Recognizing Recognizing argumentsargumentsKareem KhalifaKareem Khalifa

Department of PhilosophyDepartment of Philosophy

Middlebury CollegeMiddlebury College

1. Complete This Sentence: A deductive argument is valid when,….

2. Read the following argument: If it’s raining, then the streets are wet. It’s not raining. So the streets are not wet.

The preceding argument is an example of a.Modus ponens

b.Modus tollens

c.Hypothetical pollen

d.None of the above

QUIZ

OverviewOverview

Why this Why this mattersmatters

Six Tips for Six Tips for Recognizing Recognizing ArgumentsArguments

Why this mattersWhy this matters

Recognizing arguments is Recognizing arguments is necessary for necessary for understanding a text.understanding a text.

You should also write so as You should also write so as to make your arguments to make your arguments easily recognizable.easily recognizable.

6 strategies for recognizing 6 strategies for recognizing arguments: overviewarguments: overview

1.1. Look for premise and conclusion Look for premise and conclusion indicatorsindicators

2.2. Use the question and answer testUse the question and answer test

3.3. Look for common argument formsLook for common argument forms

4.4. Balance faith and charityBalance faith and charity

5.5. Look for implicit argument-partsLook for implicit argument-parts

6.6. Use your contextUse your context

Strategy 1: Strategy 1: Look for IndicatorsLook for Indicators

These are phrases that flag conclusions and These are phrases that flag conclusions and premises.premises.

Ex. Since instilling democratic values is the only Ex. Since instilling democratic values is the only way to bring peace to the Middle East, we should way to bring peace to the Middle East, we should make sure that Palestinians have the ability to make sure that Palestinians have the ability to participate in the policy decisions affecting them.participate in the policy decisions affecting them.

Ex. Instilling democratic values is the only way to Ex. Instilling democratic values is the only way to bring peace to the Middle East, so we should bring peace to the Middle East, so we should make sure that Palestinians have the ability to make sure that Palestinians have the ability to participate in the policy decisions affecting them.participate in the policy decisions affecting them.

Warning!Warning!

Ex. Ex. SinceSince I woke up, II woke up, I’’ve worked out, ve worked out, prepared my lecture, and prepared my lecture, and thenthen finally, I finally, I walked to campus.walked to campus.

Lesson #1: Not every instance of these Lesson #1: Not every instance of these words is an indicator.words is an indicator.

Lesson #2 (More General): None of these Lesson #2 (More General): None of these strategies are failsafe. But in total, theystrategies are failsafe. But in total, they’’re re highly reliable in detecting arguments.highly reliable in detecting arguments.

Strategy 2: Use the Strategy 2: Use the question and answer testquestion and answer test

All arguments arise in response to some All arguments arise in response to some issueissue. . An issue can always be expressed as a An issue can always be expressed as a yes-or-yes-or-nono question.question.

Ex. Should we make sure Palestinians can Ex. Should we make sure Palestinians can participate in policy decisions affecting them?participate in policy decisions affecting them?

The conclusion is an answer to that question. The conclusion is an answer to that question. There is no yes-or-no question to which the There is no yes-or-no question to which the descriptions, instructions, and other non-descriptions, instructions, and other non-arguments would provide good (direct) answers. arguments would provide good (direct) answers.

Of course, they do provide potential answers Of course, they do provide potential answers to to otherother kinds of questions, e.g., kinds of questions, e.g., ““How does a How does a keyboard work?keyboard work?”” or or ““How do you tie a bowtie?How do you tie a bowtie?””

Strategy 3: Common Strategy 3: Common Argument PatternsArgument Patterns

This is the most important strategy if you want to This is the most important strategy if you want to go from go from recognizing recognizing an argument to an argument to analyzing/paraphrasing analyzing/paraphrasing it.it.

General idea: General idea: There are five very common, deductively valid There are five very common, deductively valid

argument patterns.argument patterns. If a passage fits one of these patterns, then If a passage fits one of these patterns, then

you know/recognize that the passage contains you know/recognize that the passage contains an argument.an argument.

1. Modus Ponens1. Modus Ponens

If P then QIf P then Q PP So, QSo, Q

If you exercise, then If you exercise, then you’ll live longer.you’ll live longer.

You exercise.You exercise. So, you’ll live longer.So, you’ll live longer.

P = You exercise.P = You exercise.

Q = You’ll live longer.Q = You’ll live longer.

2. Modus Tollens2. Modus Tollens

If If PP then then QQ Not-Not-QQ So, Not-So, Not-PP..

If If you study hardyou study hard, , then then you earn an Ayou earn an A..

YouYou didn’t didn’t earn an A.earn an A. So, So, youyou didn’t didn’t study study

hard.hard.

P = You study hard.P = You study hard.

Q = You earn an A.Q = You earn an A.

3. Hypothetical syllogism3. Hypothetical syllogism

If If PP, then , then QQ.. If If QQ, then , then RR.. So, if So, if PP, then , then RR..

If If your parents love your parents love youyou, then , then someone someone loves youloves you..

If If someone loves yousomeone loves you, , then then you won’t be a you won’t be a turd.turd.

So, if So, if your parents your parents love youlove you, then , then you you won’t be a turdwon’t be a turd..

P = Your parents love P = Your parents love you.you.

Q = Someone loves Q = Someone loves you.you.

R = You won’t be a R = You won’t be a turd.turd.

4. Disjunctive Syllogism4. Disjunctive Syllogism

PP or or QQ Not-Not-QQ So, So, PP..

You take Logic in the Fall You take Logic in the Fall or or you take Logic in the you take Logic in the SpringSpring..

YouYou don’t don’t take Logic in take Logic in the Spring.the Spring.

So, So, you take Logic in the you take Logic in the FallFall..P = You take Logic in the FallP = You take Logic in the Fall

Q = You take Logic in the Spring.Q = You take Logic in the Spring.

5. Instantation/5. Instantation/Categorical SyllogismCategorical Syllogism

All All F’sF’s are are G’s.G’s. aa is an is an FF So, So, aa is is GG..

All All professorsprofessors are are educated.educated.

KhalifaKhalifa is a is a professorprofessor So, So, KhalifaKhalifa is is

educated.educated.F = is a professor.F = is a professor.

G = is educated.G = is educated.

a = Khalifaa = Khalifa

Strategy 4: Strategy 4: Balance faith and charityBalance faith and charity Try to be as Try to be as faithfulfaithful to the author to the author’’s intentions s intentions

as possible. Did he/she intend this as a as possible. Did he/she intend this as a premise/conclusion or was this merely an premise/conclusion or was this merely an aside or tangent?aside or tangent?

Try to be as Try to be as charitablecharitable to the author as to the author as possible, i.e., try to interpret his/her argument possible, i.e., try to interpret his/her argument as compellingly (i.e., as close to being valid) as compellingly (i.e., as close to being valid) as possible without massively violating the as possible without massively violating the faithfulness guideline.faithfulness guideline.

Example: BackgroundExample: Background

Steven Salaita, a former tenured Steven Salaita, a former tenured professor of English at Virginia Tech, professor of English at Virginia Tech, accepted a tenured professorship in accepted a tenured professorship in October 2013 to teach at University of October 2013 to teach at University of Illinois' American Indian Studies program Illinois' American Indian Studies program but it was revoked in early August after but it was revoked in early August after Salaita posted tweets denouncing Israel's Salaita posted tweets denouncing Israel's military strikes in Gaza.military strikes in Gaza.

A hypothetical blog A hypothetical blog entry…entry…

1.1. ““As an institution of higher learning, the University of As an institution of higher learning, the University of Illinois should be committed to pursuing the truth. Steven Illinois should be committed to pursuing the truth. Steven Salaita has expressed his hatred of the U.S. and its allies. Salaita has expressed his hatred of the U.S. and its allies. So the University of Illinois should have never promised to So the University of Illinois should have never promised to hire that terrorist in the first place.”hire that terrorist in the first place.” Is expressing hatred of the US & allies antithetical to Is expressing hatred of the US & allies antithetical to

truth?truth? Is Salaita a terrorist for tweeting? Is Salaita a terrorist for tweeting?

All institutions of higher learning should discourage All institutions of higher learning should discourage hateful speech.hateful speech.

University of Illinois is an institution of higher learning. University of Illinois is an institution of higher learning. Salaita’s tweets against Israel are hateful speech.Salaita’s tweets against Israel are hateful speech. If the University of Illinois discourages these tweets, then If the University of Illinois discourages these tweets, then

it it should revoke Salaita’s tenure.should revoke Salaita’s tenure. So the University of Illinois should revoke Salaita’s tenure.So the University of Illinois should revoke Salaita’s tenure.

Strategy 5: Look for Strategy 5: Look for implicit argument-partsimplicit argument-parts

Derivative of the Derivative of the ““faith and charityfaith and charity”” strategy.strategy.

What would be needed to make the What would be needed to make the passage fit into a passage fit into a

common argument common argument

pattern?pattern?

More on implicit More on implicit argument-partsargument-parts

Both premises and conclusions can be implicit.Both premises and conclusions can be implicit. Ex. I checked to see if the door was locked before I Ex. I checked to see if the door was locked before I

left. You have nothing to worry about.left. You have nothing to worry about. Hidden Premise: If I checked to see if the door was locked, Hidden Premise: If I checked to see if the door was locked,

then you have nothing to worry about.then you have nothing to worry about. Ex. Why would you ever go that restaurant? Their Ex. Why would you ever go that restaurant? Their

service is horrible, the food is disgusting, and the service is horrible, the food is disgusting, and the ambience is dreadful!ambience is dreadful! Hidden Conclusion: You should not go to this restaurant.Hidden Conclusion: You should not go to this restaurant.

Enthymemes: Enthymemes: arguments involving unstated arguments involving unstated propositionspropositions

Strategy 6: Strategy 6: Use your contextUse your context

Use context and background information to Use context and background information to identify the issue, conclusion, and premise(s).identify the issue, conclusion, and premise(s). This is especially helpful in: This is especially helpful in:

Making vague terms, elliptical terms, and Making vague terms, elliptical terms, and pronouns more transparent and precise; andpronouns more transparent and precise; and

Using connotations and additional information to Using connotations and additional information to indicate what is at issue.indicate what is at issue.

Identifying propositions not stated in declarative Identifying propositions not stated in declarative form.form.

This is also derivative of the faith and charity This is also derivative of the faith and charity strategystrategy

RecapRecap

6 Strategies for Recognizing Arguments6 Strategies for Recognizing Arguments1.1. Look for premise and conclusion indicatorsLook for premise and conclusion indicators

2.2. Use the question and answer testUse the question and answer test

3.3. Look for common argument formsLook for common argument forms

4.4. Balance faith and charityBalance faith and charity

5.5. Look for implicit argument-partsLook for implicit argument-parts

6.6. Use your contextUse your context

Using these strategies will help you read Using these strategies will help you read more effectively and write more clearly.more effectively and write more clearly.

Exercises: Exercises: 1.a. Anne Example1.a. Anne Example

1. If Anne knows that she should take out the trash tomorrow, then she will take out the trash tomorrow.

2. Anne will not take out the trash tomorrow.

3. Therefore, Anne does not know that she should take out the trash tomorrow.

p = Anne knows that she should take out the p = Anne knows that she should take out the trash tomorrow. trash tomorrow.

q = Anne will take out the trash tomorrow.q = Anne will take out the trash tomorrow.

1.b. Tom Example1.b. Tom Example1. If Tom makes his double chocolate cake,

then the dinner party will be a success.

2. If the dinner party is a success, then the guests will be happy.

3. Therefore, if Tom makes his double chocolate cake, then the guests will be happy.

p = Tom makes his double chocolate cake.p = Tom makes his double chocolate cake.

q = The dinner party will be a success.q = The dinner party will be a success.

r = The guests will be happy.r = The guests will be happy.

1.c. Beth Example

1. Either Beth takes Calculus or Beth takes Basic Painting.

2. Beth does not take Basic Painting.

3. Therefore, Beth takes Calculus.

P = Beth takes Calculus.P = Beth takes Calculus.

Q = Beth takes Basic Painting.Q = Beth takes Basic Painting.

2. 2. Build your own Build your own argumentsarguments

@Middlebury@Middlebury

3.a.3.a.

Because you didn’t order soup, you must have ordered salad.

DISJUNCTIVE SYLLOGISMDISJUNCTIVE SYLLOGISM

1.1.Either you order soup or salad.Either you order soup or salad.

2.2.You didn’t order soup.You didn’t order soup.

3.3.So you ordered salad.So you ordered salad.

3.b.3.b.

Anyone who believes that personhood begins at conception is against abortion. So Paul Ryan is against abortion.

INSTANTIATIONINSTANTIATION

1.1.All who believe that personhood begins at All who believe that personhood begins at conception are against abortion.conception are against abortion.

2.2.Paul Ryan believes that personhood Paul Ryan believes that personhood begins at begins at conception.conception.

3.3.So, Paul Ryan is against abortion.So, Paul Ryan is against abortion.

3.c.3.c.

3.d3.d

The Red Sox won’t win the American League East this year. So the Yankees will.

DISJUNCTIVE SYLLOGISMDISJUNCTIVE SYLLOGISM

1.1.Either the Red Sox will win the AL East or Either the Red Sox will win the AL East or the Yankees will win the AL East.the Yankees will win the AL East.

2.2.The Red Sox will not win the AL East.The Red Sox will not win the AL East.

3.3.So the Yankees will win the AL East.So the Yankees will win the AL East.

3.e.3.e.

Live life to the fullest, as every day could be our last.

MODUS PONENSMODUS PONENS

1.1.If every day could be our last, then we If every day could be our last, then we should live life to the fullest.should live life to the fullest.

2.2.Every day could be our lastEvery day could be our last

3.3.So, we should live life to the fullest.So, we should live life to the fullest.