Religiosity and Work in the Lives of Mortuary College Students

Charles Lynn Gibson

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Boca Raton

Religiosity and Work in the Lives of Mortuary College Students

Copyright © 2005 Charles Lynn Gibson All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any

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Dissertation.com

Boca Raton, Florida USA • 2009

ISBN-10: 1-59942-297-2

ISBN-13: 978-1-59942-297-8

To My Boys, William, Owen, and Nathaniel: With hope that faith integration

will become their deepest affection.

iv

CONTENTS

CONTENTS ......................................................................................................... iv

ILLUSTRATIONS ................................................................................................. vii TABLES .............................................................................................................. viii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ..................................................................................... x

Chapter ........................................................................................................... Page

1. PROBLEM STATEMENT .................................................................................. 1

Introduction ........................................................................................ 1

Background of the Problem ................................................................ 2

Purpose of the Research ................................................................... 7

Significance of the Research ............................................................. 9

Research Hypotheses ...................................................................... 10

Summary .......................................................................................... 11

2. REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE ........................................................... 12

Introduction ...................................................................................... 12

Theology and Work .......................................................................... 14

Psychology and Well-Being ............................................................. 34

Business and Spirituality .................................................................. 39

Summary .......................................................................................... 52

3. RESEARCH STRATEGY ................................................................................ 54

Introduction ...................................................................................... 54

Null Hypotheses ............................................................................... 55

Operational Definitions ..................................................................... 58

v

Assumptions and Limitations ........................................................... 61

Research Methodology .................................................................... 62

Research Procedures ...................................................................... 63

Summary .......................................................................................... 71

4. RESEARCH FINDINGS .................................................................................. 73

Introduction ...................................................................................... 73

Data Collection ................................................................................. 73

Data Analysis ................................................................................... 80

Summary ........................................................................................ 111

5. RESEARCH INTERPRETATION .................................................................. 112

Introduction .................................................................................... 112

Summary of the Research ............................................................. 112

Explanations .................................................................................. 117

Conclusions ................................................................................... 122

Implications .................................................................................... 124

Further Research ........................................................................... 130

Summary ....................................................................................... 132

Appendices ..................................................................................................... Page

A. SURVEY INSTRUCTIONS ........................................................................... 133

B. PURPOSE IN LIFE SURVEY ....................................................................... 135

C. ENGAGEMENT IN MEANINGFUL WORK SCALE ...................................... 140

D. DEMOGRAPHIC INFORMATION ................................................................ 144

vi

E. RAW DATA .................................................................................................. 146

F. COPYRIGHTED PERMISSION FOR PURPOSE IN LIFE TEST .................. 187

WORKS CITED ................................................................................................ 190

RELATED WORKS ........................................................................................... 203

VITA .................................................................................................................. 207

vii

ILLUSTRATIONS

Figure .............................................................................................................. Page 1. Gibson Heuristic of Psychological Well-Being .................................................. 5

2. Gibson Religiosity and Daily Work Model ......................................................... 6

3. Gibson Paradigm for Workplace Spirituality .................................................... 41

4. Gibson New Age Worldview Diagram ............................................................. 47

5. Gibson Organizational Effectiveness Diagram ................................................ 61

viii

TABLES

Table ............................................................................................................... Page 1. Gibson Chart of Work in Christian History ...................................................... 33

2. Age ................................................................................................................. 75

3. Gender ............................................................................................................ 76

4. Educational Attainment ................................................................................... 76

5. Years of Experience in Funeral Service Work ................................................ 77

6. Religious Affiliation.......................................................................................... 78

7. Religious Involvement ..................................................................................... 79

8. Religious Disciplines Practiced ....................................................................... 79

9. Participants in Church Activities ...................................................................... 80

10. PIL Values and Age Cohort Analysis ............................................................ 84

11. PIL Values and Gender Analysis .................................................................. 85

12. PIL Values and Educational Attainment Analysis ......................................... 87

13. PIL Values and Funeral Service Experience Analysis .................................. 89

14. PIL Values and Denominational Preference Analysis ................................... 91

15. PIL Values and Christian Affirmation Analysis .............................................. 92

16. PIL Values and Traditional Church Affirmation Analysis ............................... 93

17. PIL Values and Active Church Membership Analysis ................................... 94

18. PIL Values and Christian Disciplines Analysis .............................................. 95

ix

19. PIL Values and Church Activities Analysis .................................................... 96

20. EMWS Values and Age Cohort Analysis ...................................................... 98

21. EMWS Values and Gender Analysis............................................................. 99

22. EMWS Values and Educational Attainment Analysis .................................. 101

23. EMWS Values and Funeral Service Experience Analysis ........................... 103

24. EMWS Values and Denominational Preference Analysis ........................... 105

25. EMWS Values and Christian Affirmation Analysis ...................................... 106

26. EMWS Values and Traditional Church Affirmation Analysis ....................... 107

27. EMWS Values and Active Church Membership Analysis ............................ 108

28. EMWS Values and Christian Disciplines Analysis ...................................... 109

29. EMWS Values and Church Activities Analysis ............................................ 110

30. Hypotheses Testing Summary .................................................................... 111

31. Primary Research Objectives and Variables of Religiosity ......................... 115

32. Secondary Research Objectives and Variables of Demographics .............. 115

33. Major Findings of Study .............................................................................. 116

34. Spearman Correlation Analysis of PIL and EMWS ..................................... 121

35. Areas of Significance .................................................................................. 122

x

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I have a deep appreciation for those who helped me reach this milestone,

including my advisor, Dr. Larry Standridge, the Faculty and Staff of Oxford

Graduate School, and my seminary mentors, including Dr. Robert Pyne, Dr. Gary

Schnittjer, and David Ward.

I acknowledge my friends, Charlene West, Michael Wilkerson, Cynthia

Goodwin, Doug Wheeler, Joan Deeks, and Bill Harms. I was blessed to have

such gifted peers with whom to study and discuss ideas. I will never forget you.

I thank Steve Spann, Travis Lindsey, Patty Hutcheson, and the staff of

Smith Mortuary, including Rob Caldwell and Jenni Bryant, for their assistance.

To Angelia, my wife and best friend, I am forever grateful for the significant

sacrifices and frustrations she endured to help me reach my goal. Her love and

commitment to our family mean the world to me. I especially want to thank my

Mom for her unwavering confidence in my abilities. She is always there to

support my interests, pray for my future, and push me to do my best. To Dad and

Sue, I truly appreciate their support throughout this long journey. I express a

special thanks to my Dad for his steadfast pursuit of excellence which has greatly

shaped my thinking in life. I also thank Don and Judy Douglass for all of their love

and encouragement. Finally, I extend my biggest thank you to God. May I glorify

Him in the ordinary and extraordinary affairs of daily life!

1

CHAPTER 1

PROBLEM STATEMENT

Introduction

The current study was designed to investigate the failure to integrate faith

in daily work. Faith integration was identified as an essential practice for

individuals desiring to de-compartmentalize a duality between religious and

secular spheres of life. The study broadly defined work as an effort or activity

performed for the purpose of providing goods or services of value to others, not

limited to financially gainful employment, but including such contexts as school

work, volunteer work, and work within the home (Hall 1986).1

The study specifically focused on traditional Christian religiosity within the

field of funeral service education. Religiosity was operationalized as an intrinsic

orientation toward organized religious systems of beliefs, feelings, and

expressions that provided a basis for ultimate meaning. Funeral service

education provided a useful work context to examine the effects of religiosity on

the mental well-being of mortuary college students.

Mortuary college students were chosen as the respondents of the study to

research how religious faith impacted student life. The study focused on life

purpose and meaningful work as two distinct constructs linked to mental health.

1 In contrast, Banaga (2000) narrowly defined work as an effort or activity performed for the

purpose of providing goods or services that was remunerated or carried out in exchange for payment.

2

The perceptions of mortuary students provided a context to examine both

purpose in life and the engagement in meaningful work from within the funeral

industry. The following research question was examined: What were the effects

of religiosity on mortuary college student perceptions of purpose in life and the

engagement in meaningful work?

Background of the Problem

Professed religious faith was not translated consistently into meaningful

life practice at the end of the twentieth century (Newbigin 1986). At the same

time, faith continued to play a significant role in American society. Gallup polls

indicated that by the beginning of the new millennium, 95 percent of Americans

still expressed a fundamental belief in God (Gallup 2003a). Moreover, 75 percent

of Americans stated a religious affiliation to either Protestant or Catholic Christian

traditions (Gallup 2003b). Only 14 percent claimed that religion had no practical

importance, but as many as 87 percent stated that religion was fairly to very

important in daily life (Gallup 2003b).

Given the significance of religiosity in the daily lives of people in the early

twenty-first century, religion and society were inextricably connected. Faith

unquestionably affected innumerable life contexts, such as family relationships,

daily work, and leisure activities, including sports, music, and art. Yet, despite the

importance of religiosity, orthodoxy did not produce consistent orthopraxis.2

Religious belief was not tantamount to religious practice. For example, a

2 Orthodoxy was operationalized as a prescribed set of religious beliefs; orthopraxis was

operationalized as the action or practice consistent with orthodox beliefs.

3

professed belief in a particular religious doctrine, such as the inherent dignity and

value of all people as being created in the image of God, did not necessarily

translate easily into expressed practice in daily life. The gap between orthodoxy

and orthopraxis was a fundamental problem best described as unrealized

contextualization—the failure to integrate faith meaningfully into a given context

of life.

The failure to adequately practice faith in a given context of life was a

major source of concern for the integration of religion and society studies

(Whiteman 1997). Within the scope of the problem of unrealized

contextualization, many significant issues challenged religious practice. For

example, Christians were just as likely as non-Christians to experience divorce,

stress, debt, and addictions, despite the fact that Christian doctrine affirmed the

sanctity of marriage, admonished anxiety, encouraged sound financial

stewardship, and forbade any form of idolatry (Barna 2001; Barna 2002). The

problem was not with doctrine, but with doctrinal practice.

The Gallup organization suggested the gap between faith and practice

was growing among Christians (Gallup 2003c). The perennial question was

never whether or not Christians should contextualize faith, but how should faith

be practiced in various life contexts (Niebuhr 1951)? The practice of integrating

faith into the many demanding life contexts of the twenty-first century was

essential for individuals desiring a consistent and meaningful orthopraxis.

The workplace was recognized as one of the most fundamental contexts

for the integration of faith (Lund Dean 2002). Regardless of the occupational

4

setting, daily work was estimated to consume from a quarter to more than half of

waking hours (Csikszentmihalyi 1997a). According to the Bureau of Labor

Statistics, the amount of time Americans spent at work declined only marginally

from 1964 to 1999 (Kirkland 2000).3 Because work was recognized as a

normative aspect of daily life, the failure to integrate faith in daily work was

identified as a substantial context warranting further investigation.

Protestant denominations implicitly acknowledged the importance of work

by attesting to the principle of ministry for all of God’s people, yet few actually

demonstrated the insights necessary to implement the principle (Diehl 1991;

Banks 1993). The Protestant principle of ministry was too often disconnected

with tangible life practice. The question was not one of principle, but of

application and practice for individuals in normal daily work contexts.

To address the disconnectedness between professed faith and life

practice, two studies were identified that were particularly relevant to the on-

going research regarding the contextualization of faith in daily work. One study

determined that life meaning and purpose, irrespective of work, was linked to

psychological well-being (Zika and Chamberlain 1992). Another study4 further

3 The Bureau of Labor Statistics differentiated between the Current Population Survey (CPS),

which demonstrated a marginal 0.5 percent decline in work hours since 1964, and the Current Employment

Statistics (CES) program, that reported an 11 percent substantial decline. The contradiction between the

two reports was explained by the fact that the CES program only measured employers’ data, whereas the

CPS was a household survey that recorded an individual’s total hours worked from all jobs.

4 Treadgold argued that the term meaningful was not measured in the practical sense, such as

making money or achieving goals, but in a spiritual or transcendent sense, such as perceiving an

occupational context as a calling. The actual work itself was not viewed as significant as the intrinsic

calling or affection to work in a given occupational context. See Richard J. Treadgold, “Engagement in

meaningful work: Its relationship to stress, depression, and clarity of self-concept” (Ph.D. diss., Saybrook

Institute, 1997).

5

demonstrated that meaningful work had a substantial relationship with

psychological well-being (Treadgold 1999). Individuals, who were engaged in a

context of meaningful work, exhibited a strong sense of self-concept, were lesser

prone to depression, and were better equipped to manage stress (Treadgold

1997). Therefore, the current study proposed that both meaningful work and life

purpose were two significant contributors to psychological well-being that have

affected self-concept, receptivity to depression, and the ability to manage stress

(see Figure 1).

Figure 1. Gibson Heuristic of Psychological Well-Being

Because religion maintained a complex and multidimensional aspect of

human life in the early twenty-first century (Perryman 2003), there was a paucity

Subjective Perceptions

of LifePurpose

Subjective EngagementIn Meaningful

Work

PSYCHOLOGICALWELL -BEING

Diminished Receptivity to Depression

Positive Self -Concept

Increased Ability to Manage Stress

Subjective Perceptions

of LifePurpose

Subjective EngagementIn Meaningful

Work

PSYCHOLOGICAL WELL - BEING

Diminished Receptivity to Depression

Positive Self -Concept

Increased Ability to Manage

Stress

6

of research pertaining to the effects of religiosity on psychological well-being in

daily work contexts (Paloma and Pendleton 1991). What seemed to be lacking

from research was a delineation of the facets of religiosity which contributed to

subjective perceptions of meaningful work and life purpose.

The focus for the current study was to examine how well religious

individuals perceived a sense of life purpose and an engagement in meaningful

work (see Figure 2). Because a gap existed between religious knowledge, or the

cognitive aspects of faith, and religious practice, or the behavioral practice of

faith, a generalized subjective sense of life purpose was not necessarily realized

in meaningful work. The exhaustive effects of religiosity on daily work were not

determined (Banaga 2000). Did individuals who perceived a sense of life purpose

through a commitment to the Christian faith also experience meaningful work

within a setting, such as teaching, health-care, or business? Specifically, did

Christians demonstrate a connection between purpose in life and meaningful

work more than non-Christians in a given field of work? Further, what specific

variables of religiosity contributed to both the perception of life purpose and the

engagement in meaningful work within a specific occupation?

Figure 2. Gibson Religiosity and Daily Work Model

Subjective

Perceptions

of Life

Purpose

Subjective

Engagement

in Meaningful

Work

The Effects of

Religiosity on

Daily Work

7

To address the aforementioned questions, the current study was designed

to examine the problem of unrealized contextualization from one occupational

perspective. The study selected the field of funeral service as the conceptual

context to analyze the effects of religiosity on perceptions of life purpose and the

engagement in meaningful work. Funeral service was chosen as the specific

context of study in order to advance generalized theory of religiosity from actual

practice as a practitioner-researcher in the funeral profession (Jarvis 1999).

Purpose of the Research

The purpose of the research was to establish a better understanding of

how religiosity affected measured perceptions of purpose in life and the

engagement in meaningful work as two distinct constructs important to the

integration of faith in daily work contexts. The study isolated four primary facets

relating to religiosity to examine: (1) belief, (2) attitude, (3) practice, and

(4) group experience.5

The first objective of the study addressed the facet of belief in religiosity.

Specifically, the research examined whether Christian students significantly

differed in the perceptions of both purpose in life and the engagement in

meaningful work than non-Christian students. In the operational definitions, a

Christian was defined as one, who in the past, made a personal commitment to

5 The four categories—belief, attitude, practice, and experience—are related to the historical

taxonomy originally developed by the seminal work of Glock and Stark. See Charles Y. Glock and Rodney

Stark, “Religion and Society in Tension” (Chicago: Rand McNally & Company, 1965), 20. See also David

Ostrowski, “Assessing the basis of religious hostility in Glock and Stark’s unchristian beliefs and anti-

semitism” (DPhil diss., Oxford Graduate School, 1997).

8

Jesus Christ that was still important today. Respondents were asked to select a

denominational preference, such as Protestant, Catholic, Greek Orthodox,

Mormon, Jehovah’s Witnesses, Christian Science, other, or none.

The second objective of the study addressed the facet of attitudes in

religiosity. Specifically, the research examined mortuary college student attitudes

toward the institutional church. Student participants who indicated that one

cannot be part of a well-rounded religious life without the involvement of the

institutional church were considered to be favorable toward organized religious

affiliation.

The third objective the study addressed was the facet of practice in

religiosity. Specifically, the research examined if a relationship existed between

the practice of personal religious disciplines, such as prayer, fasting, confession,

worship, devotional reading, and Bible study, and perceptions of life purpose and

the engagement in meaningful work in funeral service.

The fourth objective of the study addressed the facet of experience in

religiosity. Specifically, the research examined if mortuary college students active

in a local church contributed to a higher perception of purpose in life and the

engagement in meaningful work than mortuary college students not actively

involved in a local church. In the operational definitions, active church

membership was defined as a respondent who had officially joined a church body

and affirmed involvement in at least one church group activity every month.

Activities were defined as a worship service, Sunday School class, Bible study

group, choir practice, and prayer meeting.

9

Significance of the Research

The significance of the current study was to contribute to the scope of

previously completed research among areas of interdisciplinary studies relevant

to the integration of religious faith in daily work contexts. The current study added

theoretical and practical knowledge to the areas of religion, psychology, and

business. First, the study contributed to the field of religion by providing a

theoretical construct for measuring four distinct dimensions of religiosity,

including religious belief, attitude, practice, and group experience. The study

suggested that effective faith integration in the workplace was related to

multifaceted religiosity. The theoretical model of the current study provided a

practical rationale to renew interest among the Evangelical community regarding

the relevance of a theology of work for Christians in the twenty-first century.

The second area of relevance for the current study was the field of

psychology. The study contributed to extant psychological research by advancing

theoretical knowledge on the significance of life purpose and meaningful work for

psychological well-being. Specifically, measured perceptions of both purpose in

life and the engagement in meaningful work were validated as effective means to

examine the effects of religiosity on mental health.

The third area of relevance for the study was the field of business. The

study contributed to extant theories regarding the importance of workplace

spirituality from a business context as a means to establish and sustain

organizational growth and employee satisfaction. The current study challenged

10

extant business theory by suggesting the inclusion of traditional Christian

orthodoxy as a legitimate basis for effective workplace spirituality.

Research Hypotheses

The hypotheses below were designed to contribute to the understanding

of how measures of religiosity affect mortuary college student perceptions of life

purpose and the engagement in meaningful work (Hill and Hood 1999). Four

facets of religiosity were measured by two separate instruments to set the

parameters for two research hypotheses. The independent variables were

developed into corollaries in the null hypotheses. The Purpose in Life Survey

(see Appendix B) and the Engagement in Meaningful Work Scale (see Appendix

C) were used to measure religious belief, attitude, practice, and group

experience.

Hypothesis 1 (Ha1)— There was significant relationship between the

dependent variable of Purpose in Life (PIL) value and the independent variables

of age, gender, educational attainment, length of experience in funeral service

work, denominational preference, Christian affirmation, favorability toward the

institutional church, active church membership, number of disciplines practiced,

and involvement in church activities.

Hypothesis 2 (Ha2)—There was significant relationship between the

dependent variable of Engagement in Meaningful Work Scale (EMWS) value and

the independent variables of age, gender, educational attainment, length of

experience in funeral service work, denominational preference, Christian

11

affirmation, favorability toward the institutional church, active church

membership, number of disciplines practiced, and involvement in church

activities.

Summary

The failure to integrate faith in daily work was described as a serious

threat for the bridge between orthodoxy and orthopraxis, a significant concern for

the study of religion and society. The current study was designed to measure

how facets of religiosity related to the perceptions of purpose in life and the

engagement in meaningful work. Both purpose in life and the engagement in

meaningful work were identified as two constructs that contributed significantly to

mental health and psychological well-being. The paucity of research on faith

integration in daily work provided the rationale to examine how the dynamics of

religiosity influenced life purpose and meaningful work, specifically within the

context of a chosen occupation. The current study limited the scope of the

research to the field of funeral service in order to isolate and measure the effects

of religiosity on mortuary college student perceptions of purpose in life and the

engagement in meaningful work. The research analyzed four essential facets of

religiosity that affect perceptions of life purpose and meaningful work: (1) belief,

(2) attitudes, (3) practice, and (4) group experience. The primary significance of

the study was to advance knowledge on the impact of religiosity on work in order

to foster psychological well-being and improve integration of faith and daily work.

12

CHAPTER 2

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

Introduction

The literature review organized interdisciplinary research related to the

contextualization of faith in daily work. The failure to integrate faith in daily work

contexts was described as a multifaceted problem important for religion and

society studies. The research question was stated as follows: What were the

effects of religiosity on mortuary college student perceptions of purpose in life

and the engagement in meaningful work?6

The literature search utilized multiple computerized search engines to

identify relevant research. To ascertain the most current academic journals,

abstracts, and dissertations, the review included searches utilizing Proquest,

University Microfilms (UMI), Tennessee Electronic Library, the Theological

Research Exchange Network (TREN), and the Theological Journal Library.

6 In order to adequately address the research question, the literature review examined seminal

works, identified opposing viewpoints, and established relevant sources foundational to the study of faith in

the workplace. Three key areas of study were initially identified to organize the parameters of the research.

Specifically, literature in the areas of religion, psychology, and business was reviewed and synthesized for

the development of a quasi-experimental design appropriate for the study. Several delimiters were

established in the search process in order to move from a broad, general level of research to the most

relevant literature applicable for the research question. Common delimiters used for the study were

workplace, ministry, vocation, calling, purpose in life, well-being, and spirituality. The delimiters were also

cross-referenced through related works in religious thought regarding a theology of work, studies regarding

psychological well-being, and references to spirituality in the workplace. The primary focus of the

literature search was the use of the delimiters in current academic, peer-reviewed journals and doctoral

dissertations no older than 1990; however, given the interdisciplinary context of the study, seminal thinkers

foundational to the fields of religion and psychology were reviewed as well.

13

Proquest provided access to over 4,000 current periodicals representing

over 5 billion pages of text. UMI provided search access to over 1.6 million

archived dissertations and master's theses. TREN made available over 7,800

theological thesis and dissertation titles from as many as seventy different

academic institutions of higher learning. The Theological Journal Library, a

product of Galaxie Software, provided cataloged access to 250 years of

academic journals of religion, including Bibliotheca Sacra, Chafer Theological

Seminary Journal, Conservative Theological Journal, Detroit Baptist Seminary

Journal, Grace Theological Journal, Journal of Evangelical Theology, Journal of

Ministry and Theology, Master’s Seminary Journal, Trinity Journal, and

Westminster Theological Journal.

In addition to searches made to acquire relevant academic journals,

abstracts, theses, and dissertations, several book searches were employed to

examine both current and classic works by seminal thinkers in the areas of

religion, psychology, and business. Search engines that were utilized were the

Library of Congress, the University of Oxford’s Bodleian Library, Bibliofind.com,

Amazon.com, and eCampus.com. Finally, trade journals in the field of funeral

service published since 2000 were searched for articles applicable for the study.

Part one of the literature review examined the emergence of a theology of

work in religious thought from the significant Christian eras in history. Part two

considered the developments in psychology regarding the importance of

meaningful work and purpose in life for mental well-being. Finally, part three of

14

the literature review examined current research in the field of business regarding

the importance of spirituality in the workplace.

Theology and Work

A primary research context for the study was the development of religious

thought in Christian literature regarding the concept of work. A comprehensive

search was employed to provide an understanding of the major historic contexts

that have shaped contemporary Christian attitudes toward a theology of work.7

Historic perspectives of work provided a much needed theological framework

necessary to understand the current trends in religious thought toward the

effective practice of faith within the diverse workplace of the twenty-first century

(Garcia-Zamor 2003).

Unlike static orthodox statements of faith, such as those found in the

historic Christian creeds, perspectives of work were not monolithic within

Christian tradition (Oppenheimer 2003). The church withstood significant

changes in perspectives regarding the nature and value of work in daily life. The

literature revealed that a Christian view of work was tantamount to a dynamic

view of work—a continuum of unfavorable to favorable beliefs regarding the

value of work for Christian practice. The dynamic Christian perspectives of work

were organized logically around five significant movements in the history of

7 Banaga (2000) presented a helpful thematic description of Christian perceptions of work: (1) the

necessity of work, (2) the goodness of work, (3) work as co-creation, (4) work as redemptive activity, and

(5) work as calling.

15

Christianity: (1) patristic, (2) medieval, (3) Reformation, (4) pre-modern, and (5)

modern eras.

The Patristic Era: Work as Toil

A review of the literature uncovered contradictory ideas regarding how the

early church perceived the concept of work. From one perspective, the patristic

period of Christianity was argued to embrace a positive attitude of work, despite

the fact that the surrounding pagan cultures of early Christianity viewed work with

disdain (O’Connor 1995). The early inscriptions and drawings in the Roman

catacombs depicting Christians busy in the course of daily work was given as

empirical evidence that the early church maintained the dignity of human labor

(Henry 1964). The catacomb inscriptions may have represented a belief that the

early church based the inherent dignity of work on the task God gave Adam in

the creation account. Because Adam worked in naming the animals before the

fall, work was not necessarily perceived unfavorably. At the same time, the early

church may not have embraced a favorable attitude of work. For example,

Oryshkevich (2003) maintained that the momentous rediscovery of the ancient

Christian catacombs in 1578 was subjected to much interpretative license,

preconceived notions, and fanciful tales of a golden-age of Christianity. That the

early church embraced a positive view of human work as evidenced from

catacomb drawings was inconclusive in the literature.

Cultural influences on the patristic era of Christianity provided more clarity

into the early church understanding of work. The patristic era was undoubtedly