Reflections on Postwar Technical Exchanges between ... · Reflections on Postwar Technical Exchanges ... of Japan’s railways in the postwar period, ... consumption figures for 1946–49,

32 Japan Railway & Transport Review 27 • June 2001

Evolution of Railway Technology

Feature

Copyright © 2001 EJRCF. All rights reserved.

Reflections on Postwar Technical Exchangesbetween Japanese and French Railways

Terushi Hara

Birth of Shinkansen and TGVin Japan and France

The completion of the 515-km TokaidoShinkansen connecting Tokyo and Osakain 3 hours and 10 minutes at a maximumspeed of 210 km/h just 20 years afterWWII brought Japanese railways to theimmediate a t tent ion of ra i lwaysworldwide. Coupled with the successful1964 Tokyo Olympic Games, this world-beating high-speed railway was a sourceof national pride and a sign of things tocome. Moreover, it revolutionized therailway business by proving that the so-called ‘declining’ railways could competewith automobiles and aircraft if sufficientinvestment was made in technology.1981 saw the confirmation of thistechnological revolution when the

southern section of the TGV SudEstrailway was completed to link Paris andLyon, the second largest city in France.B u t t h e T G V a l s o p u s h e d t h etechnology enve lope fu r ther byincreasing the maximum speed to 260km while the Tokaido Shinkansen hadonly increased its maximum speed by10 km/h to 220 km/h in the 18 yearsfollowing its debut. Subsequently, theTGV’s maximum speed rose to 300 km/hwhen France completed the TGVAtlantique in 1989–90 and the TGVNord in 1993 as part of the planned EUhigh-speed network.Japan and France had created a spirit offriendly competition and cooperation inbuilding commercial high-speed railwaystypified by Hideo Shima (1901–98), thetechnical father of JNR’s shinkansen (see

JRTR 3, pp. 45–48) saying, ‘I am trulyhappy to see the success of the TGV. Iwant to celebrate it in the same way asthey celebrated and were proud of thesuccess of the shinkansen. It shows thatthe railways still have plenty of room forprogress and improvement, if we can justleave behind some of our old ways.’Likewise, Fernand Nouvion, the senioreng inee r who took the l ead indeveloping electric traction technologyfor the postwar French Nat ionalRailways (SNCF) said, ‘Every year Ireceive a New Year greetings card fromHideo Shima, who is now President ofthe National Space DevelopmentAgency. This year he had written on it,in h i s own hand , a message o fcongratulations on the success of theFrench TGV, (and) we have no reasonto doubt him.’ These statements byShima and Nouvion underline theimportance of the technical exchangebetween the two countries.

Exchange of railway technologybetween Japan and FranceIt could be said that the friendly postwarcompetition between Japan and Franceis the reason that the two countries nowhave two of the most advanced high-speed railway systems in the world.Jean Bouley (1927–97), UIC SecretaryGeneral, spoke of it very honestlysaying, ‘France’s SNCF walked in thepath pioneered by JNR. Ever since theshinkansen appeared in Japan, FernandNouvion has been thankful for it, andhas praised its role. I still clearlyremember the stirring speech he gaveto the SNCF Rolling Stock Division staffon his return from Japan in March 1962,entitled “The electrification of Japan’srailways and the Tokaido main line.” Atthat time my conclusion was that whatJapan had borrowed from France, it hadnow been able to return faithfully.Japan had succeeded in building ahigh-speed railway, and in doing that,SNCF’s early AC locomotive Class CC14100 hauling a heavy coal train in northern France (H. Suzuki Collection)

33Japan Railway & Transport Review 27 • June 2001Copyright © 2001 EJRCF. All rights reserved.

it released a healthy spirit of creativecompetitiveness.’

French railway AC electrificationtechnologyLet’s take a brief look at exactly whatBouley meant by ‘ . . .what Japanborrowed from France... .’ He wasspeaking of French railway technologyt h a t w a s i n d i s p e n s a b l e t o t h ecomp le t i on o f t he sh inkan sen .Nouvion said, ‘In 1955, five officialsfrom JNR attended an internationalconference in France. They toldus , “At this conference, we havelearned that it is possible to increaserailway speeds, and that the bestmethod of railway electrification is touse alternating current at industrialfrequency.” The Japanese made theirconclusions extremely quickly afterth i s con fe rence , and the i r f ina lproduct was the Tokaido Shinkansen.’Shima also said, ‘The experience thatwe gained in AC electrical driving wasthe decisive factor in achieving theTokaido Shinkansen.’ AC electrificationt e c h n o l o g y w a s ‘ . . . w h a t J a p a nborrowed from France... .’I want to examine this AC electrificationtechnology, which was used in Franceafter WWII and publicly discussed atinternational conferences in Annecy in1951 and Lille in 1955, to clarify howJNR made the technology its own andincorporated it into Japan’s railwaysand shinkansen. After learning aboutAC e lec t r i f i ca t ion a t these twoconferences, the AC ElectrificationInvestigation Committee led the effortto succeed in domestic production ofan AC electric locomotive. In the1960s, Japan successfully exporteddomestically produced AC electriclocomotives to India. This pattern ofintroducing technology from overseas,creating a new item using the technologyand then exporting it, typified theindustrialization of postwar Japan.

Visit to France by ACElectrification Investigation

Group

From 1945–51, Japan was occupiedby the Allies under the leadership ofGeneral Douglas MacArthur (1880–1964) , Supreme Commander fo rAllied Powers in Japan (SCAP). TheGeneral Headquarters (GHQ) pressedahead with various reforms of theJapanese economy and pol i t ica lsystem based on democracy, landreform, labour reform, breaking upthe zaibatsu (big business group), etc.The Americanizat ion of Japanesesociety was well underway. TheJapanese thought that electrificationwas essential for modernizing theirrailways, but GHQ did not appreciateits significance.Shiro Seki, a talented electrical engineerwho played a key role in the electrificationof Japan’s railways in the postwar period,said, ‘Even though the war is over, we arestill engaged in a struggle with America.’Less than 6 months after the war’s end,work started on DC electrification of the125-km Takasaki–Nagaoka section of theJoetsu Line. This was completed in 1947.Following this, work started to DC electrifythe Numazu–Hamamatsu section of theTokaido main line and Fukushima–Yonezawa section of the Ou Line but anorder to stop work was issued by GHQ.In response to this, JNR submitted requeststo GHQ from civilians in the relevantareas for electrification of the lines andthe work was approved.GHQ opposed the electrification becauseit did not understand the extent to whichJapan depended on electricity due topoverty of natural resources such as coaland oil. In addition, diesel locomotiveswere popular in the USA at this time andthe American occupation forces hadbrought several General Motors (GM)diesel locomotives to Japan with theprobable intent of selling them. But GM

diesel locomotives did not capture theJapanese market because JNR was quickto realize the importance of electrificationand energetically introduced knowledgeabout AC electrification from France inan effort to find an economic method ofelectrifying the main lines.

GHQ Railway policyGHQ’s main concern was not to build newlines nor to implement electrification, butwas instead to achieve the greatest effectfor the lowest cost by improving existingrailways and rolling stock. In 1948,MacArthur ordered the elimination of loss-making operations by the governmentrailways for the sake of the nation’seconomic security. According to SCAP’sPlan for Economic Stability, the order wasdesigned to stop the government railways’purchase of unnecessary electriclocomotives. SCAP also gave orders forconstruction of highways to replacerailways. As a result, except for a new 90.2-km link connecting a steelworks atKamaishi in Iwate Prefecture with the mainline to Tokyo after the existing route wasdestroyed by a huge typhoon in 1948, therewas no new construction from April 1946until late 1950.The electrification plans were suspendeduntil 1947 due to depleted resources andwere then only permitted if they could bejustified economically. Since SCAP felt theneed to ensure coal supplies, electrificationwas only permitted if there was a surplusof electricity and it was cheaper than coal.After the first electrification of theHamamatsu–Numazu section of theTokaido main line, the amount of electrifiedtrack increased from 6.6% in 1946 to8.4% by the end of 1950.According to the GHQ/SCAP History ofthe Nonmili tary Activi t ies of theOccupation of Japan 1945 through March1951, despite Japan’s small land area, ithad a relatively high potential forhydroelectric power generation with veryfew regions that could not use electricity.




Both coal and electric power wereimportant sources of energy for Japaneseindustry. The entire Japanese miningindustry and most manufacturing industryused electric power. The demand forelectricity for domestic use was alsoincreasing. Looking at the electricityconsumption figures for 1946–49,industry used 47%, households used 19%,lighting used 7%, and railways used amere 5%. The use of electricity for non-industrial purposes was fiercely restrictedunless there was a very good reason.In occupied Japan, the Economic StabilityHeadquarters Resources Committeesubmitted a report to Shigeru Yoshida(1878–1967), President of the EconomicStability Headquarters, entitled ‘Counselon E lec t r i f i ca t ion o f Ra i lways , ’demonstrating just how passionate peoplewere regarding railway electrification.

Earliest encounters with FrenchAC electrification technologyThe JNR Centennial History notes theimportance of France’s role in theintroduction of AC electrificationtechnology to Japan. According to thisrecord, SNCF took the results of prewarAC electri f ication experiments atHöllental and Dreiseenbahn in SWGermany, and succeeded in usingindustrial-frequency AC electrification inan experiment on the Annecy Line in theSavoie region in 1951. As a result, theyannounced that industrial-frequency ACelectrification was viable economically forrailways. At the time, Japan was undergreat pressure to electrify railways due tocoal shortages, but was faced withdifficulties due to the costs of constructingsubstations and other infrastructurerequired for DC electrification. As a result,JNR specialists were strongly drawn to themore economical AC electrificationmethods demonstrated by France.So who was the first to introduce FrenchAC electrification to Japan? According toSeki, ‘President Sonosuke Nagasaki

(1896–1962) of JNR visited France andhad a meeting with Louis Armand,President of SNCF. At that time, they werei n a g r e e m e n t o v e r t h e f u t u r eelectrification of railways. Shortlyafter he returned, Nagasaki established anAC Electrification Investigation Committeein JNR. Given these facts, it could beassumed that the start of AC electrificationof Japan’s railways happened when LouisArmand recommended it to PresidentNagasaki.’However, looking more deeply into thematter, Seki also tells us that, ‘The firstJapanese to technically investigate theSNCF experimental Annecy Line toChamonix was Yasuo Yayama, who at thetime was Deputy Controller of JNR’sTohoku region, in 1952.’ According toYayama, as soon as the San FranciscoPeace Treaty was signed in September1951 and Japanese could travel overseas,he was one of a group of five people sentby JNR on a trip to Europe, the first sincethe war. Yayama heard generalexplanations of AC electrification whileat the Paris HQ of SNCF and then,‘...stayed in a town at the foot of MontBlanc called Annecy, where I studied realelectric locomotives, electric power linesand infrastructure, and the French taughtme ever so much.’ At this time, Yayamarecorded h i s impress ion . ‘Theinfrastructure (for AC electrification) wasextremely simple. The locomotives,however, seemed extremely complex.’SNCF was convinced of the economicviability of AC electrification and ‘...inorder to announce to the rest of the worldthat it was to use (AC electrificationmethods) earnestly,’ hosted a conferenceentitled Journèe d’Information sur laTract ion E lec t r ique par CourantMonophasè de Frequence Industriellefrom 12 to 15 October 1951 in Annecy.From Japanese records, we do not knowif anyone from Japan attended thisconference but the data and thesesdiscussed at the conference became

one of the fundamental resources of theAC E lec t r i f i ca t ion Inves t i ga t ionCommittee.To s u m m a r i z e t h e c o n f e r e n c econclusions, the first point in the reportstated that based on current researchresu l t s , 50-Hz s ing le -phase ACelectrification was immediately suitablefor implementation; that the variousproblems relating to the fixed installationshad been solved; and that the project waseconomically feasible. Additionally, thereport stated that there was a system inplace for mass production of differenttypes of AC locomotives with the same orbetter performance in terms of efficiencyand maintenance costs than otherlocomotives. As a result, the savingsprovided by fixed installations wouldmean that AC electrification wouldprovide immediate economic advantages.The second point in the report was thatthe technical progress in the yearspreceding the conference should not stopthere. Standardization on 50-Hz single-phase AC power would assure progressinto the future, especially if Europe cameto need a standard electrification system.F r a n c e a l r e a d y h a d s o m e D Celectrification during the 1920s on theParis–Orléans, Paris–Lyons–Marseilles,and other lines (all nationalized into SNCFduring the 1930s). However, although thetechnology was complete, the system wasextremely expensive due to the need formany electrical substations and overheadcables. It was uneconomic on all but busymain lines, because it required a hugeinitial investment. In a search for somesolution, the engineers realized there weresubstantial savings to make by usingindustrial-frequency 50-Hz AC power thatwas being supplied to all regions ofFrance. The test results showed that using50-Hz single-phase AC electrificationcould save up to 40% of the cost of fixedinstallations. The system was better interms of both technology and economy,and captured the souls of everyone


working on railway modernization.Several locomotive manufacturers likeAlsthom, Oerlikon, and Westinghousehad accepted the challenge of mass-producing AC electric locomotives.The four main technical sessions AnnecyConference were on: The Role ofIndustrial-Frequency 50-Hz Electrificationin Unifying Europe’s Railways (keynotespeech by Armand); Fixed Installations;Traction Locomotive Engines; Report onTraction Engines including Oerlikon-Winter thur CoCo 6051, Als thomCoCo6052, Als thom BoBo 8051,Westinghouse Z 9055, and DeutscheBundesbahn (DB) and AEG 50-Hzlocomotives. The fifth session was adiscussion and wrapping up session.In his keynote, Armand said, ‘Theextremely practical purpose of the AnnecyConference is to investigate electrictraction and the possibilities for the directuse of industrial-frequency AC for traction.In addition, the conference aims to giveconsideration to the achievement of thegreatest possible results with the smallestpossible investment, given the railways’unquestionable need for technologicalmodernization in the face of competitionfrom automobiles and aircraft in particularsince the WWII. Three energy sources canbe considered for the railways—coal, oiland electricity. Given, however, Europe’slack of oi l resources, electr ici ty(particularly hydroelectric power) is themost suitable and best source of energy,with its potential for unlimited supply andits non-polluting properties. Comparedwith the USA, where diesel engines arethe most common, electric traction is thetruly economical way forward for oil-poorEurope. The distinguishing features of theAnnecy electrification experiments are notso much a revolution as an evolution oftechnological improvement. The purposeof this conference is to announce theresults of those experiments to theparticipating countries, and to investigatethe suitability of industrial-frequency

single-phase AC electrification for use inthe rest of Europe.’A r m a n d ’s s t a t e m e n t s s h o w aphilosophical understanding of not justFrance on her own but rather the wholeof Europe. Perhaps he was ambitious tosee all Europe’s railways unified to theindustrial-frequency AC electrificationsystem’ that France had defined. Armandsaw ‘A fascinating manifestation of theEuropean mentality not just the shape ofthe railway of the future.’ Havinga n n o u n c e d p l a n s f o r r a i l w a yelectrification in northern France, hespoke of the necessity of electrifyingrailways on a European level, explaininghow southern I taly was planningindustrial-frequency 50-Hz electrification.He also explained that although Belgiumhad already completed 3-kV DCelectrification of its domestic railwaynetwork, it was investigating introducingAC electrification in the Belgian Congo.Germany sent 32 delegates to theconference and played a particularlyimportant role. At the time of theconference, SNCF and DB were creatinga cooperation plan to use the sameelectrification system. The French planwas to connect the northern mining andmanufacturing areas to the LorraineValley. In Germany, a section of lineconnecting Mosel with Loure via Koblenskhad been selected for electrification.Armand also touched on the efforts ofelectric locomotive and machinerymakers such as Siemens, Oerlikon,A l s t h o m , A E G a n d S c h n e i d e r-Westinghouse, giving an outline of the

particular features of each of theirproducts. This conference was importantnot only for railway experts from SNCFand other countries, but was also anopportunity for railway manufacturerslooking to sell their products.

AC Electrification InvestigationCommittee’s European visitJNR President Nagasaki established theAC E lec t r i f i ca t ion Inves t iga t ionCommittee in JNR on his return fromFrance in August 1953 for the purpose ofinvestigating the potential for ACelectrification of the JNR network. TheCommittee dispatched a working groupof five for 73 days to Europe with thefollowing three objectives:• To participate in the Lille Conference

discussing industrial-frequency single-phase AC electric operations

• To investigate 50-Hz AC electrification• To select appropriate AC electric

locomotives for purchase andnegotiate transport to Japan

Although they visited France, Belgium,Switzerland, Britain, Norway, Sweden andGermany observing 42 railways and 22private works, the majority of the time (45days) was spent in France visiting facilitiesand negotiating the purchase and exportof electric locomotives which was thefocus of their visit. They ranked thepotential of the different companies asshown in Table 1.Based on this data, the group believedthere were three companies (with straightAs) whose locomotives were suitable.

Table 1 Potential Locomotive Suppliers

Technical Manufacturing ManufacturingProduct Overalllevel activities facilities / technology

Schneider-Westinghouse A Active A A AAlsthom A Active A A AJeumont B Active B B BOerlikon A Relatively inactive A A A




Eventually, it was decided to ask Schneider-Westinghouse to produce the ignitronswhich were combined with Alsthom-builtbogies and traction motors. It was alsodecided to ask Oerilikon to produce adirect-motor locomotive running on single-phase AC commutator motors.Subsequently, the group spent a significantamount of time and energy in negotiationswith SNCF between 16 May and 12 Julyto purchase the locomotives. JNR washoping that SNCF would negotiate ont h e i r b e h a l f w i t h t h e F r e n c hmanufacturers, but since SNCF could notlegally act as a go between for privateFrench companies, SNCF asked JNR tonegotiate directly. SNCF was also of theopinion that, although Japan was planningto purchase one unit each of twolocomotive models, if JNR was to testelectrification on the Senzan Line, itwould need a minimum of two units ofeach locomotive, and so should purchasefour. Clearly, the opinions of SNCF andJNR on the number of locomotives to bepurchased were in disagreement andnegotiations broke down. The reason onlybecame clear later when the group’sinterpreter Sukehiro Hirakawa, publishedhis memoirs Eastern Mandarin, WesternOrange. According to Hirakawa, ‘Themeeting broke down as expected.Everyone got overheated and theyreturned to the hotel. Unfortunately, theinterpretation was rather overheated aswell and the whole conversation endedin confusion.’Three negotiations with Oerlikon werecarried out from 3 June to 12 July. TheJapanese side insisted that it needed onlyone locomotive to test electrification ofthe Senzan Line, but Oerlikon needed aminimum of 10 units for a special orderfor Japan. The idea of a manufacturinglicense was also discussed and Oerlikonproduced a suggested contract but the twosides could not agree on price and noformal deal was signed.Two face-to-face negotiations were carried

out with the French manufacturers in Juneand July with Japan wanting to purchase asingle ignitron Alsthom locomotive with theignitron made by Schneider-Westinghouse.It was also explained that Japan intendedto purchase an Oerlikon direct motorlocomotive. Schneider-Westinghouseexpressed dissatisfaction at the idea of ajoint project with Alsthom, and the Frenchmanufacturers also expressed displeasureat the idea of buying a direct motorlocomotive from a Swiss maker. The Frenchside also wanted a contract for a minimumof 10 units, with two for immediatepurchase and an option on the remainingeight when tests on the Senzan Line werecompleted and the decision was taken toimplement AC electrification. Japaninsisted that it could only purchase oneignitron locomotive at first plus fourlocomotives for the second stage, sonegotiations broke down once again.The group report says ‘Since Japancurrently only wants to import one unitof each locomotive type, they (Europeanside) are afraid that these are simplygoing to be used as so-called “samples,”and, as a result, set the cost of both thelocomotive and manufacturing license ata highly disadvantageous level. Theyseem to believe the rumour that Japani s e x t r e m e l y g o o d a t c o p y i n gtechnology from various sources andare being very careful with regard toexports.’However, the main reason that JNR wasforced to restrict its purchase to one unitof each type was undoubtedly economic.A budget of ¥250 million had beenallocated for purchase of locomotives,which was all that was possible from theforeign currency allocation of theMinistry of International Trade Industry(MITI). (It may seem unbelievable, butat that time, Japan was short of foreigncurrency and the government controlledthe small amount it had.) This budgetwas just sufficient to purchase twoelectric locomotives, so there was no way

an agreement could be reached betweenFrench locomotive manufacturerslooking for export opportunities andJapan, which at that time was almost adeveloping country hoping to importlocomot ives as the f i r s t s tep inintroducing new technology.As a result, the group left Europe withoutfulfilling its third objective and its finalreport said, ‘In regard to the purchase andimport of AC electric locomotives, wespent more or less 2 weeks in negotiationson the subject but were unable to cometo any conclusions and were forced toreturn without results. We were extremelysorry that the conditions set for purchaseof the locomotives were going to causedifficulties. However, we are extremelygrateful for the good intentions of SNCF,who worked tirelessly on our behalf, andfor the efforts of Schneider-Westinghouseand M. F. Oerlikon.’But there was a positive note to thebreakdown in the purchase negotiations—during the group’s visit, a telegram hadarrived stating that JNR had nearlycomple ted i t s own AC e lec t r i clocomotive. The failure to import anelectric locomotive fuelled the desire tomanufacture locomotives domesticallya n d J N R f i n a l l y s u c c e e d e d i nmanufacturing and exporting its own ACelectric locomotives to India in the 1960s.

1955 Lille ConferenceIssue 506 of the French railway magazineLa Vie du Rail includes a photograph ofthe five Japanese delegates to the 1955Lille Conference sitting in formal attirelistening attentively to the speeches. Thecaption reads, ‘The Japanese delegationwas always extremely attentive.’ In fact,the Japanese delegates themselves werethe focus of much attention.This conference was intended to discussthe progress in AC electrification in the 4years since the 1951 conference asconfirmed by the success of SNCF’s 50-Hz AC e lec t r i f ied l ine be tween


Valenciennes and Thionville.When Armand opened the L i l leConference, he emphasized its adhesiontheme, saying that the improvement inadhesion by using industrial-frequency ACelectrification was extremely important.It was well known that heavy loadsrequiring double-heading by 4-axle steamlocomotives could be hauled by a single6-axle DC locomotive or a 16 2/3 Hz AClocomotive (such as used in prewarGermany). But the same load could evenbe hauled by a 4-axle single-phase 50-Hz AC locomotive weighing much lessthan 8- and 6-axles. As a result, the wearand tear on the rails is much reduced inturn cutting the cost of infrastructure,maintenance and the locomotives.After Armand’s speech, the conferencecontinued for 4 days, discussing electricpower, signalling and communications,locomotives and electric engines, andmany other topics. Participants alsovisited the facilities and locomotives atLille Station, which consisted of two BBlocomotives and two CC locomotives.

Implementing ACElectrification

AC Electrification InquiryCommitteeThis committee was established in August1953 and was composed of JNR engineers,university professors, public officials andrepresentatives from private manufacturingcompanies. During the relatively short twoand a half year period between September1953 and March 1956, it concurrentlysurveyed the literature, made overseas visitsand tested prototypes. Its findings werepublished in May 1956 and it wasdisbanded in February 1957, havingfulfilled its objectives.The report reached the followingconclusions. ‘The electrical substationsand rail lines required for industrial-frequency 50-Hz single-phase ACelectrification being used by France’s

SNCF are significantly simpler than thoserequired for DC systems used until now.As a result, they have been shown to beeconomically viable and display superiorpotential. This electrification has nowbeen implemented on a wide scale. TheAC Electrification Inquiry Committee has,based on these results, carried out carefulconsideration regarding implementation,and also on the geographical and climaticcharacteristics of Japan, and the currentconditions of rail transport here, as wellas our levels of technology.... As a result,we conclude that industrial-frequencysingle-phase AC electrification is the wayforward for JNR.’

Experiments on Senzan LineThe AC Electrification Inquiry Committeealso performed some AC electrificationexperiments on the 28-km Sendai–Sakunami section of the Senzan Linelinking Sendai and Yamagata in north-eastJapan. The first phase of experimentationand research was on paper only. It involvedcollecting and analyzing documents andpublished data dealing with examples ofelectrification overseas, and determiningwhether such systems would be suitablefor Japan. Approximately 10 months werespent on this from August 1953 to June1954. The results of this document researchwere as follows:

• AC electrification was consideredadvantageous for Japan.

• There were still some problems withimplementing AC electrification on alarge scale and on main lines.

• To solve these problems tests wouldbe necessary.

• The electrical system for testing shouldbe single-phase 50–20 kV AC.

At this point, the second phase oflaboratory research into prototypes oflocomotives and fixed installations(substations, lines, signalling andcommunications equipment was carriedout with the cooperation of JNR’s RailwayTechnology Research Institute (RTRI).The third practical experimentation phaseof the research was implemented betweenSeptember 1954 and March 1956. Thispractical experimentation was divided intothree parts: static testing of fixed equipmentsuch as substations, railway lines andsignalling/communications equipment;dynamic testing, in which domesticallyproduced AC electric locomotives were testrun to check their capabilities; and seconddynamic testing, in which importedlocomotives were to be tested.However, since negotiations to purchaselocomotives from France had failed, thedomestically produced direct motorED44-1 locomotive (Hitachi) was tested in

Class ED44 locomotive testing AC electrification on Senzan Line near Sendai in north Honshu(JNR Centennial Photo History)




August 1955, and the ED45-1 rectifierlocomotive (Mitsubishi Electric) wastested in September 1955. Both gavesuccessful results.The Hitachi ED44-1 was a so-calleddirect locomotive using AC commutatortraction motors. After use in the JNR ACelectri f ication experiments, theselocomotives went into commercialservice on the Senzan Line.

JNR Electrification and FrenchresponseFrance ’s rai l industry respondedobjectively to the report issued by theJapanese AC Electrification InquiryCommittee. The December 1956 issueof Revue Générale des Chemins de Fer(RGCF) reported that, ‘Japan NationalRailways has revealed that they intend touse industrial-frequency AC electrificationmethods for electrification of their 3000km of rail network. At this point, there ispresumably a need for a simple overviewof the progress of electrification, and aclarification of the reasons behind Japan’sdecision to use AC electrification systemsfor its national railway.’ Subsequent tothis introduction, the state of theelectrification of Japan’s railways isrecorded over two pages, with maps.

There is no mention of the failednegotiations to buy locomotives fromFrance. The fact that Japan succeeded indomestically producing two locomotivesand testing them to achieve these resultsis included. According to the article,Japan had started work on electrificationof its railways as early as 1906, so that by1956, approximately 10% of JNR’s 20,000km of railway lines was already electrifiedusing direct current, and electrificationhad also been carried out in Korea.H o w e v e r, a l l o f t h i s w a s D Celectrification and it was only after WWIIthat Japan began to show interest inFrance’s AC electrification systems.In the January 1958 issue of the samemagazine in, a three-page article introducesthe AC Electrification Inquiry Committee withno sense of criticism and states approvinglythat SNCF had published its findings that ACelectrification was far more economical thanDC and that JNR had at that point decided toadopt the same system.

Asian Railways ConferenceNouvion tells us the following about theAC electrification of India’s railways.‘After the 1955 Lille Conference on theAC electrification of railways usingindustrial-frequency power supply, and

after witnessing France’s SNCF achievingthe world speed record of 331 km/h, thechairman of Indian Railway (IR) requestedSNCF to visit India, carry out a survey andproduce a report into the most suitablemethods for the electrification of herrailways.’ This report was produced by ateam comprising Boulogne, Lemaire andNouvion, who spent several weeks inIndia studying the railways and submitteda r e p o r t t o I R . T h e r e p o r t ’srecommendation was that India shoulda d o p t i n d u s t r i a l - f r e q u e n c y A Celectrification, and IR agreed to this.In May 1957, India put a plan to electrify669 miles of its railway using the FrenchAC electrification methods out tointernational tender. In negotiations,Europe formed a joint venture comprisedof the UK, France, Germany, Switzerlandand Belgium and submitted a tender forAC electric locomotives at ¥70 millioneach. Japan submitted a bid based oncollaboration between Hitachi, Toshibaand Mitsubishi for AC electric locomotivesat ¥100 million each. Japan and India’snegotiations were carried out in Londonin October 1957, involving Karmail Singh,Chairman of IR, and Shiro Seki, JNR’sDeputy Director of Engineering. Seki toldSingh that ‘Japan intends to assist India sothat she can carry out this electrificationby herself,’ but the Japanese were outbidby the European joint venture. In Octoberof that year, the Indian governmentordered 100 AC electric locomotives fromEurope and 10 from Japan.After the 1956 report issued by the ACElectrification Inquiry Group, JNR pushedforward with AC electrification of linesacross Japan, drawing the attention ofother Asian countries when it succeededin AC electrification of the Sendai–Sakunami section of the Senzan Line inSeptember 1957 and the Tamura–Tsurugasection of the Hokuriku main line inOctober of the same year. Under theinitiative of JNR President Shinji Sogo(1884–1981), the Asian Railways

One of the first three Japanese DC locomotives (3000 V, 3600 hp) exported to the Indian Railway in 1958(Hitachi, Ltd.)


Conference was held in Tokyo in May1958. Singh attended and discussedJapanese cooperation in modernization ofrailways with Sogo.By June 1961, Japan’s 10 AC electriclocomotives had gone into operationwithout breakdown, gaining the trust ofIndia and the subsequent number oflocomotives exported from Japan to Indiareached 101. Interestingly, between 1957and 1960, while Japanese manufacturerswere building the first 10 locomotives tobe shipped to India, SNCF engineerNouvion, visited Japan frequently toobserve the manufacturing project. Hepraised the cooperation between theJapanese team of Hitachi, Toshiba andMitsubishi by saying, ‘Japan is lucky. Theyhave no problems in communicationbetween team members, in checkinginstruction manuals, or in achievingaccurate teamwork. In contrast, theEuropean group is comprised of peoplewho all speak different languages, and sothere are differences of interpretationregarding the instruction manuals. Also,it takes such a lot of time just gettingbetween one location and another!’

Louis Armand visits JapanAt the behest of Nouvion, former SNCFPresident Armand visited Japan in April1960 during the crest of the high-growthperiod. He visited Hitachi’s CentralResearch Institute, RTRI, JNR’s KawasakiGenerating Plant and Oi Works, Toshiba’sTsurumi Plant, Mitsubishi’s ElectricalManufacturing Plant and Sony’s Plant,affording an opportunity to see Japan’smanufacturing industry at its most active.Having retired from SNCF by now,Armand was Chairman of the EcolePoly technique and the Eura tomCommittee, in which role he also attendedan unofficial meeting with Japan’s AtomicEnergy Committee.For Shima, JNR’s Director of Engineering,the moment in which he explained theplan for the Tokaido Shinkansen to

Terushi Hara

Dr Hara is Professor of Commerce at Waseda University.

He is the author and editor of six books on commerce and business history.

Armand and gained his understanding andagreement was one of the greatest of hisl i f e . I t wa s A rmand who hadrecommended AC electrification to JNRPresident Nagasaki during their visit toFrance in 1953. The opportunity for Shima

NotePart of this article was presented at the NationalAcademic Conference of Economic History heldin 1998 at Rikkyo University, Tokyo.

Further ReadingJ. P. Arduin, Development and Economic Evolutionof High-speed in France JRTR, No 3, Oct. 1994.L. Armand, Le rôle de l’Electrification en courantindustriel 50 périodes dans la modernisation etl’Unification des chemins de fer Européens (The Roleof Electrification to Commercial 50-Hz Frequencyin the Modernization and Unification of EuropeanRailways), RGCF, Nov. 1951.J. Bouley, A Short History of High-speed Railway inFrance Before TGV, JRTR, No 3, Oct. 1994.GHQ/SCAP, History of the Nonmilitary Activities ofthe Occupation of Japan 1945 through March 1951.T. Hara, Les échanges Franco-Japonais detechnologie ferroviaire dans l’après guerre, dans LesEntreprises et leurs résaux: hommes capitaux,techniques et pouvoirs XIXe–XXe siécles, (PostwarFrench/Japanese exchanges of rail technology, inFirms and their Networks), Paris, 1998.R. Kakumoto, Tokaido Shinkansen, Chukosinsho,1964.I. Loussert, Electrification en Courant Monophasé àFréquence Industrielle des Chemins de FerNationaux Japonais ( Single-phase CurrentElectrification in Industrial Frequency of JNR), RGCF,Dec. 1956.I. Loussert, Rapport du Comité de Recherche surl’Electrification en Courant Alternatif des Cheminsde Fer Japonais (Research Committee’s Report onJapanese Railway’s AC Electrification), RGCF, Jan.1958.F. Nouvion, Temoignages et Documents—LouisArmand (Testimonies and Documents), Revued’Histoire des Chemins de Fer, No. 2, 1990.S. Seki, Watashi no tetsudo denka shosi 2–4 (APersonal History of Railway Electrification), Han

to explain the Tokaido Shinkansen toArmand typified the mutual respect andcompetitive spirit between French andJapanese railway engineers that drove thedevelopment of high-speed railways in bothnations—truly something to celebrate. �

Kotsu, Vol. 71, No 5, May 1976.S. Seki, Kokutetsu no gijutu ni tsuite (On JNRTechnologies), Han Kotsu, Vol. 77, No 5, May 1977.S. Seki, Kouryu denka no shinken keikaku(Electrification Plan), Kotsu Gijutsu, July 1954.S. Seki, Doryoku kindaika keikaku—sono syuhento haikei (Motive Power Modernization Plan—Circumstances and Background), Kotsu Gizyutu,Feb. 1976.S. Seki, Kokutet dennka no megutta michi (JNRElectrification Path), The Railway Pictorial, Nov.1976.S. Seki, Sengo sekai ni sakigaketa Joetsu-sen denka(First Postwar Electrification of Joetsu Line),Keizairondan-sha, 1987.H. Shima, Shinkansen soshite utyukaihatsu(Shinkansen and Space Development), RailwaySystem Research, 1987.H. Shima, Birth of Shinkansen—A Memoir, JRTR,No.3, october 1994.S. Sone, Kokutetsu kouryudenka no kouzai (JNRElectrification: Merits and Demerits), The RailwayPictorial, Vol. 26 No 11 Feb. 1976.Le Progrés, Haute-Savoie, Savoie, Vendredi 5 Oct.1951.Apercu des Journées d’Information sur la TractionElectrique par Courant Monophasé de FréquenceIndustrielle (An Outline of Information Sessions onElectric Traction by Single-phase Current of IndustrialFrequency), Le Vie du Rail, No 321, 1951.L’Electrification en Courant Monophasé 50 Hz etles Journées Techniques d’Information d’Annecy(Single-phase 50-Hz Electrification and TechnicalInformation Sessions at Annecy), RGCF, Nov. 1951.L’Electrification en Courant Monophasé 50 Hz dela ligne de Valenciennes à Thionville et les Journéesd’Informations de Lille (Single-phase 50-HzElectrification of the Valenciennes–Thionville Lineand Technical Information Sessions at LilleConference), RGCF, July 1955.