Renewable Energy: Biomass and Bioenergy · greenhouse gas emissions than they save. •But others, such as advanced conversion systems, which for example convert woody wastes into

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Renewable Energy: Biomass and Bioenergy

Jürgen ScheffranInstitute of Geography, CliSAP/CEN

Universität Hamburg

“Energy Landscapes and Climate Policy" (63-951) Lecture 4, May 12/26, 2016

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Renewable energy

Renewable energy (REN): from natural (re)sources such as sunlight, biomass, wind, rain, tides and geothermal heat which are renewable naturally replenished.

REN flows derived from natural processes that are replenished constantly, directly from the sun, or from heat generated deep within the earth, including electricity and heat generated from solar, wind, ocean, hydropower, biomass, geothermal resources, and biofuels and hydrogen derived from renewable resources.

REN technologies: intermittent, land consuming, environmental impacts, distributed.

REN policies driven by climate change concerns and high oil prices, peak oil, and increasing government support

REN targets: exist in more than 70 countries

New government spending (subsidies to users and suppliers), regulation and policies

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Earth’s energy cycleFrom: Rose (1986) Learning about Energy,Plenum Press, New York.

p. 4IPCC (2011) SRREN_SPM

Special Report on Renewable Energy Sources and Climate Change Mitigation (IPCC-SRREN, May/June 2011)

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IPCC-SRREN (2011) conclusions on bioenergy

•Bioenergy technologies can generate electricity, heat and fuels from a range of ‘feedstocks’.

•Some bioenergy systems, including ones that involve converting land into agricultural biomass and energy crops, can generate more greenhouse gas emissions than they save.

•But others, such as advanced conversion systems, which for example convert woody wastes into liquid fuels, can deliver 80 to 90 percent emission reductions compared to fossil fuels.

•Bioenergy, mainly for traditional cooking and heating in developing countries, currently represents over 10 percent of global energy supply or ca. 50 Exajoules (EJ) per year.

•While the share of bioenergy in the overall renewables mix is likely to decline over the coming decades, it could supply 100 to 300 EJ of energy by 2050.

IPCC-SRREN press release

p. 6IPCC (2011) SRREN_SPM

Historical development of global primary energy supply from renewable energy from 1971 to 2008

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Shares of energy sources in total global primary energy supply in 2008

IPCC (2011) SRREN_SPMWorld total primary energy supply: 492 ExaJouleModern biomass contributes 38% of total biomass share

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Shares of global primary biomass sources for energy

Source: IPCC-SRREN (2011)

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Global primary production of biomass

SeaWiFS Project, NASA/Goddard Space Flight Center and ORBIMAGEThe normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI) is an estimate of the photosynthetically absorbed radiation over the land surfaces.

NASA Goddard Spaceflight Center

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Formation and composition of plant matter

Source: Kaltschmitt et al, Renewable Energy, 2007

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Materials balance of a hornbeam forest in atemperate climate


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Plant efficiencies

Source: Sorensen

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Factors in plant growth

Solar radiation Temperature Precipitation Evaporation

Soil waterGrowing season

Degree days

Leaf expansion index

Photosynthesiswater stress

Leaf expansionWater stress

Photosynthesis

Dry matter Yield output

Adapted from Clifton-Brown’s MISCANMOD

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Net productivity of forests depending on precipitation and temperature


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Plant types

C3 Photosynthesis/C3 plants. Most plants are C3.

•Called C3 because the CO2 is first incorporated into a 3-carbon compound.

•Stomata are open during the day, Photosynthesis takes place throughout the leaf.

•RUBISCO enzyme involved in photosynthesis is also involved in the uptake of CO2.

•Adaptive Value: more efficient than C4 and CAM plants under cool and moist conditions and under normal light, requires less machinery (fewer enzymes and no specialized anatomy)

C4 Photosynthesis / C4 plants: several thousand species, at least 19 plant families. Example: corn, many summer annual plants.

•Called C4 because the CO2 is first incorporated into a 4-carbon compound.

•Stomata are open during the day. Photosynthesis in inner cells

•Uses PEP Carboxylase for enzyme in uptake of CO2, allows to take CO2 into the plant very quickly, then "delivers" CO2 directly to RUBISCO for photsynthesis.

•Adaptive Value: Photosynthesizes faster than C3 plants under high light intensity and high temperatures; better water use efficiency

CAM Photosynthesis : CAM plants (Crassulacean Acid Metabolism) include many succulents such as cactuses and agaves and also some orchids and bromeliads

CO2 is stored in the form of an acid before use in photosynthesis.

Stomata open at night (when evaporation rates are lower), usually closed during the day.

Adaptive Value: Better Water Use Efficiency than C3 plants under arid conditions due to opening stomata at night when transpiration rates are lower

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Photosynthetic rates of C3 and C4 plants

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Average corn yields in the United States

Troyer, 1990Source: Troyer, 1990

1 US bushel = 35.2 litre1 acre = 4,047 square metres (0.405 hectares)

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Projected US corn yield increases

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Grain yield of predominantly rainfed maize

Source: Rockström 2009

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Geographic distribution of technical energy potentials of solid biomass fuel

Adapted from: Kaltschmitt et al., 2003, p. 48

Source: Kaltschmitt 2003, Energiegewinnung aus Biomasse.

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Map of biomass productivity

Bazilevich 1994

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Biomass resources in the USA

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Energy uses of biomass

Biomass

Burn produce electricity

Thermochemicalconversion to

syngas products

Biochemicalconversion toethanol and other fuels

Mature Semi-mature(Capital intensive

inefficient)

In development

Source: Steve Long

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Enough biomass to fill the tank on the truck with bioethanol…...

Source: Paul Carver, 2007

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…..45 minutes fuel for a coal fired power station

Source: Paul Carver, 2007

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Typical oil extractable from crops (by weight)

Crop Oil %copra 62castor seed 50sesame 50groundnut kernel 42jatropha 40rapeseed 37palm kernel 36mustard seed 35sunflower 32palm fruit 20soybean 14cotton seed 13

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Perennial grasses

Courtesy: D.K. Lee 2008

Switchgrass (Panicum virgatum L.) Miscanthus x giganteus

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Energy content of biomass vs. coal

Heating Value (GJ/t)

Ash (%) Sulfur (%)

Miscanthus 17.7-18.9 1.5 - 4.5 0.1

Switchgrass 18.3 4.5 - 5.8 0.12

Corn Stover 17.6 5.6

Coal 20-30 1 - 20 0.5 - 3

Source: Madhu Khanna, Basanta Dhungana, Michelle Wander, Miscanthus: A Sustainable Source of Energy?, 2004, Dept. of Agricult. & Consumer Economics, Dept. of Natural Resources & Environmental Sciences, University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign

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Solar energy collection of biomass and fossil fuel energy requirements

ODT: Oven Dry TonsLocation: Ontario crops, SourceL Samson et al 2008

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Estimated per-acre ethanol yields for various crop types

Farell et al,2007

1 US gallon = 3.78 liters

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Conversion routes of bioenergy

Commercial routes (solid lines), developing bioenergy routes (dotted lines)(1) Parts of each feedstock could also be used in other routes. (2) Each route also gives coproducts. (3) Biomass upgrading includes any one of the densification processes (pelletization, pyrolysis, torrefaction, etc.). (4) Anaerobic digestion processes release methane and CO2 and removal of CO2 provides essentially methane (5) Could be other thermal processing routes such as hydrothermal, liquefaction, etc. DME=dimethyl ether.

(Source: SRREN 2011, modified from IEA Bioenergy 2009)

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ConversionProcesses

– Trees – Grasses– Agricultural Crops– Agricultural Residues– Animal Wastes– Municipal Solid Waste

USESFuels:– Ethanol– Renewable Diesel

Power:– Electricity– Heat

Chemicals– Plastics– Solvents– Chemical Intermediates– Phenolics– Adhesives– Furfural– Fatty acids– Acetic Acid– Carbon black– Paints– Dyes, Pigments, and Ink– Detergents– Lubricants– Etc.

Food and Feed and Fiber

- Enzymatic Fermentation- Gas/liquid Fermentation- Acid Hydrolysis/Fermentation- Gasification- Combustion- Co-firing

BiomassFeedstock

… and new concepts from plants to products

Biorefinery and the new bio-economy

Source: Stanley R. Bull, NREL

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Electricity generation from biomass in selected countries

Source: Global Energy Assessment 2012

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Ethanol production from sugar and starch crops


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Global production of biodiesel (2000–2007)

Source: WBGU 2009

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Fat for Fuel: Eco Taxi Berlin

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Motivations for biofuels

Energy security: Growing oil prices and dependence on energy imports from the Middle East increase demand for renewable energy

Home-grown domestic energy sources offer development perspectives to structurally weak rural areas and lead to structural changes in land-use and agriculture

Economic benefits: more than 200,000 new jobs, increase of GDP by US$ 200 billion between 2005-2012, increase of farmer's income by US$ 43 billion (Renewable Fuels Association 2006)

Sustainable development in Third World: growing energy demand in developing countries; high productivity of energy crops in tropical and subtropical regions, employment and income in rural areas

Low-carbon energy alternatives to fossil fuels: carbon emission reductions for current biofuels vary between 30% and 80% for current generation; much higher reduction for second generation (cellulosic).

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Biofuels and climate policy

In his State of the Union speech, George W. Bush set a target to boost ethanol and other alternative fuel production to 35 billion gallons a year by 2017 – a fivefold increase.

The March 9, 2007 deal between the United States and Brazil on biofuels satisfies the growing US demand in ethanol.

European Union leaders at a climate change summit in Brussels March 9, 2007 have agreed to slash carbon dioxide emissions by 20% from 1990 levels by the year 2020.

These cuts would rise to 30% if the United States and other industrialized countries were to commit themselves to 'comparable' emissions cuts after 2012, and if large developing countries including China contribute 'adequately'.

The European Commission wants countries to pledge, among other things, to raise use of renewable fuels to 20%.

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Required growth of cellulosic Ethanol to supply 30% of U.S. Gasoline demand by 2030

Grain Ethanol and Vegetable Oil Biodiesel0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

Bill

ion

Gal

lons

/Yea

r

Grain Ethanol and Conventional Biodiesel

Cellulosic Ethanol and "Green" Diesel

2015 2025 203020202005 2010

3.7

44.8

9.412.8


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Global Technical Bioenergy Potential by main resource category for the year 2050

IPCC 2014

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Experience curves for the cost of sugarcane-based ethanol production (logarithmic scale)

IPCC (2011) SRREN_SPM

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Selling price for ethanol in Brazil vs. cumulative productioncompared with Rotterdam price for gasoline

Source: Global Energy Assessment, based on Mytelka and de Sousa Jr., 2011

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Production costs for selected biofuels 2004–2007 in main production countries

WBGU 2009

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Costs in 2002 Dollars

$0.00

$1.00

$2.00

$3.00

$4.00

$5.00

$6.00

2000 2005 2010 2015 2020

Min

imum

Eth

anol

Sel

ling

Pric

e ($

per

gal

)

Enzyme

Conversion

Feedstock

Current DOE Cost Targets

Secretary's Biofuels Initiative

State of Technology EstimatesFeed $53 per ton

2005 Yield65 gal/ton

Feed $30 per tonYield 90 gal/ton


10 000 TPD

DOE Cost

TargetDOE Cost

Target


Biofuels cost targets


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Biofuel Lifecycle

CABER 2007

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Critical issues of biofuels

Energy balance

Carbon balance

Land use

Competition with food

Water needs

Fertilizer and chemical inputs

Biodiversity, monoculture, invasive species

Safety and security

Cost of harvest and distribution

Jobs

Subsidies

Legal issues

Comprehensive Life-cycle Assessment for sustainable biofuels

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Differences in the biofuels debate

Biofuels:

are essential or insignificant for energy security?

reduce or increase GHG emissions?

have positive or negative energy balance?

increases or decreases poverty?

are a significant or negligible factor in rising food prices?

are significant or negligible in creating jobs?

are competitive or not competitive with fossil fuels?

are sustainable or not sustainable?

have positive or negative impacts on human security?

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Indoor levels of particulate concentrations emitted from wood fuel combustion in selected developing countries

Source: IPCC 2007:WG3, based on Karekezi and Kithyoma, 2003.

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Ethanol: From corn to fuel

In 2006, 17 percent of the corn crop was processed into ethanol which accounted for 2 percent of fuel supply.

Technology Review, Jan. 2008

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Lifecycle fossil energy use estimates in production of several first generation biofuels and two petroleum fuels


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Estimated life-cycle GHG emissions for first-generation biofuels, excluding any impacts of land use change


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GHG mitigation potential and biomass yield

0

2000

4000

6000

8000

10000

12000

0 5 10 15 20 25 30

Biomass yield, metric t/ha/yr

Avo

ided

GH

G e

mis

sion

s, k

gCeq

/ha/

yr

Corn ethanol, 2005

Woody & herbaceous cellulosic ethanol, 2005/2010

Herbaceous cellulosic ethanol, 2025

Herbaceous cellulosic ethanol, 2050

Brazil sugarcane, best practice 2002 (68.7 t/ha/yr of raw cane stalks)

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Energy ratio and carbon emissions of ethanol

Technology Review, Jan. 2008

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Land requirements for producing bio-fuels for half current U.S. passenger fleet

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Direct effects of biofuels

• Habitat destruction (particularly in Amazonia for soy and South-East Asia for palm oil)

• Local environmental impacts upon air, water and soil quality and exacerbation of local water supply concerns

• Social issues including poor working conditions for laborers and reported loss of land rights for indigenous peoples where new plantations for feedstock are established.

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Indirect effects

Rising food prices and the effect upon food security for the poor

Displacement of agricultural production onto uncultivated areas with impacts on biodiversity, GHG savings and local land rights as a result of biofuel production.

Many forms of land-use change result in significant releases of carbon to the atmosphere (payback time), negating any benefits (compared to petrol).

Examples:Expansion of sugar cane production in Brazil, leading to displacement of cattle ranching and accelerated deforestation in Amazonia.

Expansion of soy production in South and Latin America as a consequence of US farmers increasing production of maize (and reducing production of soy)

Increased demand and prices for oil seed rape for biodiesel in the EU leads to expansion of palm oil production in South-East Asia.

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Land availability

Idle land:

• Former or current agricultural land that will not otherwise be used for food production; and

• Land that is potentially suitable for agricultural production.

Marginal or degraded land:

• Land unsuited for food production, e.g. with poor soils or harsh weather environments; and

• Areas that have been degraded, e.g. through deforestation.

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Illustrative GHG savings and payback times for biofuel feedstock causing land change

Source: Gallagher Review 2008, based on E4Tech 2008

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Sustainable biomass standards

Source: Eco Institute 2006

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Roundtable on Sustainable Biofuels

Multinational effort involving some of the world’s largest biofuel purchasers, bioenergy producers, and a variety of other civil society interests.

Open to anyone who wants to participate www.bioenergywiki.net

Roundtable and its standards shall “create a tool that consumers, policy-makers, companies, banks, and other actors can use to ensure that biofuels deliver on their promise of sustainability”

Umbrella for the many commodity-specific sustainability standards that would apply to specific biofuels feedstocks (e.g. palm oil, soy, sugar cane, jatropha).

Third-party certification to RSB criteria serves as purchasing guideline for industry to use of best practices in the social and in environmental realm.

TBT Agreement does not define “international standard,” but it establishes criteria for international standards body.

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Roundtable on sustainable biofuels steering board

UNEP

Brazilian environmental and social NGO’s

BP

Bunge Corporation

Dutch Ministry of Housing and the Environment

The Energy Resources Institute (TERI) of India

Swiss Federal Institute of Technology (EPFL)

Federation of Swiss Oil Companies

Forest Stewardship Council

Keio University, Japan

Mali Folkecenter

Pinho, Petrobras

Volkswagen Environment

National Wildlife FederationShell OilSwiss Energy MinistryToyota Motor EuropeUNCTADUN FoundationUniversity of California at BerkeleyWorld Economic ForumWWF International Working Groups’ ChairsMichigan State UniversityIUCN, National African Farmers’ UnionGerman NGO ForumVirgin Group.

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Multi-stakeholder standards-setting processes

Roundtable on Sustainable Palm Oil (RSPO)

Roundtable for Responsible Soy (RTRS)

SA 8000: developed by Social Accountability International (SAI)

Global Social Compliance Program (GSCP): initiative of CIES, InternationalCommittee of Food Retail Chains, Food Business Forum.

Fairtrade

Rainforest Alliance

GlobalGap

International Federation of Organic Agriculture Movements (IFOAM)

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Suggested criteria for sustainable development design

Environmental criteriaFossil Energy ResourcesAir QualityWater QualityLand Resources

Social criteriaStakeholder ParticipationImproved Service AvailabilityCapacity DevelopmentEqual Distribution of Project Return

Economic criteriaMicroeconomic EfficiencyTechnology TransferRegional EconomyEmployment Generation

Other criteria

Sufficient water supply

Avoid land use conflicts

Biodiversity and wildlife protection

Mitigation of and adaptation to climate change

Macro-economic benefits

Development potential

No resource exploitation

True cooperation

Low conflict potential

Political stability

DemocratizationSource: Sutter 2003, in MED-CSP

Feedstocks

Harvesting

ProcessingDistribution

UtilizationBiofuel

Lifecycle

New varietiesGenomics

Pest controlLand use

TechnologyMachinery

LaborLogistics

Transportation

DeconstructionMicrobes

FermentationCoproducts

Industry

LogisticsTransportation

Industry StructureResource recovery

Engine technologyConsumer demand

Recycling

TechnicalFeasibility

EconomicViability

EnvironmentalSustainability

Social-politicalAcceptability

Documents

Renewable Energy: Biomass and Bioenergy · greenhouse gas emissions than they save. •But others, such as advanced conversion systems, which for example convert woody wastes into