Snow and Glacier Hydrology (Proceedings of the Kathmandu Symposium, November 1992). IAHS Publ. no. 218,1993. 37

Regional Cooperation in Hydrological Research and Training in the Hindu Kush-Himalayas

S. R. CHALISE Mountain Environmental Management Division, International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development (IC1MOD), PO Box 3226, Kathmandu, Nepal

Abstract The paper considers research needs in the Hindu Kush-Himalaya Region and stresses the need for cooperative research. Particular emphasis is placed on the development of a Regional Programme on Mountain Hydrology under the auspices of UNESCO and ICIMOD.

BACKGROUND

The Hindu Kush-Himalayas (HKH) extending over 2500 km from Afghanistan in the west to Myanmar in the east are the largest reservoir of freshwater in the subtropical latitudes. Covering an area of about 3.4 million km2, it is the home of nearly 118 million people who depend directly on it for their sustenance.

Since ancient times the Hindu Kush-Himalayas have been worshipped as the abode of Gods and sources of mighty rivers where great civilizations originated and prospered. As early as in the First Century B.C. the great Sanskrit poet Kalidasa had envisioned the connection between the Himalayas and the oceans in the Region, as he describes the Himalayas in his epic Kurnara Sambhavam as, "the Abode of Gods, King of Mountains, Himalaya you bound the oceans from east to west, A northern yardstick, to measure the Earth" (Kalidasa as quoted in HIMAL, 1989).

Rising from a few metres above the sea level to almost tropospheric heights these highest mountain chains possess such richness in ecological and climatic diversities, that within a span of less than 200 km they encapsulate virtually all types of climate that exist on this planet and provide an unparalleled pool of genetic resources and biodiversity. These diversities in climate and ecology have also been the source of sustenance for the people and their rich cultural diversities in these mountains. These mountainous areas are, therefore, essentially characterized by diversity - geophysical, hydroclimatic, biological and cultural. Such diversities make generalization extremely difficult, if not impossible, especially at the meso level and hence it is not easy to find general solutions to the hydrological problems in the HKH region.

The climate of this Region is essentially dominated by the South West Monsoon which provides most of the precipitation in the eastern part of the

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Region during the rainy summer months. However, the westerlies which predominate during the rest of the year also bring snow and rain during winter and spring, most significantly in the western part of the HKH. These mountain chains not only block the northward advancement of the monsoon causing widespread and intense precipitation on the southern side of the Himalaya while, at the same time, making the Tibetan plateau and northern rainshadow areas one of the driest in the world, they also intensify the precipitation processes in some preferred areas through orographic lifting producing extreme contrasts between adjacent watersheds.

The HKH Region is immensely rich in water resources and possesses huge potential for hydropower generation. For example, Nepal alone has a theoretical power potential of 83 000 MW of which not even one percent has been actually utilized. Similarly these snow-clad mountains are the perennial sources of myriads of rivers and streams and nearly 8 634 000 million m3 of water is estimated to flow out of the Himalayas annually (Gupta, 1983 and Kawosa 1988 as quoted in Shankar, 1991). It needs hardly to be emphasized that a proper understanding of the behaviour of snow and glaciers is a sine qua non for utilising the vast potential of water resources in the region. Unfortunately, the intricate ensemble of the valleys and the peaks, and the rugged topography with sudden rise and fall in elevations over small distances add to the problem of establishing a network of hydrometeorological stations in these mountains, particularly at high altitudes and make heavy demands in terms of costs. The sparse hydrometeorological network and meagre data within even important river basins in the HKH has greatly inhibited proper assessment and development of water resources in the Region.

SOME BASIC ISSUES PERTAINING TO HYDROLOGICAL RESEARCH IN THE HKH REGION

The enormous potential of utilising the snow and glacier fed Himalayan rivers such as the Indus, the Ganga and the Brahmaputra, as well as their tributaries, whether for power, irrigation, flood control or for urban consumption is in sharp contrast to the state of hydrological research in the Region. Whereas the development of regional water resources depends largely on the intensification of hydrological research, the general level of development and financial constraints of the countries of the Region have precluded adequate investment by them in developing appropriate databases or in research and training of manpower. Moreover, the natural environment of the Himalayas with the highest mountain chains and extremely steep slopes imposes severe restrictions, including high financial costs, on the collection of data or conducting of research and studies.

The absence of a long-term data base, particularly for elevations above 3000 m is a major constraint for conducting hydrological studies and

Regional cooperation in hydrological research and training 39

developing appropriate operational models in the Region. The hydroclimatic and biophysical diversities further add to the difficulties. Again, the HKH region being the meeting place of several nations, some of the high elevation areas may not be accessible for research and study.

Lack of long-term reliable data on hydrometeorology, geomorphology, land use and vegetation of the Himalayan environment has lead to the "uncertainty" (Thompson & Warburton, 1985; Kattelmann, 1987), controversies and "dilemma" (Ives & Messerli, 1989) with regard to the management and development of natural resources, particularly water, as well as in assessing the impacts of their utilization in the downstream areas. These uncertainties are likely to increase further, with the possible impacts of global warming, which are yet to be ascertained in these highly energized mountain environments.

Recent incidents of the impacts of glacial lake outburst floods (Ives, 1986) and the presence of ice dammed lakes in Nepal Himalayas (WECS, 1992) indicate the urgent need to study and monitor such lakes throughout the HKH. Similarly, the often quoted, but not scientifically established, perception about the impact of degraded upland watersheds on lowland floods (Ives & Messerli, 1989; Bruijnzeel & Bremmer, 1989; Kattelmann 1990a; Alford, 1992) has created a lot of confusion and controversy. At present, data on sediments and bedload are hardly available for the upper reaches of the Himalayan rivers (Gyawali, 1989: 36) which further complicates the matter. Such controversies can therefore be solved only through proper scientific investigations and monitoring of the events across the HKH.

Although there is no doubt that at present the relevant database is sparse and scanty in order to draw definite conclusions about such hazards, yet sharing of hydrologie data throughout the HKH is considered an urgent first step for improved understanding of the river systems of the Region which could help develop sounder approaches towards hazard mitigation (Kattelmann, 1988 and 1990a). It is also argued that despite "uncertainty" of the available data base, proper organization and interpretation of the data could still be useful (Alford, 1992).

The concern for basic data for the development and management of water resources has been best expressed in the following words of the Action Agenda of the 1992 International Conference on Water and the Environment, viz. "Lack of preparedness, often aggravated by lack of data, means that droughts and floods take a huge toll in deaths, misery and economic loss. Economic losses from natural disasters, including floods and droughts, increased three-fold between the 1960s and the 1980s. Development is being set back for years in some developing countries, because investments have not been made in basic data collection and disaster preparedness. Projected climate change and rising sea-levels will intensify the risk for some, while also threatening the apparent security of existing water resources. " (WMO, 1992)

Development of water resources in the HKH countries have, however, gone ahead during the last three decades despite the "uncertainties" or absence

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of basic data and big or small projects, for power, irrigation or water supply have been either constructed or are being planned. Experience from the region has shown that if the performance of the completed projects have been far from satisfactory, then controversy surrounds those which are being constructed or are due to be constructed. In some cases, such as the Namche Small Hydel Project in Eastern Nepal (near Mt. Everest base camp), the entire project was destroyed by a glacial lake outburst flood just when it was about to be completed in 1985 (Ives, 1986). There are also other experiences from Nepal such as the failure of the Kulekhani Project to supply power to the national grid at the expected rate during low flow periods and the controversy surrounding the proposed Aran project, (Kattelmann, 1990b) which further emphasize the urgent need for a better understanding of the hydrology of the Himalayan rivers.

So far development imperatives might have compelled huge investments in the region despite the lack or absence of sufficient hydrological knowledge and data. There are enough examples which show that these ventures have not been satisfactory as is also evidenced by the general shortage of power and water in most of the HKH countries. Hence, if the disappointments and disasters are to be avoided in future and optimum potential of water resources are to be developed in the HKH, then efforts have to be intensified by all concerned to develop an adequate knowledge and data base on Himalayan hydrology.

Training of appropriate manpower to carry out hydrological research and study is another area which has not received adequate attention so far due, again, mainly the economic constraints of the countries of region. In the absence of adequately trained manpower at different levels, operation and maintenance of hydro-meteorological networks and collection and analyses of such data have been affected in many countries of the region. This calls for a concerted effort in the Region to train necessary manpower to carry out these challenging tasks.

THE NEED FOR REGIONAL COOPERATION

The mountain environments of the HKH region are undergoing rapid transformation in the process of development which is going to further intensify. The pressure on natural resources and the need to utilize them to their optimal potential is also growing. Of the natural resources that the HKH region is endowed with, water with its immense potential for power generation and other multifarious utilization is probably the one single resource which has caught the high imagination of the people in the region and is considered as the "hope" for the future (Verghese, 1990).

As events have shown, development decisions do not wait till adequate information, knowledge or data are available and much of the planning in water

Regional cooperation in hydrological research and training 41

resources development projects in the Region have been carried out on the basis of whatever data could be available and using the most suitable hydrological models, mostly developed outside the region. However hydrological models are normally location specific and have to be carefully validated for each location before they can be used.

The Himalayan environment is characterized by extremes, whether of altitude, slope, or variability in climate, particularly precipitation. Thus it is not possible to use available hydrological models developed in the more temperate mountain environments of Western Europe and North America to solve the Himalayan problems. Hence, it is urgently required to intensify hydrometeorological research in the Region to ensure that the enormous theoretical potential of water resources development will eventually be transformed into reality. This is possible if hydrometeorological data base for representative watersheds at different elevations and climatic zones are available. If necessary, such data base will need to be generated.

To what extent available data could be used and to what extent new data are needed to develop operational hydrological models appropriate to the HKH region are the issues that should be discussed and decided at the regional level. Again a concerted effort by the countries of the region in selecting appropriate watersheds and collecting data will greatly help to avoid duplication of efforts. It will also ensure the best use of available human and financial resources which are scarce in the Region. A cooperative regional programme on hydrological research is also the best way to develop appropriate hydrological models for such diverse mountain watersheds, as exist in the HKH, within the shortest span of time. Such a programme will have a synergetic effect through optimum utilization of time and resources for the development of water resources in the region instead of the isolated efforts by individual countries.

The state of hydrological research in the countries of the HKH region viz. Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Bhutan, China, India, Myanmar, Nepal and Pakistan, which share the Hindu Kush-Himalaya and the rivers originating in the region are not uniform (Shankar, 1991). For example, National Hydrological and Meteorological services started in Nepal only during 1965 (Chalise et al., 1978; Shankar, 1989). Regional cooperative programmes in the collection of data, research and training will also be mutually beneficial to the countries of the region. The cost of establishing, operating and maintaining hydrological and meteorological stations with sophisticated automatic equipment for the collection of high quality and reliable data particularly at higher elevations, is quite high.

The cost and physical hardships involved in establishing and equipping high altitude stations have been the most discouraging factors for poor data base, particularly above 3000 m in the HKH countries. It is for this reason that the study of snow and glacier hydrology has not received much attention in most of the Regional countries. Although some countries in the region, such as India and China, have active national programmes in snow and glacier

42 S. R. Chalise

studies, and Nepal has recently launched its programme in this field, most of the works carried out in the region in this field so far are those by scientists from outside the region, such as those in Pakistan by the Canadians (Young & Hewitt, 1990) and in the Nepal Himalayas by the Japanese (Higuchi, 1978). Although such works have made very valuable contribution to the body of knowledge and have generated basic reliable data and inventories on the snow and glaciers of the HKH, they have however, not been able to generate a sustained indigenous response from the regional countries, without which a sustainable development of water resources matching the immense potential that exists in the region will be extremely difficult, if not impossible. The solutions to the problems of the Himalayan rivers for the optimal utilization of their vast potentials will have to be found, therefore, through works in this Region and obviously through the initiatives of the scientists and institutions of the HKH countries. Regional cooperative programmes will therefore maximize such efforts where international agencies could play an important catalytic role by providing financial and technical support.

Evolution of the proposed UNESCO/ICEVIOD Regional Programme on Mountain Hydrology for the Hindu Kush-Himalayan Region

Individual country efforts and programmes on research and training in mountain hydrology in the HKH region are extremely important. Without such country initiatives it is difficult to imagine that the challenges of water resources development in such diverse environments as exist in the HKH will be possible to tackle. However, it is clear from the foregoing discussions that a regional cooperative programme could have a synergetic effect and could overcome several limitations that could be inherent in an isolated country exercize.

Considering these obvious advantages of a regional cooperative programme, ICIMOD and UNESCO [under its International Hydrological Programme (IHP)] have been jointly engaged in initiating a Regional Programme on Mountain Hydrology, viz. Regional Network of Experimental Watersheds for Hydrological Studies (RENEWHS) for the Hindu Kush-Himalayan Region, in close cooperation with the regional countries in order to respond to the need for hydrological research and training. This Regional Programme is similar in approach to the FRIEND Project (Flow Regimes from International Experimental and Network Data) which has had good success in Europe (Gustard et al, 1989), and is expected to contribute towards intensification of hydrological research and training in the Hindu Kush-Himalayas.

The concern for such a regional programme for the HKH region was not new but it was during the "Regional Workshop on Hydrology of Mountainous

Regional cooperation in hydrological research and training 43

Areas", held at ICIMOD, Kathmandu, in December 1989, that definite goals were set to translate these concerns into practical and realistic action.

The 1989 Regional Workshop was a significant event in this field and it was also the first of its kind since the International Symposium on Hydrological Aspects of the Mountainous Watersheds was held by the School of Hydrology, University of Roorkee, India, in November 1982. This Regional Workshop continued discussions, initiated by the International Workshop on Hydrology of Mountainous Areas in Czechoslovakia in 1988, the discussion focussing on the Hindu Kush-Himalayas.

The 1989 Regional Workshop, which was organized by the Department of Hydrology and Meteorology (DHM) of the Ministry of Water Resources (MOWR) of His Majesty's Government (HMG) of Nepal in collaboration with UNESCO and ICIMOD, made the following major recommendations to expedite the realization of these goals. (DHM, 1989): • A new Project on "Hydrology of Mountainous Areas" should be

incorporated into Project IHP-IV H-5.6 of UNESCO (1990-1995) as a regional contribution.

• A Regional Working Group (RWG) on Mountain Hydrology should be set up with representatives from Regional Countries, UNESCO, ICIMOD, and WMO.

• A Regional Programme on Mountain Hydrology should be initiated by the RWG as soon as possible. The Intergovernmental Council of the IHP of UNESCO at its Ninth

Session in March 1990 approved the inclusion of the new project, "Hydrology of Mountainous Regions", in the IHP-IV (H-5.6). Another important step was the constitution of the Regional Working Group on Mountain Hydrology and the First Consultative Meeting of the Regional Working Group was organized jointly by UNESCO/IHP and ICIMOD, and hosted by the Department of Hydrology and Meteorology of HMG, Nepal during October 1990.

This meeting further clarified the role and functions of the Regional Working Group (RWG) entrusting UNESCO and ICIMOD to provide jointly a secretariat for the RWG and made the following recommendations with regard to a regional project on mountain hydrology (UNESCO/IHP and ICIMOD, 1990). • A Medium-term project, viz.. Regional Network of Experimental

Watersheds for Hydrological Studies. (RENEWHS) should be initiated by UNESCO and ICIMOD in collaboration with the countries of the Hindu Kush-Himalayan Region for implementation by the RWG. A project proposal to this effect should be prepared for submission to UNDP and other external funding sources.

« Each Country of the Region participating in this medium-term Regional Study Project, viz., RENEWHS, should be requested to designate at least one (preferably more) small-sized watershed^), representing major ecological/climate zones for integrated and intensive hydrological studies

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and to be a component(s) of the regional network of such experimental and representative watersheds for exchange of data, knowledge, and experience.

In accordance with these recommendations of the First Consultative Meeting of the RWG, a project proposal for the Medium Term Project, viz., Regional Network of Experimental Watersheds for Hydrological Studies (RENEWHS) was prepared with UNESCO's financial assistance which was discussed during the Second Consultative Meeting of the Regional Working Group on Mountain Hydrology, which was also hosted by the Department of Hydrology and Meteorology of the Ministry of Water Resources of His Majesty's Government of Nepal and organized jointly with them by the UNESCO and ICIMOD in Kathmandu from 16 to 18 March, 1992.

The main objective of the Second Consultative Meeting of the RWG was to refine and provide guidance for the finalization of the draft project proposal. After deliberations the Meeting has endorsed in principle the draft project proposal and has entrusted the Secretariat of the RWG to finalize the project document with the assistance of WMO and to submit it to potential donors for the implementation of the project (HMGN/UNESCO/ICIMOD, 1992).

Another interesting outcome of the Meeting was the tentative suggestions made by the representatives of some of the regional countries regarding the designation of Watersheds to be studied under the project in their respective countries, subject to their governments' approval, as mentioned below.

Bangladesh: A Watershed in Chittagong Hill Tracts with existing basic hydrometeorological instrumentation.

China: Two Watersheds in Tibet with existing basic infrastructure. Nepal: Phalankhu Khola Watershed. Pakistan: A Watershed in Hunza Valley, a sub-area of upper Indus basin

with some instrumentation facilities under a snow hydrology project.

Another major recommendation of the Second Consultative Meeting of the RWG is concerned with the training and manpower requirements in mountain hydrology. It has entrusted ICIMOD, UNESCO and WMO to work together and in consultation with other relevant institutions to review available courses on mountain hydrology to identify or design appropriate training courses with due consideration to the needs of operational hydrology and water resources assessment on the one hand and for the knowledge of hydrological processes in the mountainous areas on the other hand considering both the on-going and potential impacts due to biophysical and climatic changes as well as human intervention.

The Regional Programme on Mountain Hydrology in the Hindu Kush-Himalayas was initiated as a joint collaborative programme by ICIMOD and UNESCO/IHP, in response to these recommendations, in cooperation with the

Regional cooperation in hydrological research and training 45

countries of the Region and WMO. The response and support from the countries of the Region have been the most encouraging features of this programme as is evidenced by their active participation in all the activities carried out so far under this programme. Active participation of UNDP in the meetings and their continued interest and support has been another notable feature of the programme. In the meantime ICIMOD and UNESCO/IHP have also incorporated this Regional Programme on Mountain Hydrology in their respective work programme cycles.

HIGHLIGHTS OF THE PROPOSED REGIONAL PROJECT ON MOUNTAIN HYDROLOGY IN THE HKH

The main objective of the proposed Regional Project is to promote and enhance indigenous capability for sustainable development of Water resources in the Countries of the Hindu Kush-Himalayan region, which are richly endowed with this resource by nature, for the benefit of their people, through a regional cooperative programme of research and training in mountain hydrology by establishing a regional network of experimental Watersheds for hydrological studies.

The other important objective is to promote exchange of data, information and knowledge between the participating institutions to help develop appropriate hydrological models for diverse Watersheds of the HKH for optimal development of Water resources and to provide protection to human settlements and infrastructures in the downstream areas.

The project will concentrate on providing necessary support and assistance to participating country institutions to develop their human resources by organising appropriate training and to equip the Watersheds with standard equipment for hydrological and meteorological observations and measurements.

Research and training in snow and glacier hydrology are expected to be very important activities of the project as it is expected that some of the Watersheds participating in the network will lie above the snowline.

Apart from the development of human resources capable to carry out hydrological research, another longer term contribution of this proposed regional project will be reliable databases on hydrology and meteorology of the Watersheds lying in diverse altitudinal and climatic zones of the HKH region. It is logical to hope that such a long term reliable database will be of immense value to develop appropriate hydrological models and do away with the "uncertainty" that is inherent in water resources development in the HKH, at present. Obviously the huge investments that are needed for utilising the immense potential of water resources development in the Region will be able to fulfil their desired objectives much better when appropriate human resources and such databases are available.

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ICIMOD and UNESCO are jointly engaged in implementing these recommendations in close consultation with the regional countries and WMO. The draft project proposal is being circulated and finalized. Several countries of the Region have indicated their firm desire to participate in the network. The consultation with the countries will be completed soon and the project document will be finalized for submission to potential donors, such as the UNDP which has shown considerable interest in such a project from the very beginning, so that the Regional Project could be initiated as soon as possible.

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