Relocation of Civilization Centers in Ancient China: Environmental Factors

Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences

Relocation of Civilization Centers in Ancient China: Environmental FactorsAuthor(s): Duan Chang-Qun, Gan Xue-Chun, Jeanny Wang and Paul K. ChienSource: Ambio, Vol. 27, No. 7 (Nov., 1998), pp. 572-575Published by: Springer on behalf of Royal Swedish Academy of SciencesStable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/4314793 .

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Article Duan Chang-Qun, Gan Xue-Chun, Jeanny Wang and Paul K. Chien

Relocation of Civilization Centers in Ancient China: Environmental Factors

China is a country with a long history of civilization. Its civilization centers re-located from the plains of the lower and middle reaches of the Yellow River to the basin of the lower watershed of the Yangtze River. This paper analyzes the ecological environmental background of the changes of the civilization centers established in the main dynasties and regimes in ancient China, in which the dynamics of population, farmland, forest, and natural disasters for each period are emphasized. The relationship between environmental degradation, wars, and social development cycles, are also discussed. The results show that anthropogenic environmental impact was one of the decisive contributing factors leading to the relocation of the centers of civilization in ancient China. It is suggested that the rise and fall of ancient civilizations in China and other countries provide modern societies with important lessons for environmental protection.

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Figure 1. Schematic map of the main capitals of ancient China showing their locations in the watershed (dotted lines represent the boundary of watershed between different river systems; Xi'An was formerly called Chang'An).

INTRODUCTION

China has a history of civilization with 8000 years of farming practices (1-3). Over the millennia, China's centers of civilization have repeatedly shifted location; moving from the plain in the middle and lower watersheds of the Yellow River in northern China, to southeastern China. Before the Five Dynasties and the Ten Kingdoms (before 960 AD), civilization centers were located within the plains in the middle and lower reaches of the Yellow River. With the ending of the Song Dynasty (after 1127 AD), the centers were relocated to the basin of the lower watershed of the Yangtze River (Box 1. and Fig. 1). Historically, this pro- cess is referred to as "China's civilizations move east and south- ward" (4, 5). From the point of view of politics, economics and culture, many scholars have come up with explanations for this phenomenon (2-4, 6-8), and have attributed it to the many wars, and the rise and fall of dynasties and regimes. However, few theories take into account the crucial role played by environmental change as an explanation for the relocation of centers of civilization. By tracing the effects of anthropogenic environmental

constraints on sustainable development, we attempt to determine the anthropogenic impact in relation to environmental change and its role in the relocation of civilization centers in ancient China.

THE NEOLITHIC ENVIRONMENT: CIVILIZATION CENTERS IN THE PLAIN OF THE MIDDLE AND LOWER REACHES OF THE YELLOW RIVER In the Neolithic Age, people had very limited knowledge of farming, and primitive agricultural techniques were largely subject to natural forces. Under such conditions, the favorable natural environment of the Yellow River plain supplied relatively abundant and essential resources, making it natural for human civilization in east Asia to develop in this region. The plain was geographically the best place to satisfy the needs of the people in that era (3, 9).

Development of Primitive Agriculture According to paleontological and bioclimatological data of the Neolithic Age (5000-6000 years ago), climates in the middle and lower watersheds of the Yellow River were much warmer and more humid than today (9, 10), providing excellent environments for human settlements. In the Neolithic, forests were easily converted into farmland and/or grassland after being cut down or burnt.

The Plain Topography

The middle and lower watersheds of the Yellow River plain were comprised primarily of fertile flatlands, a topography highly conducive to farming and providing easy access to water. Thus, many cultural sites in the Neolithic were found in the terraced land within the middle reaches of the Yellow River. A classic example of this is the famous Banpo Relics in Xi'An, which re-

/ veal the ancient civilization in this area. Because of the excellent conditions for development, the three slavery societies, the Xia (2200 BC-1600 BC), the Shang (1600 BC-1 100 BC) and the Zhou (1100 BC-700 BC) dynas-

? ties all originated in the region (1 1,12). There were several important tributaries and lakes in the lower

reaches of the Yellow River. The waterbodies offered the people good living conditions and many conveniences: e.g. fresh drinking water; irrigation; boat transport; and fishing. Sediment from the upper river deposited along the banks made the land extremely fertile, and the loose soils made it possible for the inhabitants to dig caves with stone implements to live in when they were unable to build houses (3, 9).

RELOCATION OF CIVILIZATION CENTERS IN THE XIA, SHANG AND ZHOU DYNASTIES Due to pressures from population growth and environmental degradation, civilization centers often relocated on the plain. At the time of King Yu in the Xia Dynasty, the total population numbered about 13.5 million; this number rose to approximately 13.7 million at the time of King Cheng in the Zhou Dynasty (13, 14). Because of primitive agricultural techniques, yield per unit area was very low, and people lived on or near the land they worked. As people completely relied on the natural productivity of the land, farmland was intensively cultivated to otain maxi- mum production (9). Thus, the environment capacity of the land was often reduced and whole tribes often had to migrate to an-

572 ( Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences 1998 Ambio Vol. 27 No. 7, Nov. 1998 http://www.ambio.kva.se



other area suitable for cultivation and the establishment of a settlement.

As a result of this migration, civilization centers were also relocated. "Mi- gratory farming" occurred 10 times during the Xia Dynasty and 16 times during the Shang Dynasty. The fre- quency of these "migrations" increased dramatically during the Zhou Dynasty due to further population growth (5, 15). After the late Zhou Dynasty, people developed better farming techniques and could harvest higher yields from their land, and migratory farming became less frequent (9).

Human activities affected the environment to a very limited degree, with the changes being limited to a small area around the large capital cities and the residential areas of large tribes. Two points offer evidence in support of this hypothesis: i) Relocation occurred many times in the Xia, the Shang and the Zhou dynasties, and the distance of each relocation was relatively short. For example, the distance of the first movement of the capital of Xia was just 100 km (9). A suitable new environment was found within only a short distance, suggesting that the area of environmental degradation was only small scale. ii) According to historical records, the flooding and/or change of course of the Yellow River did not occur naturally during the period. The flooding and change in course of the Yellow River were the cause of the environmental degradation in the drainage area of the Yellow River (16).

ENVIRONMENTAL DEGRADATION IN THE QIN AND THE HAN DYNASTIES Development in the Qin (221 BC-206 BC) and the Han (206 BC-220 AD) Dynasties Progress in social organization and technology. The Qin Dy- nasty established the first unified country, with a feudal central- ized government, in China's history. A series of wars among different tribes and regimes were ended allowing the people to develop agricultural techniques. Iron farming implements were put into use throughout the country, and animal husbandry was developed. Established farming areas were sustained while new land was rapidly opened up (17, 18). Scattered small farmlands were merged and lagoon, hill, and mountainous lands were cultivated. Two plains of Chengdu and Xi'An were well irrigated, with water conservancy projects and agriculture being rapidly improved (19).

Population expansion and pressure on the environment. By the time of the Western Han Dynasty the population was 60 million, and mostly distributed in the northern part of China (9, 13). An average of 0.66 ha farmland was needed to support a single dividual; and 40 million ha farmland had to be tilled throughout the country (3, 13). Almost all lands available for cultivation had been used. In the meantime, small farmlands formerly owned by individual peasants were appropriated by rich landlords, and the peasants who lost their lands had to open-up land on hillsides for cultivation, largely through the destruction of forest. Most grasslands in northern China were transformed into farmland. At the time of Emperor Hanwu, 0.7 million peasants were compelled to cultivate the Loess Plateau where nomadic areas were changed to farm lands (9).

The cost of civil construction and national defence at the expense offorests. China started its massive civil construction from the Qin and the Han Dynasties. Most Chinese ancient buildings

were built with timber and brick, and the innumerable imperial palaces and mausoleums used huge amounts of forest products. For example, the Apang Palace, constructed in the Qin Dynasty, was about 50 km long and was probably the greatest palace in the world at that time. Its construction used all the forest products available from the central area of Shaanxi, and timber had to be procured from the forests of Sichuan during the final construction stages (18, 19).

The construction of the Great Wall, a massive national defense undertaking, also resulted in considerable deforestation. One third of all the country's labor force was compelled to work on the building of the Great Wall. Forests where the Great Wall passed were cut to heat the kilns for making bricks, cooking food, and providing warmth (20, 21). The forests in many places were cut so severely that regrowth was impossible.

The Qin and the Han Dynasties: Period of environmental degradation in China The coverage of forest in the middle reaches of the Yellow River decreased from 53% in the period of the Warring States (476 BC-221 BC) to 42% in the Qin and Han Dynasty (9, 22). It was during this period that Wulanbuhe became desertified (15). Deforestation extended from the plain near the main course of the Yellow River and extended outward to its tributary and mountainside. With the increase in sediment from soil erosion, the water of the Yellow River became muddy, the riverbed in the middle course of the Yellow River rose, and the river frequently flooded and changed its course. During the 180- yr period (from 168 BC to 11 AD), the river changed its course 5 times (23).

Relocation During the Eastern Han and the Southern and Northern Dynasties In the late Western Han period, both environmental degradation and contradictions between landlords and peasants resulted in the civilization center of China, which had been located within the middle and lower watershed of the Yellow River, being relocated during the Eastern Han and the Southern and Northern Dynasties. The southern Yangtze River remained very primitive before the Qin and the Han Dynasties, but during the Eastern Han Dynasty it developed into a region that provided a stable foundation for society and a prosperous environment, attracting many people who had previously lived in northern China to settle here (19). According to historic data, between 60 and 70% of the people that previously inhabited the plain in the middle and

BOX 1. Concise annals, showing capital and population in each of the main dynasties in ancient China.

Dynasty and Period Starting and ending year Capital Population (mill.)

Paleolithic period before 10000 BC Neolithic period 10000 BC-4000 BC Xia Dynasty 2200 BC-1600 BC 13.55 (2200 BC) Shang Dynasty 1600 BC-1 100 BC Zhou Dynasty 1100 BC-770 BC 13.71(1055 BC) Spring and Autumn Period 770 BC-476 BC Warring States 476 BC-221 BC Qin Dynasty 221 BC-206 BC Xianyang 20.00 (221 BC) Western Han 206 BC-25 AD Chang'An 59.59 (2 AD) Eastern Han 25 AD-220 AD Luoyang 45.00 (57 AD) Three Kingdoms 220 AD-263 AD 40.00 (225 AD)

Wei Kingdom Luoyang Shu Kingdom Chengdu Wu Kingdom Nanjing

Western Jin Dynasty 263 AD-317 AD Chang'An Eastern Jin Dynasty 317 AD-420 AD Nanjing Southern and Northern Dynasties 420 AD-581 AD Sui Dynasty 581 AD-618 AD Chang'An 36.01 (606 AD) Tang Dynasty 618 AD-907 AD Chang'An 52.91 (755 AD) Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms 907 AD-960 AD Northern Song Dynasty 960 AD-1 127 AD Kaifeng Southern Song Dynasty 1127 AD-1279 AD Hangzhou 76.81 (1193 AD) Yuan Dynasty 1271 AD-1368 AD Beijing 58.83 (1290 AD) Ming Dynasty 1368 AD-1644 AD Nanjing/Beijing 66.59 (1578 AD) Qing Dynasty 1644 AD-1911 AD Beijing 401.00 (1834 AD)

Data source: reference 3, 9, 13, 14, 15.

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lower watersheds of the Yellow River migrated to the lower basin of the Yangtze River. By the time of the Northern and South- ern Dynasties, population in the Yellow River region decreased sharply by as much as 20% from about 2.5 million in the Western Han to 2.0 million in the Eastern Han (4, 9).

THE SUI AND THE TANG DYNASTIES: RELOCATION OF CIVILIZATION CENTERS IN THE FIVE DYNASTIES Sui and Tang Dynasties (5S81AD to 907AD) Favorable environmental conditions contributed much to the success of the Sui and the Tang societies in developing the feudal society of ancient China to its height of power and splendor. These environmental benefits came primarily from the recuperation of the environment in northern and central China.

In the period prior to the Sui and Tang Dynasties, turmoil, chaos caused by wars, and an extreme food shortage caused sharp decreases in population. It took hundreds of years, for the land to regain its productivity and the forests to renew vegetation. Due to a decreased population and the nomadic lifestyles of the Xiongnu people, large areas of arable farmland were abandoned or converted to grasslands and the rate of deforestation decreased due to less civil construction. Vegetation in the plain of the middle and lower reaches of the Yellow River was restored. For nearly 500 years from 69 AD to the beginning of Sui Dynasty (581 AD) (13, 16) the decrease in soil erosion led to conditions where the Yellow River no longer breached its banks or changed its course.

Development of the Tang Dynasty The Tang Dynasty brilliantly developed all aspects of society, but it did so at considerable expense to the environment. The main significant contributing factors are given below. - Rapid population growth and its impact on the environment.

The policy of encouraging a high birth rate was advocated in order to satisfy the increased need for labor in the beginning of the Tang Dynasty. Population increased more quickly than ever with the improvement of living condition. By 755 BC, the population topped 53 million doubling that of the end of the Sui. There were over one million people in Chang'An, the capital of the Tang Dynasty (24).

- In the latter half of the Tang Dynasty, extensive land appro- priation by rich landlords and heavy taxes derived the common farm people. People without land were compelled to farm on mountain slopes. Deforestation occurred on a large scale; the farmland became overexploited causing serious soil erosion (9).

- Cumulative effects of human activities on the plain in the middle and lower watersheds of the Yellow River over thousands of years prior to the Tang Dynasty. The middle and lower reaches of the Yellow River had been basically the center of politics, economics and culture prior to the Tang Dynasty, for millennia. Although close to 500 years of decreased population pressure alleviated the devastation and damage to the environment, the direct or indirect effects of human activities were always present.

Relocation of Center of Civilization at the End of the Tang Dynasty and Beginning of the Song Dynasty

Change in population center. The population in the southern Yangtze River area at the time of Tainbao in the Tang Dynasty (742 AD) quadrupled that of the region of Daye of the Sui Dy- nasty (609 AD). Up to the Song Dynasty, the population in the lower basin of the Yangtze River surpassed that of the middle and lower watershed of the Yellow River.

Change in the center of politics and culture. Prior to the Northern Song Dynasty, the imperial capitals moved within the plain of Yellow River; e.g. Chang'An, Kaifeng and Luoyang

(Fig. 1). But with the rise of the Southern Song, Hangzhou, located in the lower reaches of Yangtze River, was selected as the capital of China. After the late Tang Dynasty, most intellectu- als and government officials came from the regions of the lower reaches of the Yangtze River (2, 8). This change suggests that the standard of living and culture there were superior to those in the Yellow River plain.

Change in economical center. During the mid-Tang Dynasty, half of the national income was obtained from the southern basin of the Yangtze River; by the end of the Tang Dynasty, the economic status of the lower basin in the Yangtze River was better than that of the Yellow River. By the beginning of the Song Dynasty, the economic lifeline of the country was firmly centered in the lower basin of Yangtze River (9, 17).

DEVELOPMENT IN THE SONG, THE YUAN, THE MING AND THE QING DYNASTIES Social Development of the Song Dynasty: Environmental Degradation The Song Dynasty-another period of great prosperity in Chi- nese history-was prompted the second peak of population growth after the Tang Dynasty. The population of the country increased to 78 million in the Southern Song (1223 AD). There were over 50 grand metropolises and business centers with the population of each exceeding one million (1, 14, 23). The substantial increase in population had a dreadful impact on the environment. The Yellow River breached its banks 50 times during the 300-year reign of the Song Dynasty. Breaching occurred several times in the Yangtze River; many lakes such as Lake Liangshan, Lake Taihu, Lake Boyang decreased in size, and some lakes completely disappeared. New deserts were formed and existing ones such as the Maowusu Desert in northern China expanded. All cultivable farmland was under crops (9, 18, 21, 25).

Social Development of the of Yuan, Ming and the Qing Dynasties: Environmental Degradation

Increasing population pressure on the land was foremost among the factors contributing to environmental degradation. Population growth exerted enormous pressure on the environment during the 600 years of the Ming and the Qing, and laid the foundation for the present Chinese population (15). Population pressure resulted in a shortage of farmland and overexploitation of the available land.

During the Ming Dynasty, building construction throughout the country was carried out on an increasing scale. The Forbidden City and the Summer Palace in Beijing, the Summer Villa in Chende, the Suzhou Garden and innumerable other monasteries, temples, royal gardens, and official palaces were built all over the country. This resulted in the consumption of vast quantities of forest (12, 26, 27).

The prevailing social institutions paid little or no attention to environmental management. For instance, there was no admin- istrative office responsible for maintenance of the country's rivers, lakes, mountains, and plains during the Yuan Dynasty. Dur- ing the Ming Dynasty, forest exploitation was even encouraged as a source of tax revenue (3, 9, 15).

The above practices resulted in a severe decrease in the total forested area in China. About 32% of the Yellow River watershed in the Song was covered in forest, but this number decreased to a minuscule 3% by the Ming and Qing Dynasties (21, 25). The effect of rapid deforestation was especially prevalent in the southern Yangtze River during the Ming and Qing Dy- nasties and reflected by the numerous times the Yangtze River flooded during this period. The Yellow River breached its banks 127 times, i.e. about once every 2 years, during the 300-year Ming Dynasty; During the 200-year history of the Qing Dynasty, this rate increased to 180 times, almost once every year (9, 15).

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The expansion of desert increased in northern China. The fron- tier of Maowusu Desert expanded about 40 km, forcing Yulin City, in Shaanxi Province, to move at least three times. Many towns and cities were besieged or covered beneath the sand. The famous Silk Road in northwestern China disappeared in a sea of sand, and at the same time the famous Dunhuang Rock Cave was engulfed with desert. The desert in Badan of Jinlin and Wulanbuhe of Inner Mongolia also expanded its area (26, 27).

DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION Ecological environmental degradation in ancient China resulted from many contributing factors, such as climate change and natural geological change (10, 17, 23), but the most important and significant impact was from human activities (3, 4). How- ever, the latter was always coupled with social and political im- plications, and resulted in the transformation of whole societies, ultimately causing the relocation of the centers of civilization. From the perspective of the interaction between the cycle of social development and the cycle of eco-environmental change in Chinese history, some conclusions on how human factors affected the environment and contributed to relocation of centers of civilization in ancient China may be drawn.

Changes in the successive dynasties and regimes were always accompanied by tremendous social turmoil, and by wars, leading to the disintegration of national institutional frameworks and the destruction of levels of productivity in nature and society (6, 8, 14). In the beginning of the establishment of a new dynasty, in order to strengthen the ruling power of the newly born regime, the new government usually advocated a policy of population growth, in order to compensate for labor shortage (14, 15). Dur- ing this stage, population increased dramatically, with the result that land resources were put under renewed stress. Many government officials became corrupt and avaricious, and the inequal- ity of the allocation of social wealth was almost too much for the common people to endure. If this type of situation persisted, the overexploitation of natural resources-especially arable land and forests-brought about environmental and ecological crises. Human living conditions became intolerable, and the high tax rates gave the common people no other course but to rise up against the government (2, 3). During the civil wars, population would decrease dramatically, and arable land would be abandoned, allowing the environment a period of restoration. After years of civil war, the winner would establish a new dynasty, and the country would begin the cycle of environmental destruction and recuperation again. After many of these periods, the long-term effects on the environment resulted in more permanent degradation of the watersheds of the Yellow River. As a result, civilization centers were compelled to move on to areas that, relatively speaking, had not been previously settled. The relocation of the capitals of various dynasties substantiate this concept (Box 1 and Fig. 1). The migration of capitals gen- erally followed a course from north to southeast, so did the se- quence of environmental degradation in Chinese history.

The relocation of ancient Chinese civilization centers, demonstrates that the advance of civilization relies on sus- tainability of the environment. For today's China, a country which must sustain 22% of the world's population with only 7% of the world's arable land (3, 15), strong measures to control population growth have to be enforced. This will enable modern China to protect its environment, optimize its resource allocation, and to re-establish the former splendid civilization.

The rise and fall of civilization in the world, e.g. the civilizations along the bank of River Nile in ancient Egypt, the Tigris and Euphrates rivers in ancient Babylon, and along the banks of the Ganges in ancient India, were all directly or indirectly affected by anthropogenic environmental factors (28-31). Even though we have made great achievements in science and tech-

nology, and created modem societies, we must never forget that sustainablility of the earth depends on our continued efforts.

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assistance in graphics and figures, to professor Jiang Hanqiao, Wang Huanxiao, Xiong Siyuan, David Atwill, Zhang Yonghong and Chen Qingjiang for their advice and valu- able comments on preparation of this manuscript. Financial support of this study was in part provided by China National Sciences Foundations and Yunnan Foundation of Applied and Pure Sciences (China).

33. First submitted 19 November 1996. Accepted for publication after revision 14 Novem- ber 1997.

Duan Chang-Qun, PhD is associate professor in ecology, at the Department of Biology, Yunnan University. His address: Biology Department, Yunnan University, Kunming, Yunnan, 650091, China. e-mail: [email protected] Gan Xue-Chun, PhD, is associate professor in history at the International Exchange Program, Yunnan University. His address: Yunnan University, Kunming, Yunnan, 650091, China. e-mail: [email protected] Jeanny Wang is Director of the China Biodiversity Program at the Pacific Environmental and Resource Center. Her address: Pacific Environmental and Resource Center, Fort Cronkhite, Bldg. 1055, Sausalito, CA 94965, USA. e-mail: [email protected] Paul K. Chien, PhD, is a professor at the Department of Biology, University of San Francisco. His address: University of San Francisco, Department of Biology, 2130 Fulton Street, San Francisco, CA 94118, USA.

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Relocation of Civilization Centers in Ancient China: Environmental Factors