Recent Developments of Textile Waste Water Treatment by Adsorption Process: A Review

International Journal of Scientific Research in Knowledge (IJSRK), 1(4), pp. 60-73, 2013 Available online at http://www.ijsrpub.com/ijsrk

ISSN: 2322-4541, ©2013 IJSRPUB

60

Review Paper

Recent Developments of Textile Waste Water Treatment by Adsorption Process: A

Review

Mohamad Anuar Kamaruddin1, Mohd Suffian Yusoff

1*, Hamidi Abdul Aziz

1, Christopher O. Akinbile

2

1School of Civil Engineering, Universiti Sains Malaysia, 14300 Nibong Tebal, Pulau Pinang, MALAYSIA

2Department of Agricultural Engineering, Federal University of Technology, P.M.B 704, Akure. Ondo State.

NIGERIA

*Corresponding Author: [email protected]

Received 26 February 2013; Accepted 24 March 2013

Abstract. Adsorption has been known as the most acceptable method for removal of refractory compounds in textile waste

water treatment. Owing to its ability in terms of physical and chemical sorption, a wide range of precursors origin from natural

resources, synthesized materials and agricultural wastes as the starting materials for adsorbents purpose have been tested via

adsorption technique. Over the years, scientists have begun searching for a sustainable replacement of the conventional

adsorbents due to expensiveness, poor mechanical properties and limited applications. Lately, focus has been paid on the

potential of locally available materials, inexpensive, easier to obtain, good mechanical properties and high adsorption

capacities that can be converted into adsorbent. The present article highlights recent developments of textile waste water

treatment by adsorption process. A critical discussion with regard to textile waste water characteristics, textile operation and

adsorption by various adsorbent were also included in this review.

Key words: Adsorption, adsorbent, composite, textile, waste water.

1. INTRODUCTION

Rapid expansion in industrial activities and

exponentially increasing of development activities

always causes severe impacts to the environmental

receptors just to meet of global demand. The quest for

inherent water consumption, land utilization and

energy procurement has triggered imbalance of

ecological sensitive areas. This phenomenon is

inevitable because a national development is

dependent on the sensible consumption of available

resources to foster the country’s unity for peaceful

coexistence. Indeed, water is the most basic

requirement in order to sustain earth ecological

process. However, deteriorating quality of clean water

source has become a major concern because clean and

hygienic water source is the only way to ensure

healthy lives of human being and ecosystem

longevity.

The astronomical increase in world population,

modern industrialization and civilization, domestic

and agricultural activities and other geological,

environmental and global changes are responsible for

water pollution (Ali, 2010). Accordingly, the major

industrial activity that consumes large amount of

water is the textile industry. Textile industry involves

various operations and activities by which, different

amount of water, chemicals, solvents and surfactant

are used in order to produce high quality fabrics

(Syeda et al., 2012). With the increasing demands of

textile products, the generation of highly polluted

textile waste water was also increasing exponentially

(dos Santos et al., 2007).

Zaharia and Suteu (2012) reported that the textile

industry is a high consumer of water mainly as

process water (90–94 %), and cooling water (6–10 %)

and finally loaded with different pollutants: dyes,

surfactants, acids or bases, salts, heavy metals, and

suspended solids. Consequently, the generation of

textile waste water is very difficult to treat considering

vigorous types of substances emitted from these

processes. Although textile dyes contribute only a

small portion of the total volume of discharged

wastewater, it makes the water deeply colored. Heavy

metals, dyes, color, organic and inorganic pollutants

are the common pollutants present in textile waste

water streams and largely influenced on the textile

operation regimes.

These pollutants, if not properly treated are

responsible for introducing hazards into the receiving

water bodies including aquatic lives, human beings

and ecosystem stability. Many reports have discussed

in details about the hazards of improper treatment of

textile waste water ancillaries to human beings. It has

been a major talking point where a long term exposure

of the hazardous substances could result in becoming

a cancer promoter, acute toxicity, skin diseases,

allergenic and mutagenic (Akar et al., 2008, Binupriya

et al., 2007, Firmino et al., 2010, Gnanapragasam et

al., 2010, Gomaa et al., 2012).

Kamaruddin et al.

Recent Developments of Textile Waste Water Treatment by Adsorption Process: A Review

61

Generally, textile industries utilize various kinds of

commercial dye stuff including anionic, cationic,

basic, reactive and non ionic dyes that are present in

textile waste water. Apart from that, various toxic

chemicals such as agents, sizing, wetting, softening,

anti-felting, and finishing agent, wetting agents,

biocides, carriers, halogenated benzene, surfactants,

pesticides are type of auxiliaries’ chemicals are

commonly used in wet processing activities which are

known for their potential toxicity and poor

biodegradability. The primary concern of untreated

spent dye is aesthetically unpleasant as well as

harmful for aquatic life (Gupta et al., 2011).

According to Syeda et al. (2012), the concentration

of unused dyes in the waste water depends on the

nature of the dye and dying process. Inefficient dying

process may lead to 10–25% of all dye stuffs lost

directly to the wastewater. Latif et al. (2011) claimed

that reactive dyes are soluble anionic dyes that mostly

contain one or more reactive groups which are capable

of forming covalent bond. The bond was capable to

react with the hydroxyl groups in the fiber and

unsuitable for recycling. Apart from spent dyes,

Sarayu and Sandhya (2012) reported that the waste

water generated from the textile industry are

associated with the final products characteristics,

quality origin of the raw material and dye-auxiliaries

chemicals. Interestingly, many reports have

established extensive characteristics of textile waste

water emitted as a result from textile activities

(Badani et al., 2005, Jovančić and Radetić, 2008, Lau

and Ismail, 2009). Considering both the volume

generated and the waste water composition, the textile

industry wastewater is rated as the most polluting

amongst all industrial sectors (Sandhya et al., 2008).

1.1. Textile operation and its waste water

Typically, a common process of textile manufacturing

activity includes spinning, weaving, mercerizing,

dyeing, bleaching and finishing. In order to implement

an ideal treatment process, it is therefore necessitates

to understand the actual nature of these processes and

its emission. The explanation of each of the common

process involved and byproducts emitted from these

activities are summarized in Table 1. A usual textile

operation can vary from day to day and may be even

several times a day based on fabrics desired to be

produced and batch wise nature process. Therefore,

frequent changes in these processes cause

considerable variation in the waste water

characteristics particularly pH, 5-day biological

oxygen demand (BOD5), chemical oxygen demand

(COD) and color. Table 2 shows major characteristics

of textile waste water. The most obvious source of

pollution among various processes stages are

pretreatment which include singeing, desizing,

scouring, bleaching and mercerizing in order to

produce fabric for further process.

Generally, desizing involves all the sizes used in

weaving are removed from the fabric and discarded

into the waste water. Sizing agents such as ammonia,

enzymes, starch and waxes are the common chemicals

used in this process (dos Santos et al., 2007). Ren

(2000) reported that highest BOD5 (>50%) were

accounted when associates desizing chemicals were

withdrawn at desizing stage compared to other steps.

Sarayu and Sandhya (2012) whereas reported that

once the sizing process has completed, the waste

water was highly loaded with water-soluble sizes,

synthetic sizes, lubricants, biocides, and antistatic

solvents. These chemicals are mainly utilized in the

sizing process in order to acquire wrapped yarn. In

scouring, impurities, oil, waxes from fibers are

removed from the fabrics and washed into waste water

stream. At this point, a high temperature of waste

water is commonly exerted (Wu and Chang, 2003)

because of strong alkali consumption to breakdown

and emulsifies natural oils. The common types of

alkalis are sodium hydroxide and surfactants whereby

high consumption of these chemicals contributes to

high organic loads emitted in the waste water streams.

Apart from this, sodium-hexa-meta-phosphate, as a

chelating agent, together with the sandopan, used as

both non-ionic detergent and wetting agent during the

scouring process (Ibrahim et al., 2008). Bleaching

process normally utilizes bleaching agent such as

sodium hypochlorite and hydrogen peroxide to

remove unwanted colors and decolorizes the colored

impurities that are not removed by scouring. Due to

environmental concerns, sodium hypochlorite and

sodium chlorite are not in favor because incomplete

rinse during bleaching will slowly degrading fibers of

the fabrics and reduces it lasts. In contrast, bleaching

of cotton based fabrics with hydrogen peroxide

requires alkaline medium (normally NaOH), stabilizer

and either high temperatures or long treatment times

(Abou-Okeil et al., 2010).

The most anticipated process of textile fabrics is in

the dyeing stage. Textiles are dyed by a wide range of

dyestuff, techniques and equipment. They usually

requires large amount of water to impart color on to

fabrics surfaces’ in the dyebath. Typically, there are

two types of dyeing method which are batch and

continuous. In the continuous technique, fabric is fed

into a dyebath containing dyestuff solution and

squeezed through a set of padder. The padded fabric

was then immersed with dye fixation either with heat

or chemical treatment based on dye selection. In batch

technique, a known quantity of fabric is loaded into

dyeing machine with a solution containing dyes and

chemicals. The dye molecules leave the solution and

International Journal of Scientific Research in Knowledge (IJSRK), 1(4), pp. 60-73, 2013

62

enter the fabric due to affinity to the fiber (Dhas,

2008). Accordingly, dyeing and rinsing processing

contributes about 91-129 m3 of waste water per ton of

product whereby it higher generation of waste water

can be observed when reactive and direct dyes are

being used in the dyeing process which accounted

about 113-151 m3 per ton of product (Riera-Torres et

al., 2010). In addition, utilizing disperse dyes during

dyeing process have caused higher percentage of

fixation on the fibers as compared to acid and reactive

dyes (Verma et al., 2012). The final stage of textile

fabrics manufacturing is the finishing process. A

common process of finishing utilizes chemicals such

as resins, softeners, stiffeners and auxiliaries to

penetrate special properties onto the fabric surfaces.

Apart from that, since finishing process utilizes

various types of chemicals, its wastewater can be

characterized as chemically intensive and highly

colored containing the unfixed dyes (Kurt et al.,

2012). Considering the adverse impacts of untreated

textile waste water to the environment, therefore this

article aims to discuss the current developments of

textile waste water treatment associated with it

characteristics, treatment available and precursors

used in adsorbent. In addition, the latest updates of

composite-based adsorbents are also included in the

discussions which emphasizes in depth about the

materials selection and techniques applied in

adsorption process, respectively.

Table 1: Process involved in textile manufacturing and its byproducts (Dhas, 2008)

Table 2: Major characteristics of textile waste water

pH COD (mg/L) BOD5

(mg/L)

TSS (mg/L) TDS (mg/L) Color Turbidity

(NTU)

Reference

13 4800 - - 12918 1479.9

(400-

600nm)

252 (Aouni et al., 2009)

8.0 67 8 - - 314 ADMI 48 (Qian et al., 2013)

12 1000 30 - - 600 nm - (Khlifi et al., 2010)

8.2 6760 670 1040 8770 490 nm - (Jadhav et al., 2010)

12.43 5380 - 92 7989 - 405 (Pakshirajan and

Kheria, 2012)

7.8 7960 885 1276 9820 510 nm - (Phugare et al.,

2010)

9.5 1632 548 5496.71 2512.56 - - (Ali et al., 2009)

12.8 1600 175 420 3520 - - (Senthilkumar et al.,

2011)

- 1411 455 137 2563 2477 Pt-

Co

294 (Yigit et al., 2009)

8.32–9.50 278-736 137 85-354 1715-6106 - - (Phalakornkule et

al., 2010)

Process Process description Chemicals used Byproducts emitted

Spinning Polymer chips dried to emit moisture and ready

for melting.

Sizing agent High BOD5, COD and SS

(loose fibers)

Mercerizing Increase the strength and stability of cotton fiber Caustic soda High alkaline spent water

Weaving Converting yarns to textile fabrics by either

interlacing length-wise or cross-wire

Starch, polyvinyl alcohol,

acrylic size, wax

High pH, alkaline, oil and

grease

Scouring Cleaning process to remove oils and waxed

contacts with fabrics

Strong alkali such as

sodium hydroxide and

surfactants

High BOD5, COD, SS, high

alkalinity, high pH

Dyeing Yarns and fabric acquire color Disperse, reactive, vat

sulphur dyes.

Spent dyes, dissolved colors,

high salt, SS, heavy metals

Bleaching Whitens the fabrics to removes natural colors

impurities and foreign matters on fabric.

Hydrogen peroxide,

sodium hypochlorite,

sodium chlorite

High alkaline, pH and spent

waterbath

Finishing Impart final touch and special properties to

fabrics either mechanically or chemically

Resins, softeners,

stiffeners, catalysts,

fluorocarbon,

Residues of resins, softeners,

stiffeners, High BOD5, COD,

SS and color

Kamaruddin et al.


63

2. Textile waste water treatment by adsorption

process

Over the years, various physical and chemical

treatment processes have been used by numerous

researchers to remediate textile waste water.

Normally, selection of ideal treatment system is

dependent on the characteristics of the textile waste

water generated and the ability of the textile operator

to equip their treatment facilities based on economic

evaluation and effectiveness of the proposed system.

In general, every treatment option has their

advantages and drawbacks. Biological treatment for

instance is capable to render the concentration of

organic compound that presence in the waste water. In

addition, the low cost implications and

environmentally safe techniques have been seen as the

main option for the treatment method (Khelifi et al.,

2008, Balamurugan et al., 2011, Ulson de Souza et al.,

2008).

However, a few biological treatment option namely

aerobic processes were inefficient to degrade most of

azo dyes (Işık and Sponza, 2008). To make it worse,

previous studies reported that direct anaerobic process

would easily transformed it into aromatic amine.

However, these aromatic amines were mostly resists

and inhibit further the anaerobic degradation process

(Chung and Stevens, 1993). Incomplete destruction of

organic compound during biological treatment has

caused the transfer of the dye onto biomass via

adsorption (Gomaa et al., 2012). On the other hand,

physical-chemical process has been shown as a

promising technique which allows almost complete

removal of organic and inorganic pollutants in textile

waste water. However, these techniques are only

effective and economic when the solute

concentrations of the textile waste water are relatively

high. Table 3 summarizes some of the available

techniques of physical-chemical process in terms of

advantages and drawbacks by Robinson et al. (2001).

From the table, it shows that although physical-

chemical process is viable for the remediation of

textile waste water pollution, ultimate removal could

not be achieved via stand alone method as single

process is only capable to treat selected type of

pollutants such as dyes.

Table 3: Advantages and drawbacks of available techniques of textile waste water treatment (Robinson et al., 2001)

Treatment process Technique applied Advantages Drawbacks

Fenton reagents Oxidation reaction using mainly

H2O2–Fe(II)

Effective decolorisation of both

soluble and insoluble dyes

Sludge generation

Ozonation Oxidation reaction using ozone gas Application in gaseous state: no

alteration of volume

Short half-life (20 min)

Photochemical Oxidation reaction using mainly

H2O2-UV

No sludge production Formation

of by products

Photochemical Oxidation

reaction using mainly

H2O2

NaOCl Oxidation reaction using Cl+ to

attack the amino group

Initiation and acceleration of

azo-bond cleavage

Release of aromatic

amines

Electrochemical destruction Oxidation reaction using electricity Breakdown compounds are non-

hazardous

High cost of electricity

Activated carbon Dye removal by adsorption Good removal of a wide variety

of dyes

Very expensive

Membrane filtration

Physical separation

Removal of all dye types Concentrated sludge

production

Ion exchange Ion exchange resin Regeneration: no adsorbent loss Not effective for all dyes

Electrokinetic

coagulation

Addition of ferrous sulphate and

ferric chloride

Economically feasible High sludge production

Among physical-chemical process, adsorption has

widely received significant attention over the years

due to its vast advantages in terms of operational,

technicality and feasibility (Zhu et al., 2011b, Zhao et

al., 2012). Principally, adsorption is a process by

which a substance is transferred from a liquid state to

the surface of a solid compound and bound by either

physically or chemically reactions. In general,

adsorption of textile waste water laden with

concentrated color mainly occurs based on the affinity

of various dyes to interact with adsorbent by physical

and chemical factors such as surface area, particle

size, temperature, pH and contact time (Patel and

Vashi, 2010). According to Sharma et al. (2011),

depending on the nature of the interactions between

ionic species and molecular species carrying

functional group, the reactions may be held to the

surface though electrostatic attraction to sites of

opposite charge at the surface of physiorbed due to

van der Waals forces or chemisorptions by strong

adsorbent-adsorbate bonding. Besides, Singh and

Arora (2011) reported that high adsorption occurs

with basic and direct dyes which are usually have

higher relative molecular mass and high to medium

for disperse dyes which are hydrophobic in character.

According to Jovančić and Radetić (2008), adsorptive

separation in adsorption process normally occurs in

three mechanisms which are steric, kinetic, or


64

equilibrium effect. Steric effect occurs when only

small and a properly shaped molecule diffuses into the

sorbent whereas other molecules are totally excluded.

In contrast, kinetic separation is achieved of the

difference in diffusion rates of different molecules.,

the equilibrium separation occurs based on the

selection of targeted molecule that is to be adsorbed

mainly polarizability, magnetic susceptibility,

permanent dipole moment and quadrupole moment.

Historically, activated carbon has been long

recognizes as one of the most versatile adsorbent to

treat textile waste water. Owing to its advantages in

terms of highly porous structure and relatively larger

surface area, activated carbon shows higher efficiency

for the adsorption of low molecular weight

compounds and larger molecules (Sharma et al.,

2011). Activated carbon is the oldest known adsorbent

and usually prepared either by physical or chemical

activation. The source of the precursor of commercial

activated carbon could be from coal, coconut shell,

lignite, woods (Gupta and Suhas, 2009) whereby

almost any carbonaceous material may be used as

precursor for the preparation of carbon adsorbents

(Demirbas, 2009). Although activated carbon is a

preferred means for adsorption process, the high cost

and complex preparation limit its use in treatment

process (Li et al., 2012) because it is usually derived

from natural materials such as bituminous coal, lignite

and petroleum coke which would increase the overall

production cost (Gupta and Suhas, 2009).

Furthermore, according to Singh and Arora (2011),

activated carbons are difficult to separate from the

solution and have been discarded with the process

sludge after use in water and wastewater treatment,

resulting in secondary pollution.

Many reports have investigated the potential in

employing wide range of alternative adsorbents for

the adsorption of textile waste water either from

industrial byproducts, mineral deposits and

agricultural wastes as the replacement of

commercially expensive activated carbon. The search

for an alternative adsorbent is motivated by their

abundance, inexpensive, require little processing and

very effective in textile waste water treatment.

Consequently, researchers have conducted numerous

attempts to come out with a new and novel adsorbent

which has superior performance in terms of higher

adsorption capacity, larger surface area and improved

mechanical stability of the adsorbent. Table 4

summarizes some of the major works pertaining to the

preparation and performance of alternative adsorbent

in textile waste water treatment. Because extensive

reports have been published on the efficiency of

alternative adsorbents over the years, the aim of this

article is to highlight recent but major breakthroughs

in research and development of the latter in terms of

precursors selection, pollutants studied and removal

rate of the adsorbents between 2010 to 2012.

2.1 Development of composite based adsorbent

While many attempts have been made to successfully

developed a high performance adsorbent for a wide

range of pollutants removal in aqueous or real waste

water, attention has been paid to synthesis an

adsorbent which comprises of different properties of

single adsorbent with other compound such as zeolite,

fly ash, activated carbon, bentonite, polymeric

isomers, chitosan, montmorrillonite, activated clay,

and other mineral based precursors. The main

objectives of the composite adsorbent are to enhance

the uptake of various pollutants in textile waste water

with high hydrophobic and hydrophilic attributes with

improved mechanical stability and chemical resistant.

However, these materials require some modification

and shaping process for laboratory and industrial

purposes (Leboda et al., 2006). Accordingly, the

employment of various types of mineral had proven

the possibilities use of various mineral and carbon

substances to produce complex sorbents and hybrid

materials (Szychowski and Pacewska, 2012). Most of

the time, mineral carbon based adsorbents receives

special attentions because they have mosaic character

that can adsorb both organic and inorganic substances

(Leboda et al., 2006).

The earliest discussion about the carbon-mineral

adsorbent was reported by Leboda (1992). In his

report, he summarized that among the methods of

preparation, mechanical mixing, incorporation,

carburization of organic substances bonded either by

chemically or physically with the surface of mineral

adsorbent, as well as deposition of the carbon on

catalyst and adsorbent surfaces during different

adsorption and catalysis processes were could be

realized. From there, authors began to exploreand

investigate various type of precursors for the

development of composite based adsorbent. Putyera et

al. (1994) investigated the properties of

montmorillonite and hydrotalcite matrices by nitrogen

adsorption isotherm and inverse gas chromatography;

they concluded that adsorption capacity per unit mass

of these composite adsorbents was larger in the case

of hydrotalcite than in montmorillonite-based

materials. In other studies, Yanagisawa et al. (2010)

conducted an experiment of the magnesium and

coconut shell activated carbon composite to remove

heavy metals ions in aqueous solution. They

concluded that the magnesium composite adsorbed

greater amount of amount of Zn(II) and Cd(II) ions

than the no magnesium counterpart. It was further

concluded that loaded magnesium was estimated to be

combined with carbon surface via oxygen bridge.

Kamaruddin et al.


65

Meanwhile, Ai and Jiang (2010) investigated fast

removal of dyes by AC/ferrospinel composite. They

found that adsorption of Methyl orange (MO) and

basif fuchsin (BF) followed the Langmuir model

whereas the adsorption capacities were 95.8 and 101.0

mg/g for MO and BF.

Sandeman et al. (2011) carried out a comparison

on activated carbon, PVA hydrogels, and PVA/AC

composite towards cationic methylene blue (MB),

anionic methyl orange (MO), and Congo red (CR)

removal from aqueous. They claimed that the

interactions with the ACs or PVA/AC composites

were dependent on the properties of the dyes

themselves (size, symmetry, charge sign, and value)

and on the nature of the AC or PVA/AC surface

available for adsorption, and its structural and textural

characteristics.

Table 4: Summary of alternative adsorbents used in treating textile waste water Source Precursor Pollutants Removal rate Reference

Industrial by

product

Coal fly ash Color 55.42–83.00 % (Zaharia and Suteu, 2012)

COD 44.44–61.11 %

Turbidity (inferior to 1 NTU (Jedidi et al., 2011)

COD 75%

COD 75% (Jedidi et al., 2009)

color 90%

Granulated Blast Furnace Slag (GBFS) Acid Yellow 99 and Acid

Red 183)

<1% (Genc and Oguz, 2010)

Furnace Bottom Ash (FBA) 50%

Silica gel waste Actual cationic surfactant 87% (Genc and Oguz, 2010)

Cement kiln dust +coal filters Color

Turbidity

BOD5

COD

PO43-

97%

76%

84%

77%

94%

(Mahmoued, 2010)

Teflon scrap Basic Red 29 (BR29) And

Basic Yellow 11 (BY11)

>95% (Goel et al., 2011)

Timber saw dust Methylene Blue (MB)

Methyl Green

- (Djilali et al., 2012)

Alkaline treated analog Methylene Blue (MB)

Methyl Green

-

Bottom ash Light Green SF (Yellowish) 88.74% (Mittal et al., 2010)

Natural Macauba palm Methylene Blue (MB)

Congo Red (CR)

60-80%

36-63%

(Vieira et al., 2012)

Heat treated Macauba palm Methylene Blue (MB)

Congo Red (CR)

70-98%

18-38%

Agricultural

Pistachio hull waste Methylene Blue (MB) 94.6 to 99.7% (Moussavi and Khosravi,

2011)

Pine Cone Acid Black 26 (AB26),

Acid Green 25 (AG25) and

Acid Blue 7 (AB7)

93%

97%

94.5%

(Mahmoodi et al., 2011b)

Silkworm exuviae Methylene Blue ( MB) - (Chen et al., 2011)

Deoiled soya Light Green SF (Yellowish) 89.65 (Mittal et al., 2010)

Sugar beet pulp Methylene Blue (MB)

Safranin

>93% (Malekbala et al., 2012)

Kenaf fibre char Methylene Blue (MB) 95% (Mahmoud et al., 2012)

Cattail root Congo Red (CR) 14.4-98.4% at dose

of 0.5 to 10.0 g L−1,

(Hu et al., 2010)

Sesame hull Methylene Blue (MB) 57.63% to 91.65% at

doses from 0.500 to

2.000 g L−1

(Feng et al., 2011)

Moringa oleifera seed powder Methylene Blue (MB)

Congo Red

90.27%

98.52%

(Raj et al., 2013)

Mineral

deposit

Natural clay BOD5

Suspended matter,

COD

Spectral absorption

coefficient

97%

93%

95%

76%

(Errais et al., 2010)

Sea shell powder Basic Green 4 (BG 4),\ 96.25% at dose of (Chowdhury and Saha,


66

2.0 g/L 2010)

Activated clay Methylene Blue (MB) (El Mouzdahir et al., 2010)

Kaolin Basic Yellow 28 (BY28)

Methylene Blue (MB)

Malachite Green (MG)

65–99% at initial dye

=10 mg/L and kaolin

loadings = 0.8–

2.5 g/L

(Tehrani-Bagha et al.,

2011)

Bentonite Acid green 25 - (Koswojo et al., 2010)

Ghassoul, natural clay Methlyene Blue (MB) 90-99% (Elass et al., 2010)

Natural clay Acid Red 88 (AR88) 98.10 ± 0.34% (Akar and Uysal, 2010)

Yang et al. (2008) synthesized magnetic Fe3O4-

activated carbon from rice husk. When they tested the

adsorption capabilities of the prepared media towards

Methylene Bue (MB) from aqueous, the found out

that the maximum adsorption capacities was 321 mg/g

with the composite having a relatively large pore

diameter of 3.1 nm, high surface area of 770 m2/g

with 23 wt.% F Fe3O4. In contrast, when Zhu et al.

(2011a) employed magnetic cellulose/Fe3O4/activated

carbon composite, the maximum removal of Congo

red from aqueous was obtained at 66.09 mg/g due to

super paramagnetism phenomenon. In other

investigation, Singh et al. (2011) developed a

magnetic carbon-iron oxide derived from the coconut

shell. From the statistical model approach, the found

that, the optimum conditions were achieved at

concentration 240 mg/l; temperature 50°C; pH 8.50;

dose 1 g/l, whereby the maximum adsorption

capacities of crystal violet (CV) was obtained at 81.70

mg/g based on Langmuir model. Apart from that,

numerous studies have proposed a variety of

adsorbent materials for the removal of a wide range of

pollutants from textile waste water. Accordingly, this

article highlights current development of composite-

based materials towards the adsorption of various

textile waste water pollutants mostly in aqueous

system. While many techniques are possible to

synthesize the individual precursor into composite

based materials, the majority of the works remain

optimistic about the advantages of composite based

materials because of vast advantages it can contribute

in the adsorption in liquid-phase system. Table 5

summarizes recent development of composite

materials for the removal of textile ancillaries’ waste

water which emphasizes on the techniques applied

and adsorption capacities of the media.

3. CONCLUSION

From the literature reviewed, it has been revealed that

adsorption process is undoubtedly the most acceptable

technique for purification process in textile waste

water. However, the applications of adsorption

process in large scale operation still remain a major

challenge for industrial players to apply. While

extensive efforts are on by scientists to come up with

various kinds of adsorbents for commercial use, only

a few of them have been commercialized and used by

industrial operators. Therefore, the applicability of the

adsorbent products should be encouraged in the actual

waste water streams via adsorption and therefore the

operational of these products will be more reliable and

marketable.

Table 5: Summary of composite materials adsorbent Composite type Technique applied Adsorbate Adsorption

capacity

Reference

Chitosan-g-poly (acrylic acid)/vermiculite

hydrogel composites

Polymer/Hydrogel

method

Methylene Blue (MB) 1685.58 mg/g

(Highest R2

coefficient

(Liu et al., 2010)

Chitosan intercalated montmorillonite Dispersing sodium

montmorillonite (Na+-

MMT) into chitosan

solution

Basic Blue 9 (BB9)

Basic Blue 66 (BB66)

Basic Yellow 1 (BY1)

48.9 mg/g

48.2 mg/g

45.9 mg/g

(Monvisade and

Siriphannon,

2009)

Chitosan/kaolin/γ-Fe2O3 composites Microemulsion process Methyl orange (MO) 34.9 mg/g (Zhu et al., 2010)

Fe2O3/SiO2/chitosan composite Water-in-oil

emulsification

Methylorange (MO) 34.29 mg/g (Zhu et al.,

2011b)

Hydroxyapatite/chitosan

composite (Hap-CS)

Embedding of HAp into

CS

Congo red (CR) 769 mg/g (Hou et al.,

2012)

Magnetic rectorite/iron oxide

nanocomposites (REC-Fe3O4)

Aqueous suspension Methylene blue

(MB)

Neutral Red (NR)

Methyl Orange (MO)

18.6 mg

16.0 mg

0.36 mg

* Based on 1 g

REC-Fe3O4

(Wu et al., 2011)

Magnetic MnO–Fe2O3 composite— Co-precipitation Acid Red B (ARB) 105.3 mg/g (Wu et al., 2005)

Magnetic halloysite nanotubes/iron oxide Suspension -dropwise Methylene Blue (MB) (Xie et al., 2011)

Kamaruddin et al.


67

composites halloysite nanotube

(HNT)

HNT

HNT–Fe3O4

Neutral Red (NR)

HNT

HNT– Fe3O4

Methyl Orange (MO)

HNT

HNT– Fe3O4

37.38 mg/g

18.44 mg/g

31.21 mg/g

13.62 mg/g

0.68 mg/g

0.65 mg/g

Multi-walled carbon

nanotubes-Fe3C nanocomposite

chemical vapor

deposition (CVD)

process

Direct Red 23 (DR23) 172.4 mg/g (Konicki et al.,

2012)

Cationic starch intercalated clay composite Dry reaction Brilliant blue X-BR 122.0 mg/g (Xing et al.,

2012)

Cobalt-hectorite

composite

Ion exchange method Methylene Blue (MB) 0.5 g/L at 293

K

(Ma et al., 2012)

Biocompatible

composite (alginate/titania nanoparticle)

SA/n-TiO2

Titania nanoparticles

were immobilized

onto SodiumAlginate in

aqueous suspension

Direct Red 80 (DR80)

Acid Green 25 (AG25

163.934 mg/g

151.515 mg/g

(Mahmoodi et

al., 2011a)

Biocompatible composite (Chitosan–zinc

oxide nanoparticle) CS/n-ZnO

Zinc oxide nanoparticles

were immobilized onto

Chitosan in aqueous

suspension

Direct Blue 78 (DB78)

Acid Black 26 (AB26)

52.63 mg/g

34.48 mg/g

(Salehi et al.,

2010)

Sodium alginate/Na+-rectorite composite Inverse suspension

system

Basic Blue 9 493 mg/g, at 2

wt% Na+REC

(Yang et al.,

2012)

Immobilized-polymer/bentonite

composites

Direct polymerization Malachite Green (MG)

Methylene Blue (MB)

Crystal Violet (CV)

442.9 μmol/g

419.3 μmol/g

354.4 μmol/g

* Initial

concentration

from 400 –

1000 μmol /g

(Anirudhan et al.,

2009)

Cellulose acetate–organo-montmorillonite

composite (CA/OMMT)

Ion exchange method Acid Scarlet G (ASG) 85.7 mg/g (Zhou et al.,

2012)

Silver thiocyanate –

tetrabromo-tetrachlorofluorescein (TBTCF)

Embedment of TBTCF

with precipitation of Ag+

and SCN-

Ethyl violet (EV) 202 mg/g (Wang et al.,

2009)

Calcium

alginate/organophilic montmorillonite)

(CA/OMMT) nanocomposite

Polymerization using

rays irradiation as

initiator

Acid green B

Direct pink 3B

- (Abou Taleb et

al., 2012)

Calcium alginate/multi-walled carbon

nanotubes

Wet spinning Methylene blue (MB)

methyl orange (MO)

606.1 mg/g

12.5 mg/g

(Sui et al., 2012)

Polyacrylamide/bentonite composite (PAA-

B)

Intercalative

polymerization of

acrylamide with

Nabentonite


Methylene Blue (MB)

Crystal Violet (CV)

199.4 μmol/g

193.4 μmol/g

87.5μmol/g

* Initial

concentration

400

μmol /g

(Anirudhan and

Suchithra, 2009)

Polyaniline/bacterial extracellular

polysaccharides composite Pn/EPS

composite

Polymerization Reactive Brilliant Blue R

(RBBR) Reactive

Orange 16

0.5775 mmol/g

0.4748 mmol/g

(Janaki et al.,

2012b)

Polyaniline/chitosan composite Pn/Ch

composite

Polymerization Congo Red, Coomassie

Brilliant Blue

Remazol Brilliant Blue R

322.58 mg/g

357.14 mg/g

303.03 mg/g

(Janaki et al.,

2012a)

Alginate/ Polyvinyl Alcohol - Kaolin

Composite

Polymerization Methylene Blue 17.33 mg/g (El-Latif et al.,

2010)

Poly (vinyl alcohol) (PVA) Direct used Methylene Blue (MB) 13.80 mg/g (Umoren et al.)

Poly(vinylalcohol)/chitosan composites IPN and foaming process Single system


Cu2+

Binary system

MG

Cu2+

380.65 mg/g

193.39 mg/g

227.02 mg/g

111.85 mg/g

(Li et al., 2012)


68

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73

Mohamad Anuar Kamaruddin is a Ph.D candidate in waste water engineering at Universiti Sains

Malaysia and a recipient of Ministry of Higher Education Malaysia scholarship. He received his first

degree from Universiti Sains Malaysia in 2009 awarded with Bachelor of Science in civil engineering.

He obtained degree in Master of Science in civil engineering from Universiti Sains Malaysia in 2011

with major in landfill technology. His current research is focuses on alleviating problems associated

with waste water and solid waste management. To date, he has published several scientific articles

related to environmental engineering field.

Associate Professor Dr Mohd Suffian Yusoff obtained his first degree from Universiti Putra Malaysia in

agricultural science in 1995. He later pursued master degree in mineral resources engineering in

Universiti Sains Malaysia and graduated in 2000. Dr. Yusoff received his doctorate from Universiti

Sains Malaysia in 2006 with major in solid waste management. Currently, Dr Yusoff serves School of

Civil Engineering Universiti Sains Malaysia as anacademic programme chairperson (environmental and

sustainability). He has published numerous refereed articles in professional journals. Dr Yusoff’s field

of expertise’s are solid waste management, landfill technology and leachate treatment. Dr Yusoff also

has conducted numerous consultancies and research works at national and international level. His vast

experience in landfill operation and management has enabled him to conduct numerous talks and

seminars at national and international level.

Dr Aziz is a Professor in environmental engineering at the School of Civil Engineering, Universiti Sains

Malaysia. Dr. Aziz received his Ph.D in civil engineering (environmental engineering) from University of

Strathclyde, Scotland in 1992. He is the Editor-in-chief of CJASR, IJSES and the Managing Editor of

IJEWM, IJEE. He has published over 200 refereed articles in professional journals/proceedings and

currently sits as the Editorial Board Member for 8 International journals. Dr Aziz's research has focused

on alleviating problems associated with water pollution issues from industrial wastewater discharge and

solid waste management via landfilling, especially on leachate pollution. He also interests in

biodegradation and bioremediation of oil spills.

Dr Christopher Oluwakunmi Akinbile obtained his first degree from the Federal University of

Technology, Akure, Nigeria in Agricultural Engineering in 1999. He later bagged his Master’s and

Doctorate degrees in Soil and Water Engineering from the University of Ibadan, Nigeria in 2001 and

2009 respectively. Dr. Akinbile undertook his Post-doctoral research study in the School of Civil

Engineering, Universiti Sains Malaysia from 2010 through 2011. At present, Dr. Akinbile is the

Postgraduate coordinator for his department in FUTA, Nigeria and has published numerous refereed

articles in professional journals and conference proceedings. Dr Akinbile’s field of expertise’s are in

irrigation and drainage, climate change for food security, solid waste management and leachate treatment.

Documents

Recent Developments of Textile Waste Water Treatment by Adsorption Process: A Review