "&d embedded i& s'e#i!i# #u$tur"$ #o&te7ts

4H"22"r"i&e&/ =FFF5. Dr"8i&( !rom Rieber9s 4=FFJ5 dis#ussio& o! '$"% "&d e7"mi&i&(

di(it"$ ("mi&( "s #u$tur"$;istori#"$ "#ti)it%/ I "r(ue t"t tere "re t8o de!i&i&( "s'e#ts o!

di(it"$ ("me '$"% "#ti)it% 8ort e7'$i#it$% "ddressi&(: 4=5 trans&ressive pla% "&d 4+5

li"inal spaces.

Eri# Vimmerm"& "&d K"tie S"$e& 4+,,>5 des#ribe o&e o! te 'rim"r% s"tis!"#tio&s

o! ("me '$"% "s its trans&ressive &"ture t"t is/ te 8"% t"t ("mes "$$o8 us to

tem'or"ri$% "do't " !"&t"sti#"$ set o! ru$es/ some o! 8i# m"% be #o&tr"r% to te ru$es o!

e)er% d"% $i!e. I& Civilization III/ I #"& e7'erime&t 8it im'eri"$isti# str"te(ies i& "

so#i"$$% s"tio&ed m"&&er sie m% "#ti)it% is bou&ded 8iti& te so#i"$ s'"#e o!

("mi&( "&d it is u&derstood t"t I mi(t e7'erime&t 8it di!!ere&t ide"s 4or e)e&

ide&tities/ e.(. Tur2$e/ =FF5. Gi)e& 2&o8& issues 8it m"r(i&"$ied stude&ts resisti&(

domi&"&t istori#"$ &"rr"ti)es 4e.(. Loe8e&/ =FF5/ it seems quite 'ossib$e t"t di(it"$

("mes #ou$d 'ro)ide i&tri(ui&( $e"r&i&( o''ortu&ities !or e&("(i&( $e"r&ers oter8ise

$e!t outside te 'redomi&"ti&( &"rr"ti)e "&d 'ed"(o(%. As simu$"tio&s/ ("mes "$$o8

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$e"r&ers to "s2 %'oteti#"$ istori#"$ questio&s/ su# "s U&der 8"t #o&ditio&s mi(t

N"ti)e Ameri#"&s ")e #o$o&ied Euro'e or U&der 8"t #o&ditio&s mi(t te

Ameri#"s ")e bee& A!ri#"&ied. As su#/ 'er"'s it is im'ort"&t to $oo2 "t

Civilization III "s " #u$tur"$$%;medi"ted obe#t 4or medium5 "&d &ot mere$% "&oter

te#&o$o(% 4G"mes;to;Te"# Te"m/ +,,>5.

Tis &otio& o! tr"&s(ressi)e '$"% su((ests t"t te 'ro'er 8"% to ti&2 "bout ("me

s'"#es is &ot "s i&!orm"tio& #o&duit s'"#es but "s e7'erime&t"$ s'"#es/ s'"#es 8ere

$e"r&ers #"& t"2e o& &e8 ide&tities. Tese s'"#es mi(t be des#ribed "s li"inals'"#es/

dr"8i&( !rom "&tro'o$o(ist 6i#tor Tur&er9s 4=FJF5 &otio& o! li"inalit%/ 8i# "re

#"oti#/ ritu"$ s'"#es su# "s 'i$(rim"(es/ 8"$2;"bouts/ or retre"ts t"t e7ist bet8ee&

re"$it% "&d oter;8or$ds "&d 8ere so#i"$ &orms "re sus'e&ded. Te sus'e&sio& o!

#o&)e&tio&"$ mores #re"tes " %brid so#i"$ s'"#e 8ere '"rti#i'"&ts #"& re!$e#t o& so#iet%

"&d temse$)es 8iti& it. As su#/ $imi&"$ s'"#es "re sites !or $e"r&i&(? te% "re #u$tur"$

s'"#es 8ere ide&tities m"% be !ormed "&d tr"&s!ormed. G"me desi(&ers su# "s W"rre&

S'e#tor 4#ited i& Au/ +,,=5 ")e "$re"d% re#o(&ied tis 'ote&ti"$.

Te 're#edi&( dis#ussio& o! issues i& 8or$d istor% edu#"tio& "&d o8 te%

i&terse#t 8it te "!!ord"es o! di(it"$ ("mes is me"&t to be 'ro)o#"ti)e r"ter t"&

#o$usi)e: Rese"r# o& o8 su# ("mes "$i(& 4or mis"$i(&5 8it stude&ts9 de)e$o'me&t

o!

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