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REFERENCE Alfageme I, Munoz F, Pena N, Umbria S. "Empyema of the thorax in adults. Etiology, microbiologic findings, and management". Chest 1993; 103(3):839-43 Ahmed R, Marri T, Huang J. "Thoracic empyema in patients with community-acquired pneumonia". American Journal of Medicine 2006; 119(10):877-83 Maskell NA, Davies CWH, Nunn AJ, Hedley EL, Gleeson FV, Miller R, Gabe R, Rees GL, Peto TEA, Woodhead MA, Lane DJ, Darbyshire JH, Davies RJO. "U.K. controlled trial of intrapleural streptokinase for pleural infection". New England Journal of Medicine 2005; 352(9):865-74 Li S, Tancredi D. "Empyema hospitalizations increased in US children despite pneumococcal conjugate vaccine". Pediatrics 2010; 125(1):26-33 Byington CL, Spencer LY, Johnson TA, Pavia AT, Allen D, Mason EO, Kaplan S, Carroll KC, Daly JA, Christenson JC, Samore MH. "An epidemiological investigation of a sustained high rate of pediatric parapneumonic empyema: risk factors and microbiological associations". Clinical Infectious Diseases 2002; 34(4):434-40 Le Monnier A, Carbonnelle E, Zahar JR, Le Bourgeois M, Abachin E, Quesne G, Varon E, Descamps P, De Blic J, Scheinmann P, Berche P, Ferroni A. "Microbiological diagnosis of empyema in children: comparative evaluations by culture, polymerase chain reaction, and pneumococcal antigen detection in pleural fluids".

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REFERENCE

Alfageme I, Munoz F, Pena N, Umbria S. "Empyema of the thorax in adults. Etiology, microbiologic findings, and management". Chest 1993; 103(3):839-43

Ahmed R, Marri T, Huang J. "Thoracic empyema in patients with community-acquired pneumonia". American Journal of Medicine 2006; 119(10):877-83

Maskell NA, Davies CWH, Nunn AJ, Hedley EL, Gleeson FV, Miller R, Gabe R, Rees GL, Peto TEA, Woodhead MA, Lane DJ, Darbyshire JH, Davies RJO. "U.K. controlled trial of intrapleural streptokinase for pleural infection". New England Journal of Medicine 2005; 352(9):865-74

Li S, Tancredi D. "Empyema hospitalizations increased in US children despite pneumococcal conjugate vaccine". Pediatrics 2010; 125(1):26-33

Byington CL, Spencer LY, Johnson TA, Pavia AT, Allen D, Mason EO, Kaplan S, Carroll KC, Daly JA, Christenson JC, Samore MH. "An epidemiological investigation of a sustained high rate of pediatric parapneumonic empyema: risk factors and microbiological associations". Clinical Infectious Diseases 2002; 34(4):434-40

Le Monnier A, Carbonnelle E, Zahar JR, Le Bourgeois M, Abachin E, Quesne G, Varon E, Descamps P, De Blic J, Scheinmann P, Berche P, Ferroni A. "Microbiological diagnosis of empyema in children: comparative evaluations by culture, polymerase chain reaction, and pneumococcal antigen detection in pleural fluids". Clinical Infectious Diseases 2006; 42(8):1135-40

Grijalva CG, Nuorti JP, Zhu Y, Griffin MR. "Increasing incidence of empyema complicating childhood community-acquired pneumonia in the United States". Clinical Infectious Diseases 2010; 50(6):805-13

Obando I, Camacho-Lovillo MS, Porras A, Ganda-Gonzlez MA, Molinos A, Vazquez-Barba I, Morillo-Gutierrez B, Neth OW, Tarrago D. "Sustained high prevalence of pneumococcal serotype 1 in paediatric parapneumonic empyema in southern Spain from 2005 to 2009". Clinical Microbiology and Infection 2012; 18(8):763-8

Fernandez-Cotarelo MJ, Lopez-Medrano F, San, Juan R, Az-Pedroche C, Lizasoain M, Chaves F, Aguado JM, San Juan R, Diaz-Pedroche C. "Protean manifestations of pleural empyema caused by Streptococcus pneumoniae in adults". European Journal of Internal Medicine 2007; 18:141-5

King S, Thomson A. "Radiological perspectives in empyema". British Medical Bulletin 2002; 61:203-14Balfour-Lynn IM, Abrahamson E, Cohen G, Hartley J, King S, Parikh D, Spencer D, Thomson AH, Urquhart D. "BTS guidelines for the management of pleural infection in children". Thorax 2005; 60(Suppl 1):1-21

Ferrer A, Osset J, Alegre J, Suriach JM, Crespo E, Fernndez de Sevilla T, Fernndez F. "Prospective clinical and microbiological study of pleural effusions". European Journal of Clinical Microbiology and Infectious Diseases 1999; 18(4):237-41Davies H, Davies R, Davies C. "Management of pleural infection in adults: British Thoracic Society Pleural Disease Guideline 2010". Thorax 2010; 65(Suppl 2):41-53

Sasse S, Nguyen TK, Mulligan M, Wang NS, Mahutte CK, Light RW. "The effects of early chest tube placement on empyema resolution". Chest 1997; 111(6):1679-83

Heffner JE, Brown LK, Barbieri C, DeLeo JM. "Pleural fluid chemical analysis in parapneumonic effusions. A meta-analysis". American Journal of Respiratory Critical Care Medicine 1995; 151(6):1700-8Rahman NM, Maskell NA, West A, Teoh R, Arnold A, Mackinlay C, Peckham D, Davies CWH, Ali N, Kinnear W, Bentley A, Kahan BC, Wrightson JM, Davies HE, Hooper CE, Lee Y C, Hedley EL, Crosthwaite N, Choo L, Helm EJ,Gleeson FV, Nunn AJ, Davies RJO. "Intrapleural use of tissue plasminogen activator and DNase in pleural infection". New England Journal of Medicine 2011; 365(6):518-26

Ferguson AD, Prescott RJ, Selkon JB, Watson D, Swinburn CR. "The clinical course and management of thoracic empyema". Quarterly Journal of Medicine 1996; 89(4):285-9Teixeira LR, Sasse SA, Villarino MA, Nguyen T, Mulligan ME, Light RW. "Antibiotic levels in empyemic pleural fluid". Chest 2000; 117(6):1734-9Umut S, Demir T, Akkan G, Keskiner N, Yilmaz V, Yildrim N, Sipahioglu B, Hasan A, Barlas A, Sozer K, Ozuner Z. "Penetration of ciprofloxacin into pleural fluid". Journal of Chemotherapy 1993; 5(2):110-2Davies CW, Kearney SE, Gleeson FV, Davies RJ. "Predictors of outcome and long-term survival in patients with pleural infection". American Journal of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine 1999; 160(5-1):1682-7