1

Reducing Pesticide Risks: A Half Century of Progress

Susan Wayland and Penelope Fenner-Crisp

EPA Alumni Association March 1, 2016

2

TheEPAAlumniAssociation(EPAAAA)hasdevelopedthisandsixotherweb-basedsubjectmatteressaysinsupportofitsHalfCenturyofProgressproject.AnintegratedsummarybasedonthesematerialsiscontainedinProtectingtheEnvironment:AHalfCenturyofProgress,whichisavailableontheAssociationwebsite.TheAssociationhasdevelopedthesematerialstoinformhighschoolandcollegestudentsandothermembersofthepublicaboutthemajorenvironmentalproblemsandissuesencounteredintheUnitedStatesinthelatterhalfofthe20thcentury,aswellastheactionstakenandprogressmadeinmitigatingtheseproblems.

AnumberofretiredEPAprogrammanagersandsubjectmatterexpertsworkedtogethertoproduceeachoftheessays.ThisdocumentwasreviewedbytheEPAAABoardofDirectorandmembersoftheassociation.Wewelcomecommentsonthisdocument,whichyoumaysubmittotheEPAAlumniAssociation.

3

ReducingPesticideRisks:AHalfCenturyofProgressBEFORE1970Inthebeginningofthe20thcentury,pesticideswereviewedprimarilyasthefarmers’friend.Thefirstlawregulatingpesticides,passedin1910,wasallaboutprotectingfarmersfromfraudulentclaims.TheU.S.DepartmentofAgriculture(USDA)wasrequiredtoensurethequalityandeffectivenessofproducts,butlittleornoconcernwasgiventothepotentialeffectsonhumans,wildlife,ortheenvironmentingeneral.TheninWorldWarII,soldierswereprotectedfromdiseasebythe“miracle”pesticideDDT,whichkilledinsectsreallywell.ItswartimebenefitssoonspreadwidelytovirtuallyallaspectsofcivilianAmericanlife,includinguseonalargevarietyoffoodcrops,inthehome,andasaweaponagainstinsectsthatcarrieddisease.DDTwascelebratedasawonderfulweaponagainstbugsthatwasharmlesstopeople,asillustratedinthisadfromTIMEmagazinein1947:

Thatsameyear,CongresspassedtheFederalInsecticide,FungicideandRodenticideAct(FIFRA),whichrequiredthefederalgovernmenttoapprove(orregister)productsbeforetheyenteredthemarketplace.Again,societyatlargewasnotfocusedonthepotentialadverseeffectsoftheballooningnumberofpesticidesenteringeverydaylife.Butthen!RachaelCarson,amarinebiologistbytraining,shookuptheworldin1962withthepublicationofSilentSpring.ReferringtoworkbeingdonebytheU.S.FishandWildlife

4

Serviceandothers,Ms.CarsondescribedthenegativeeffectsofDDTonwildlife.Shewarnedthatcontinuedheavyuseofpesticidescouldsomedayleadtoaspringwithoutbirdsong.Thiswasamajorwakeupcallregardingthepotentialunintendedeffectsofpesticidesonlivingthings.Thescientificevidencebegantomount.DDTandtheproductsthatDDTbrokedownintowerefoundtobeverylonglastingintheenvironment.Organismsatthebottomofthefoodchainstoreditintheirtissues,andasanimalshigherinthefoodchainfedonthem,thelevelsofDDTintheirbodiesconcentratedandincreased(aprocesscalled“biomagnification,”depictedinthefigurebelow).Birdsofpreyinparticularaccumulatedhighlevelsofthepesticide,leadingtothinningofeggshellsandasharpdeclineinthebirthandsurvivalofbabybirds.Atthetopofthefoodchain,humanswerebecomingexposedthroughtheirdietsandtheairtheybreathed.DDTwasfoundtoaccumulateinhumanfattissue,toexposedevelopingbabiesbeforetheywereborn,andtooccurinmothers’milk.

Moreover,evidencewasbuildingthatDDTcausedtumorsinmice,andthuscouldbeapotentialcauseofcancerinhumans.Thescienceaboutcancereffectswascontroversial,sincethescientificcommunitywasjustbeginningtodeveloptestingmethodstoidentifypotentialhumancarcinogens(cancer-causingagents).Inthemeantime,otherpesticideschemicallysimilartoDDTwerebeingdevelopedandusedwidelyinagriculture,aswellasinhomes,schools,andotherpublicbuildings.

THEESTABLISHMENTOFEPAIN1970AsotheressaysinthisHalfCenturyofProgressserieshaveillustrated,bytheendofthe1960stherewasmountingevidenceofpollutionacrossair,land,andwater,andademandforactionfromthepublic.PublicawarenessandoutrageledtotheestablishmentofEPAandthepassageofcriticalnewlawsacrosstheboard.USDA’spesticidedutiesweretransferredtoEPAwhentheAgencywascreatedin1970.In1972,CongresspassedmajoramendmentstoFIFRAthatrequiredthenewlyformedEPAtoassessthepotentialrisksofpesticidestohumans,wildlife,andtheenvironment,andto

5

takeactionagainstpesticideswhoseriskswerefoundtoexceedtheirbenefits.Pesticidesalreadyneededtobeapprovedbeforebeingfederallyregisteredandsoldonthemarket.Anotherearlierlaw,theFederalFood,Drug,andCosmeticAct,requiredthatresiduesofpesticidesremainingonfoodneededtobeapprovedwiththeestablishmentofspecificnumericallimits(“tolerances”)foreachpesticideandcropcombination.In1972,EPAbanned(or“cancelled”)virtuallyallusesofDDTinalandmarkdecisionmadebythefirstEPAAdministrator,WilliamRuckelshaus.Thenduringthelate1970s,EPAbegantheprocesstobanpesticideschemicallysimilartoDDT(calledorganochlorines),includingaldrin,dieldrin,chlordane,heptachlor,toxaphene,andmirex.Theearlydecisionswerehighlyvisibleandcontroversial,withmanyintheagriculturalcommunitypredictingdireconsequencesforfoodproduction.Manypesticideproponentsraisedalarmsaboutepidemicsofinsect-bornediseasesandquestionedthepracticeoffeedinganimalshighdosesofchemicalstodeterminecancer-causingpotential.However,alternativestothecancelledpesticidesweredeveloped,andagriculturalproductionhascontinuedtothriveoverthedecades.Notonlyisthereamplefoodtofeedourownpopulation,butalsoagriculturalexportshavesteadilyincreased,reachingarecord$140.9billionin2013accordingtoUSDA.Butin1972,whenthelawwasamendedandDDTwasbanned,itwasabundantlyclearthatthescientificdatauponwhichcomprehensiveriskassessmentscouldbemadewerewoefullylackingformostpesticides.Asaresult,anextensiveeffortwasbegunto“callin”scientificstudies.Pesticideregistrants,primarilythepesticidemanufacturers,wereresponsibleforconductingthetesting.Informedbythenewdata,EPAwasrequiredbylawtodecidewhethereachpesticidesoldintheUnitedStatesshouldcontinuetobemarketed(throughaprocessknownas“reregistration”),andwhetherthebenefitsofeachusepatternexceededtherisks.Pesticideriskisdeterminedbyfactoringinpotentialadverseeffectswithpotentialexposure.Thiswasparticularlychallenging,asEPAscientists,withpeerreviewfromthescientificcommunity,hadtofirstdevelopthetestingguidelinesandprotocolsforabroadrangeofpotentialriskeffects.Testsneededtoprovideinformationonhazardandexposure,includingacutetoxicity(theextenttowhichthechemicalcausedimmediateeffects),birthdefects,cancer,andenvironmentalfate.Atthesametime,theabilitytodetectpesticidesinfoodandtheenvironmentinsmallerandsmallerquantitieswasadvancing.Intheearlydaysofmodernagriculture,pesticidescouldbedetectedonlyatpartspermillionlevels.Later,pesticideresiduesintherangeofpartsperbillioncouldbefound.Analyticmethodsnowcandetectpartspertrillionorless.Apartpertrillionissosmallitisequivalenttoonebadappleintwobillionbarrels.

6

CONCRETEANDMEASURABLEACTIONS

TherearehundredsofexamplesofhowEPAhasmovedtoprotectthepublicandtheenvironmentfrompesticiderisks.Thisessayillustratestwosuchstories:DDTandthebaldeagle,andpesticidereregistration.

BaldEagleontheBrink

Ournation’ssymbol,themajesticbaldeagle,wasonthevergeofextinctionbecauseoftheeggshellthinningcausedbyaccumulationofDDTandthechemicalsthatresultedfromitsbreakdownintheenvironment,suchastheformationofDDE(dichlorodiphenyldichloroethylene),andhumanactivityinnestingandroostingareas.EPA’sbanonDDTwascriticaltotherecoveryofthebaldeagle,thebrownpelican,andtheperegrinefalcon.ProtectionsaffordedbytheEndangeredSpeciesAct,administeredwiththeU.S.FishandWildlifeService,alsoaidedinrecovery.

Ittookyearsofscientificstudy,trial-likeadministrativehearings,andreviewbythecourtsbeforeDDTanditschemicalcousinswerenolongerreleasedtothenation’sair,land,andwater.Evenaftertheban,ittookyears—evendecades—beforeresiduelevelsdeclinedsignificantly.EPA’sDDTactionswereaggressivelychallenged,withpredictionsofgloomanddoomforcropproductionanddiseasecontrol.Theproceduralandpublicopinioncontroversiesswirledforyears.ButAdministratorRuckelshausstoodfirm,thecourtsbackedEPAup,andtheresultsprovedthecorrectnessoftheEPAdecisions.

BecauseDDTandits“classmates”aresopersistent,extensivemonitoringoftheenvironment,plants,andanimalshasbeenconducted,beginningbeforeDDT’scancellationin1972andcontinuingtothisday.Manystudiesshowdownwardtrendsinexposureovertimeinmanywildlifepopulations.Forinstance,in2005Canadianresearchers1notedthatDDTlevelssignificantlydeclinedinanimals

andorganismsintheCanadianArcticfromthe1970stothelate1990s;andtodaytheyaregenerallylessthanhalfthelevelsofthe1970s,particularlyinseabirdsandringedseals.Anotherstudyin20052measureddeclinesof4-to7-foldinDDTlevelsineggsfromcoloniesofherringgullsfromLakesOntarioandMichigan

between1971and1982.Athirdstudy3thatyearreportedacontinuousdecreaseinDDTconcentrationsinpenguindroppingsoverthepast50years.Yetanotherstudy4

7

documentedthedeclineinDDTbreakdownproductsby50%ormoreinospreyeggsin1998relativeto1989,withsimilarreductionsinthefishthattheospreyseat.

Andwhatagreatendtothestory!Inthelate1990sandearly2000s,thebaldeagle,brownpelican,andperegrinefalconweretakenoff(delistedfrom)theEndangeredSpeciesListbecauseoftheirreboundingpopulations.Otherbirdspecieshavebeenseentostabilizeandincreasetheirnumbersaswell.Thisturnaroundwouldn’thavehappenedwithoutEPA’sgroundbreakingscienceandstrongstandinthefaceofcontroversy.Italsoillustratesthatenvironmentalprogressdoesn’tnecessarilyhappenovernight—ecologicalsystemsmayneeddecadestorecoverafteradecisionismade.

NewScientificStandardsforOldPesticides

Asmentionedearlier,EPAhadtoconfrontamountainofpesticidedecisionsthathadtobeupdatedaccordingtomodernstandards.EPAwentaboutthisenormoustaskinastrategicway.SpurredonbyamendmentstoFIFRAin1988,itgroupedover1,100activeingredientsusedinover40,000productsinto“cases”ofsimilarchemicals.EPAidentifiedanorderofreviewforthosecasesthatwouldbeofthemostbenefittothepublicintheshortestamountoftime.Itassumedthatpesticidesusedonfoodcropshadthehighestpotentialforexposureandrisk,sothosechemicalswerereviewedfirst.Theremainingchemicalsweresetforreviewaccordingtootherpotentialrisks,includinghumanrisk(forexample,residuesindrinkingwaterorexposuretoworkersinthefieldorinthepestcontrolbusiness)andrisktonontargetspecies(suchasbeneficialinsects,birds,fish,andotherwildlife).

Pesticidesaretestedmorethoroughlythananykindsofchemicalsotherthandrugs.Apesticideusedonfoodrequiresover100differentteststodetermine,forexample,itspotentialtocausecancer,birthdefects,andacutepoisoning;impactsonbirds,fish,andothernontargetwildlife;damagetothenervoussystem;itsresiduelevelsincrops;itslongevityintheenvironment;anditspotentialtoreachgroundandsurfacewaters.

Thepesticideindustryhadtomakeitsowndecisionsaboutwhichofitsregisteredproductswouldbesupportedwithnewtesting.Providingthetestdatawasexpensive,andover220casesandtheirassociatedproductsweredroppedbyindustry.

Andevenasreregistrationwasmovingdownthetrack,Congresschangedtherequirementsforreviewoffood-usepesticidesinamajorway.Alawpassedin1996,theFoodQualityProtectionAct,requiredthatEPAreviewallexisting9,700foodtolerancesovera10-yearperiod.Tolerances,asdescribedearlier,arethemaximumamountsofapesticideoritsbreakdownproductsthatcanremaininfoodproductsconsumedbypeopleoranimals.TheActalsorequiredthatEPAaddanadditionalsafetyfactortoprotectchildren,lookatrisksfrommultiplepathwaysofexposure,anddevelopascreeningprogramtodeterminetheeffectsofpesticidesonhormonalsystems(endocrinedisruptors).

8

Becausepesticidesareusedworldwide,andfoodistradedwidelybetweencountries,EPAhadastronginterestincoordinatingreviewswithothercountriesandinternationalbodiestodevelopconsistentassessmentguidelinesandregulatorydecisions.ExtensiveeffortsweremadewithinternationalorganizationsandtradingpartnerstoharmonizeU.S.approaches.Thisallowedforsomesharingoftheworkload.Evenmoreimportant,harmonizationalsoworkstocombattheU.S.importationoffoodsthatcouldbetreatedabroadwithpesticidesbannedintheUnitedStates.

Theanalysesrequiredduringreregistrationandtolerancereviewrepresentedamonumentalandcomplexundertaking.Thousandsofnewscientificstudieswererequired,submitted,andreviewed.Reregistrationultimatelyresultedintheeliminationofhundredsofactiveingredientsandproducts,manyofwhichwerecapableofcausingharmfuleffectsinhumansandotherorganisms.

Thereviewofthealmost10,000oldfoodresiduetoleranceswascompletedin2007,andthereregistrationprogramwascompletedin2008.

Thehistoryoftheorganophosphatepesticidesinreregistrationandtolerancereassessmentprovidesagoodexampleofpublichealthandenvironmentalprotection.Organophosphatesarehighlytoxicchemicals,andcameunderspecialscrutinywiththefollowingresults:

9

Theeffectivenessoftheprogramsisalsoillustratedbythedecreaseintheuseofcarbamates(forexample,aldicarb(Temik),carbofuran(Furadan)andcarbaryl(Sevin),andorganophospates(forexample,parathion,malathion,chlorpyrifos,anddiazinon).

Inshort,theconclusionofthereregistrationandtolerancereassessmentprocessesmarkedanenormousmilestoneinensuringthesafetyoftheU.S.foodsupplyandtheprotectionofhumanandecologicalhealth.

THEFUTURE

Oneimportantlessonlearnedovertheyearsisthatsciencealwaysmovesforward—relentlessly.EPArecognizedthatithadtodosomethingtomakesurethatfuturedecisionmakersneverhavetofaceabigbacklogofout-of-datedeterminationsagain.So,the1996FoodQualityProtectionActincludedaprovisionthatallpesticidesmustbereevaluatedonastaggered,butregular,basis(every15years)inaprocesstermed“registrationreview.”Thiswillensurethat,evenassciencemovesforward,EPAnevergetsintothebinditconfrontedin1972whenriskassessmentsonhundredsofactiveingredientsweredecadesoutofdate.

Emergingscienceintherealmofpesticideregulationpresentssomeparticularchallenges,including:

• ToxicityTesting.In2007,theNationalResearchCouncil,anarmoftheNationalAcademyofSciences,issuedareportpresentingavisionandapathforwardforwholesaletransformationofthetraditionalapproachestotoxicitytesting.5Historically,whendeterminingrisk,scientistsreliedprimarilyonobservingharmfuleffectsinsimilargroupsofanimalsexposedtorelativelyhighdosesofchemicals.Thisapproachisexpensive,timeconsuming,andviewedasinhumanebyanimalrightsgroups.Relativelyfewexistingchemicalsotherthanpesticides

10

havebeenevaluatedforrisk.Importantfactsabouthowchemicalsinteractintherealworldremainunknown.Thescientificcommunitystillhaslittleinformationonhowchemicalsproducetheireffects,whichiscriticalforunderstandingdifferencesbetweenspecies—orbetweenindividualhumanbeings,forthatmatter.

Atthecoreofthepathforwardisashiftfromcollectingobservationsinwholeanimalstotheidentificationofthewayschemicalsaffectanimalcells.Thisisopeningthedoortotheuseofmanynewtoolsthatareprovidingknowledgeaboutbiologicprocessesandfunctions.

Traditionalmethodsarebeingreplacedbycomputer-basedtoolsandshort-termassaysthatrequirelessornoanimaltissue.Someshort-termassayscanbeconductedbymachines(robotics),sothatmanychemicalscanbetestedatmultipledoseswithinhourstodays,ratherthanweekstoyears.

• EndocrineDisruptors.Asmentionedearlier,the1996FoodQualityProtectionActrequiredEPAtoscreenpesticidechemicalsfortheirpotentialtoproduceeffectssimilartothoseproducedbythefemalehormones(estrogens)inhumans.Endocrinesystemsinanimalsproducehormonesthatsend“messages”tothebodythataffectgrowth,includingphysical,intellectual,andreproductivedevelopment.Endocrinedisruptorsaffecthowthosemessagesaresentinanimals,andsomehavebeenshowntoproduceeffectsintheoffspringofexposedmothers. ThelawalsogaveEPAtheauthoritytoscreenotherkindsofchemicalsandtoincludeotherendocrineeffects.Basedonrecommendationsfromanadvisorycommittee,EPAexpandeditsEndocrineDisruptorScreeningProgramtoincludemalehormones(androgens)andthethyroidsystem,andtoincludeeffectsonfishandotherwildlife.

Executingacredibleandefficientendocrinetestingprogramisaformidablechallenge.Newmethodsarebeingdevelopedatarapidpace.Theendocrinetestingprogramisbeingpropelledbymoreandmoredatafromseveralfederalprogramsandpublicconcern.Sofar,EPAhascollectedestrogenscreeningresultsfor1,800chemicals(someofwhicharepesticides).

VS..

11

• Biotechnology.Whenplantsaregeneticallymodifiedusinggeneticmaterialfromadifferentspecieseithertorepelbugsortoresisttheeffectsofherbicides,theyfallunderEPA’spurview.Geneticmodificationofcropsisaverycontroversialissue.Manyenvironmentalandconsumeradvocatesareopposedtothispractice,eitherongeneralprincipleortheargumentthattheirsafetyhasnotbeenestablishedadequately.Thoseadvocatesoftenciteinsufficienttestingtoassessharmtohumanhealthortheenvironment.Othersseebiotechnologyasamajorstepforwardinfeedingtheworld’spopulation.Thereremainsstrongdisagreementonwhethertheyieldsofgeneticallymodifiedcropsgrownbytraditionalfarmingcanorwillexceedthoseofconventionalcropsgrownaccordingtotheprinciplesofsustainableagriculture.Sustainableagriculturetakesintoaccountanunderstandingofwholeecosystemstointegrateknowledgeofmanynaturalandbiologicalprocesses,andmovesawayfromthemassiveone-crop-at-a-timeapproach.

Somecountriesdonotallowimportsofgeneticallymodifiedcornorothercommodities,andintheUnitedStatestheterm“organic”maynotbeappliedtogeneticallymodifiedproduce.

Governmentregulatorshavealreadyapprovedorarereviewinggeneticengineeringofseverallargevolumecrops,suchascorn,soybean,canola,sugarbeets,potato,papaya,squash,radicchio,flax,tomato,andplums.Geneticengineeringisanareathatwillcontinuetogrowandwilldemandmoregovernmentscrutinyandreview.

• Declineinnumberandpopulationsofspecies.TheWorldWildlifeFundInternationalissuesaLivingPlanetIndex,whichmeasuresmorethan10,000representativepopulationsofmammals,birds,reptiles,amphibians,andfish.Its2014reportnotesthatthetotalnumberofanimalsinallofthesespecieshasdeclinedby52percentsince1970.Mostofthatchangecanbeattributedtohumanactivitiesthattakemorefromourecosystemsthancanberenewed.

Useofpesticidesisimplicatedinbeingand,insomecaseshasbeendemonstratedtobe,acontributingfactortothisdeclineinspecies.DeclineinthenumbersofMonarchbutterflies,honeybees,andfrogsrepresentjustthreeexamplesforwhichpesticideusedoesormayplayarole.

Monarchbutterfly:TheMonarchandotherbutterfliesareimportantpollinatorsofflowers.Milkweedistheonlyplantonwhichmonarchbutterflieswilllaytheireggs.ItistheprimaryfoodsourceforMonarchcaterpillars.Between1995and2013,

12

milkweeddecreasedby21percentintheUnitedStates.6Anestimated550millionMonarchscompletedthewintermigrationtoMexicoin2004,butonly33millionarrivedin2013.7Contributingfactorstothedeclineincludelarge-scaleuseofherbicides,increasedplantingofcorn,lossofoldforestsinMexico,adverseweatherconditions,andillegallogging.8IntheUnitedStates,milkweedisdestroyedalongroadsidesforaestheticreasonsandwithinoralongtheedgesofcropfields,eitherpurposefullyorasaconsequenceofpesticidesdriftingawayfromsprayedfields.EPAandothergovernmentagenciesareworkingtogetherathomeandalsowithMexicoandCanadatoshedmorelightontheseproblemsandtofindnewsolutions.

Honeybees:Honeybeesarecriticalplayersinthepollinationofagriculturalcrops.Theyareusedtopollinatebillions ofdollars’worthofthenation’sagriculturalproduceeachyear.Wellover 125fruitsandvegetablesarecross-pollinatedbyhoneybees.Manyofthesecrops arenotself-pollinating.Commercialandwild beesareresponsibleforthepollinationof an estimated80%ofallfoodcropsinthe UnitedStates.

Buthoneybeepopulationshavebeendyingoffatextraordinaryratesinrecentyears,sometimesgreaterthan50%overawinterseason.TheprevailingtheoryamongscientistsinEPA,USDA,andtheglobalscientificcommunityisthatthegeneraldeclininghealthofhoneybeesisrelatedtocomplexinteractionsamongmultiplefactors,9including:

o Pests(forexample,thevarroamite),pathogens(forexample,thebacterialdiseaseAmericanfoulbrood),andviruses;

o Poornutrition(forexample,fromlossofforaginghabitatandincreasedrelianceonsupplementaldiets);

o Beemanagementpractices(forexample,longmigratoryroutestosupportpollination);

o Lackofgeneticdiversity;ando Pesticideexposure.

Aclassofpesticideschemicallyrelatedtonicotinecalled“neonicotinoids”affectsinsects’nervoussystems.TheEuropeanUnionhasmovedtolimittheuseofneonicotinoidpesticidesforatleasttwoyearsstartinginDecember2013;however,EPAhasnotproposedanycancellationsorbans.Whileresearchisongoingandsomemodeststepshavebeentakeninthiscountry,muchremainstobedone.

Frogs:Frogsandotheramphibians(greaterthan7,000knownspecies)arethreatenedworldwide.10Arecentassessmentoftheentiregroup11found

13

thatnearlyone-third(32%)oftheworld’samphibianspeciesarethreatened,representing1,856species.Injustthelasttwodecades,about168speciesarebelievedtohavegoneextinct,andatleast2,469(43%)morehavepopulationsthataredeclining.

Aswiththehoneybee,interactionsofmanyfactorsarethoughttoberesponsibleforthedeclines.Likelyandconfirmedfactorsinclude:

o Habitatdestruction;o Introduced(non-native) species;

o Climatechange;o Ultraviolet-Bradiation;o Disease;and...

o Chemical Contaminants:Chemicalstressors(forexample pesticides,heavymetals,acidification,andnitrogenbasedfertilizers)canharmamphibians.Theeffectsmayincludedeath,decreasedgrowthrates,developmentalandbehavioralabnormalities,decreasedreproductivesuccess,weakenedimmunesystems,and/orgenderchanges.Asubstantialbodyofpeer-reviewedstudiesinthescientificliteraturesupportsthesefindings.AparticularlyusefulresourceistheanalysisperformedtoprovidetheEuropeanFoodSafetyAgencywithinformationrelatingtoassessmentofrisktoEuropeanspeciesofaquaticandterrestrialamphibiansposedbypesticideexposure.12ItislikelythatrisksintheU.S.settingwouldbecomparable.

Noamphibian-specifictestingrequirementsexisttosupporttheU.S.registrationofpesticides.Ingeneral,EPAusesbirdtoxicitydataasasurrogateforland-basedreptilesandamphibians,andtherequiredfishtoxicitydataasasurrogateforaquatic-phaseamphibians.Atpresent,noEPAresearchprojectsaredirectedatissuesrelatedspecificallytoamphibians—again,moreworkforthefuture.

• Nanotechnology.Nano-sizedmaterials(1to100billionthsofameter)can,andoftendo,havephysicalpropertiesfundamentallydifferentfromthoseoftheirlargercounterparts.Therefore,theymayalsopossessverydifferenttoxicitycharacteristicsandpotentialrisks.Manydifferentcategoriesofproductsusenanoscalematerials,includinghouseholdappliances,automobiles,coatings,electronicsandcomputers,foodandbeverage,medicaldevicesanddrugs,clothing,andpersonalcareproducts.Manyoftheseproductswereintroducedintocommercewithoutanypriorevaluationofthepotentialforrisktohumanorenvironmentalhealth.

14

Nanoscalematerialsintendedtobeusedinwaysthatmeetthelegaldefinitionofapesticidearebeingevaluatedonacase-by-casebasis.EPAdetermineswhetheritisa“new”activeorinertingredientforpurposesofthelaw,evenwhenanidentical,non-nanoscaleformofthenanoscaleingredientisalreadyregistered.

Asdescribedearlier,producersofpesticideproductsmustsubmitscientificandtechnicaldataforEPAreviewtoensurethattheuseofapesticidewillnotcauseunreasonableadverseeffectsonhumanhealthortheenvironment.However,themajorchallengesfacingthescientificcommunitynowaretherelativemeagerbodyofdatacharacterizingthetoxicityofthesematerialscomparedwiththeirlarger-sizedcounterparts.Validatedtestingprotocolsarelackingandneedtobedeveloped.TheproductsthatarenotpesticideswillbeaddressedthroughtheToxicSubstancesControlAct,asdiscussedinthatessayinthisseries.

Todate,EPAhasconditionallyregisteredonlytwonanomaterialpesticideproductsasnewactiveingredientsforaperiodoffouryears.Again,moreresearchandtestingneedtooccurinthetotacklethisimportantareaofnewconcern.

15

CONCLUSION

Thejobisneverdone!EPAneedstocontinuetoleadthewayindevelopingmeasuresofrisksofpesticidesandindeterminingwaystoprotectthepublicandenvironmentfromanyadverseeffects.Assciencemarcheson,somustthepracticesofregulatorswhoguardthefutureofourchildren,wildlife,andenvironment.

_______________________________________________________________________________________________

Endnotes:1. Brauneetal.(2005)2. NorstromandHerbert(2005)3. Sunetal.(2005)4. Clarketal.(2001)5. NRC(2007)6. Smith(2014).7. Rendon-Salinas,E.,andTavera-Alonso,G.(2014)8. Flockhartetal.,20149. U.S.EPA,2014a10. AmphibiaWeb.org,201411. iucnredlist.org/amphibians12. FrydayandThompson,2012

References:

AmphibiaWeb.org.2014.WorldwideAmphibianDeclines:Howbigistheproblem,whatarethecausesandwhatcanbedone?(availableathttp://amphibiaweb.org/declines/declines.html)(Note:AmphibiaWebwascreatedinconjunctionwiththeDigitalLibraryProjectattheUniversityofCalifornia,Berkeley).

BrauneBMetal.(2005).PersistentorganicpollutantsandmercuryinmarinebiotaoftheCanadianArctic:anoverviewofspatialandtemporaltrends.SciTotalEnviron.351-352:4-56.

BruhlC.etal(2014).Terrestrialpesticideexposureofamphibians:Anunderestimatedcauseofglobaldecline?ScientificReports3:1135(availableathttp://www.nature.com/srep/2013/130124/srep01135/full/srep01135.html).

ClarkKE,etal.(2001).ChangesincontaminantlevelsinNewJerseyospreyeggsandprey,1989to1998.ArchEnvironContamToxicol.40(2):277-84.

FederalRegister,Vol.37,No.131,Friday,July7,1972:June30,1972OpinionandOrderofAdministratorRuckelshausConcerningtheRegistrationsofProductsConcerningDDT.

16

Flockhartetal.(2014).Unravellingtheannualcycleinamigratoryanimal:breeding-seasonhabitatlossdrivespopulationdeclinesofmonarchbutterfliesJournalofAnimalEcology(PublishedonlineJune25,2014)).

Fryday,S.andThompson,H.(2012).Toxicityofpesticidestoaquaticandterrestriallifestagesofamphibiansandoccurrence,habitatuseandexposureofamphibianspeciesinagriculturalenvironments.SupportingPublications2012:EN-343. [348pp.].Availableonline:www.efsa.europa.eu/publications.

NorstromRJ,andHebertCE.(2006).Comprehensivere-analysisofarchivedherringgulleggsreconstructshistoricaltemporaltrendsinchlorinatedhydrocarboncontaminationinLakeOntarioandGreenBay,LakeMichigan,1971-1982.JEnvironMonit.8(8):835-47.

NRC.(2007).NationalResearchCouncil.ToxicityTestingintheTwenty-firstCentury:AVisionandAStrategy.NationalAcademyPress,Washington,DC.

PereraFP,etal(2003).Effectsoftransplacentalexposuretoenvironmentalpollutantsonbirthoutcomesinamultiethnicpopulation.EnvironHealthPerspect.111(2):201-5.

RauhVA,etal(2006).Impactofprenatalchlorpyrifosexposureonneurodevelopmentinthefirst3yearsoflifeamonginner-citychildren.Pediatrics.118(6):e1845-59.

RauhV,etal(2011).Seven-yearneurodevelopmentalscoresandprenatalexposuretochlorpyrifos,acommonagriculturalpesticide.EnvironHealthPerspect.119(8):1196-2.

Rendon-Salinas,E.andTavera-Alonso,G.(2014).ForestSurfaceOccupiedbyMonarchButterflyHibernationColoniesinDecember2013.WorldWildlifeFund(availableathttp://www.worldwildlife.org/stories/monarch-population-hits-lowest-point-in-more-than-20-years).

Smith,LN.(2014).MonarchButterfly'sReignThreatenedbyMilkweedDeclineUseofherbicidesintheU.S.iscausingadeclineinplantsessentialforthegoldenicon.NationalGeographicmagazine.PublishedonlineAugust29,2014(availableathttp://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2014/08/140819-monarch-butterfly-milkweed-environment-ecology-science/).

SunLG,YinXB,PanCP,WangYH.(2005).A50-yearsrecordofdichloro-diphenyl-trichloroethanesandhexachlorocyclohexanesinlakesedimentsandpenguindroppingsonKingGeorgeIsland,MaritimeAntarctic.JEnvironSci(China).17(6):899-905.

USDA,ReleaseNo.0215.B,StatementfromAgricultureSecretaryTomVilsackonU.S.AgriculturalExportsin2013,November14,2013.

USEPA.2014a.USEnvironmentalProtectionAgency.PollinatorHealthConcerns(availableathttp://www2.epa.gov/pollinator-protection/pollinator-health-concerns).

17

USEPA.2014b.USEnvironmentalProtectionAgency.EPAActionstoProtectPollinators(availableathttp://www2.epa.gov/pollinator-protection/schedule-review-neonicotinoid-pesticides).

USEPA.(http://www2.epa.gov/ingredients-used-pesticide-products/ddt-brief-history-and-status)

USEPA.(http://www.epa.gov/oppfead1/cb/csb_page/updates/2015/protecting-monarch-butterfly.html)

USEPA.(http://yosemite.epa.gov/opa/admpress.nsf/d0cf6618525a9efb85257359003fb69d/77377414ba7ebc5885257e68006ea110!OpenDocument).

USEPA.http://www2.epa.gov/safepestcontrol/food-and-pesticides#restrict

Photocredits:

p.1,cropduster,photobyRogerSmith,CreativeCommons,https://www.flickr.com/photos/rogersmith/871335892/in/photolist-58vMRZ-oenCYT-8r65N5-oeoAkP-phpuaJ-2jZPNC-qPShPc-6x4KNY-ekbccx-bU7r7B-exuzst-srLZN3-dhFsXE-paz6z3-6tfWrQ-aeJztV-ejRUe-pcUc37-gfws3b-ro5hrW-fiBVt5-5VLbpi-6hugHP-rTg4H6-2CsPS-oZWijT-6Vy6Jj-a1DSf3-9qLBre-ej8uBX-rBTnQv-f952Yb-gZs7Lr-rkBFvM-a1ERuJ-fiBvGw-a4Se9F-cvpLJ3-4WF2jJ-nbYtq7-25JMu7-cFX3HW-6PLhZY-eWv481-4WF2W1-4WF2AU-a88tWA-86EiqU-e3aU5t-aiZJvw , no changes made.

p.2, DDT biomagnification figure, copyright© Pearson Education, Inc, publishing as BenjaminCummings. No changes made. Available at:https://www.google.com/search?q=ddt+biomagnification&biw=1600&bih=763&tbm=isch&tbo=u&source=univ&sa=X&ei=fwZmVfeZHKi67gbSuYPQBQ&sqi=2&ved=0CB0QsAQ#imgdii=vuY7e4aUjqWMrM%3A%3BvuY7e4aUjqWMrM%3A%3B2tVNX69giSSwzM%3A&imgrc=vuY7e4aUjqWMrM%253A%3BuxhgL4Jp6cSxmM%3Bhttp%253A%252F%252Fqph.is.quoracdn.net%252Fmain-qimg-5a5ddc7db6fd8f23552d4e9be167b22b%253Fconvert_to_webp%253Dtrue%3Bhttp%253A%252F%252Fwww.quora.com%252FWhere-did-the-sparrows-go%3B485%3B364

p. 4, Soaring eagle, photo by Ron Holmes, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, USFWS NationalDigital Library, http://digitalmedia.fws.gov/cdm/singleitem/collection/natdiglib/id/11633/rec/7

p.8, GMO corn photo, in article entitled “Debunking the Mainstream Media’s Myths aboutGMOs.” No changes made. Available at:http://organicconnectmag.com/project/debunking-myths-gmos/

18

p.8, non-GMO corn photo, in article entitled “France Bans Monsanto GMO Corn.” No changesmade. Available at: http://healthimpactnews.com/2014/france-bans-monsanto-gmo-corn/.

p.9, Monarch butterfly, photo by Mark Musselman, National Audubon Society, USFWSNational Digital Library. Available at:http://digitalmedia.fws.gov/cdm/singleitem/collection/natdiglib/id/14197/rec/2.

p.9, Honeybee, photo from Wikimedia Commons, the free media repository. No changes made.Available at: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Honeybee_apis_mellifera.jpg.

p.10, Tree frog, photo on webpage entitled “Caribbean Critters. Red Eyed Tree Frog.” Nochanges made. Available at: http://ambergriscaye.com/critters/redeyedtreefrog.html.

p.11, Nanotechnology figure, in article entitled “Nanotechnology Applications” available at:http://www.nanowerk.com/nanotechnology-applications.php. Source: Tsuzuki, T. 2009.Commercial scale production of inorganic nanoparticles. International Journal ofNanotechnology (IJNT), Vol. 6(5/6): 567-578. No changes made.

Authors:

Susan H. Wayland, former Deputy Assistant Administrator for the Office of Pesticides, Prevention, and Toxic Substances (now the Office of Chemical Safety and Pollution Prevention), 1992-2000.

Penelope Fenner-Crisp, PhD, former Director of the Health Effects Division, Office of Pesticides Programs,1989-1994; Deputy Office Director, Office of Pesticides Programs, 1994-1997; and Senior Science Advisor,1998-2000.