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RENEWABLE ENERGYAND ENERGY EFFICIENCY

SCIENCE PROJECTS


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SCIENCE PROECTS IN RENEWABLEENERGY AND ENERGY EFFICIENCY

A guide for Secondary School Teachers

Authors and Acknowledgements:

This second edition was produced at the National Renewable Energy Laboratory(NREL), through the laboratorys Office of Education Programs, under the leadership ofthe Manager, Dr. Cynthia Howell and guidance of the Program Coordinators, Matt Kuhnand Linda Lung. The contents are the result of contributions by a select group ofteacher researchers that were invited to NREL as part of the Department of EnergysTeacher Research Programs. During the summers between 2003 and 2007, fifty foursecondary pre-service and experienced teachers came to NREL to do real research inrenewable energy sciences. As part of their research responsibilities, each teacherresearcher was required to put together an educational module. Some teacherresearchers updated a previous NREL publication with the title Science Projects inRenewable Energy and Energy Efficiency (Copyright 1991 American Solar Energy

Society).These contributing teacher researchers produced new and updated science

project ideas with the unique perspective of being in education and in laboratoryresearch. Participants that contributed to this publication include Nick Babcock, JenniferBakisae, Eric Benson, Lisa Boes, Matt Brown, Lindsey Buehler, Laura Butterfield, Ph.D.,Don Cameron, Robert Depew, Alexis Durow, Chris Ederer, Brigid Esposito, LindaEsposito, Doug Gagnon, Brandon Gillette, Rebecca Hall, Brenna Haley, Brianna Harp,Karen Harrell, Bill Heldman, Tom Hersh, Chris Hilleary, Loren Lykins, Kiley Mack, MartinNagy, Derek Nalley, Scott Pinegar, Jennifer Pratt, Ray Quintana, Steve Rapp, KristenRecord, Emily Reith, Leah Riley, Nancy Rose, Wilbur Sameshima, Matthew Schmitt,

Melinda Schroeder, Tom Sherow, Daniel Steever, Andrea Vermeer, Brittany Walker,Dwight Warnke, Mark Wehrenberg and Rick Winters.Finally, this book owes much to the original authors and advisors of the 1st

Edition in 1991. They include Ann Brennan, Barbara Glenn, Suzanne Grudstrom, JoanMiller, Tom Milne, Dan Black, Hal Link, Bob Mconnel, Rick Schwerdtfeger, Patricia Bleil,Rosalie Craig, Steve Iona, Larry Jakel, Larry Lindauer, Bob McFadden, Beverly Meier,and Helen Wilson.


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The National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL) is the nation's premierlaboratory for renewable energy research and development and a leading laboratory forenergy efficiency R&D. NREL is managed by Midwest Research Institute and Battelle.

Established in 1974, NREL began operating in 1977 as the Solar Energy ResearchInstitute. It was designated a national laboratory of the U.S. Department of Energy(DOE) in September 1991 and its name changed to NREL.

NREL develops renewable energy and energy efficiency technologies andpractices, advances related science and engineering, and transfers knowledge andinnovations to address the nation's energy and environmental goals. NREL's renewableenergy and energy efficiency research spans fundamental science to technologysolutions. Major program areas are:

Advanced Vehicle Technologies & Fuels(hybrid vehicles, fuels utilization)Basic Energy ScienceBiomass (biorefineries, biosciences)Building Technologies (building efficiency, zero energy buildings)Electric Infrastructure Systems (distribution & interconnection, thermal systems,

superconductivity)Energy Analysis

Geothermal EnergyHydrogen & Fuel Cells (production, storage, infrastructure & end use)Solar(photovoltaics, concentrating solar power and solar thermal)Wind Energy
http://www.nrel.gov/vehiclesandfuels/http://www.nrel.gov/basic_sciences/http://www.nrel.gov/biomass/http://www.nrel.gov/buildings/http://www.nrel.gov/eis/http://www.nrel.gov/analysis/http://www.nrel.gov/geothermal/http://www.nrel.gov/hydrogen/http://www.nrel.gov/ncpv/http://www.nrel.gov/wind/http://www.nrel.gov/wind/http://www.nrel.gov/ncpv/http://www.nrel.gov/hydrogen/http://www.nrel.gov/geothermal/http://www.nrel.gov/analysis/http://www.nrel.gov/eis/http://www.nrel.gov/buildings/http://www.nrel.gov/biomass/http://www.nrel.gov/basic_sciences/http://www.nrel.gov/vehiclesandfuels/


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Contents

Introduction ...................................................................................................... 4

The Role of the Teacher ..................................................................................... 7

How to Do a Science Project ..............................................................................14

Project Ideas ....................................................................................................18What Does the Sun Give Us .....................................................................19Photovoltaics and Solar Energy ................................................................31Material and Chemical Processing .............................................................56Modeling the Process of Mining Silicon Through a

Single-Displacement/Redox Reaction ...................................................60

Utilizing Photovoltaic Cells and Systems ....................................................73Photosynthesis and Biomass Growth .........................................................85Statistical Analysis of Corn Plants and Ethanol Production ........................... 98Biofuel Production ................................................................................. 103Renewable Energy Plants in Your Gas Tank:

From Photosynthesis to Ethanol ........................................................ 110Cell Wall Recipe: A Lesson on Biofuels .................................................... 129Reaction Rates and Catalysts in Ethanol Production ................................. 140

A Pre-treatment Model for Ethanol Production Using aColorimetric Analysis of Starch Solutions ............................................ 151

The Bio-Fuel Project .............................................................................. 158

Biofuel Utilization .................................................................................. 193Wind .................................................................................................... 198Hydropower ......................................................................................... 207Ocean Power ........................................................................................ 211

Alternative Fuels Used in Transportation ................................................. 216Computer Based Energy Projects ............................................................ 226Environmental Aspects .......................................................................... 231


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Renewable energy technologiesare clean sources of energy that have amuch lower environmental impact thanconventional energy technologies.Importing energy is costly while mostrenewable energy investments are spenton local materials and workmanship tobuild and maintain the facilities.Renewable energy investments areusually spent within the United States,frequently in the same state, and oftenin the same town. This means yourenergy dollars stay home to create jobs

and fuel local economies, rather thangoing overseas. After the oil supplydisruptions of the early 1970s, ournation has increased its dependence onforeign oil supplies instead of decreasingit. This increased dependence impactsmore than just our national energypolicy.

We can be pretty certain thatelectricity use will grow worldwide. TheInternational Energy Agency projects

that the world's electrical generatingcapacity will increase to nearly 5.8million megawatts by the year 2020, upfrom about 3.3 million in 2000.However, the world supplies of fossilfuelsour current main source ofelectricitywill start to run out from theyears 2020 to 2060, according to thepetroleum industry's best analysts.

Shell International predicts that

renewable energy will supply 60% ofthe world's energy by 2060. The WorldBank estimates that the global marketfor solar electricity will reach $4 trillionin about 30 years. Other fuels such asHydrogen and biomass fuels could helpreplace gasoline. It is estimated that theUnited States could produce 190 billion

gallons per year of ethanol usingavailable biomass resources in the USA.

And unlike fossil fuels, renewableenergy sources are sustainable. Theywill never run out. According to theWorld Commission on Environment andDevelopment, sustainability is theconcept of meeting "the needs of thepresent without compromising theability of future generations to meettheir own needs." That means ouractions today to use renewable energytechnologies will not only benefit us

now, but will benefit many generationsto come.

Important local and nationaldecisions will be made during thecoming years concerning our energysupply. It will be important to considerall aspects of a particular energysourceits availability; its benefits; andits monetary, environmental, and socialcosts. Our nations citizens must be wellinformed so that they can make the

appropriate decisions. This book is atool to help teachers, parents, andmentors inform our young citizens aboutthe various ways that renewable energyand efficiency can be used to contributeto our society.

Choices about energy supply arejust one of the may scientific andtechnical issues our nation faces nowand in the future. Evaluating all these

issues will be easier if our citizens havea basic understanding of the scientificprocess and can consider scientificissues rationally. Through the ideas andmethods presented here, we hope tohelp teachers foster in students a newsense of wonder and curiosity aboutscience and energy.

Introduction


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The Value of Science Projects

Science projects are an especiallyeffective way of teaching students aboutthe world around them. Whetherconducted in the classroom or for ascience fair, science projects can helpdevelop critical thinking and problem-solving skills. In the classroom setting,science projects offer a way for teachersto put action into the lessons. Thestudents have fun while theyre learningimportant knowledge and skills. Andthe teacher often learns with thestudents, experiencing excitement with

each new discovery.Science projects are generally of

two types: nonexperimental andexperimental. The nonexperimentaltype usually reflects what the studenthas read or heard about an area ofscience. By creating displays orcollections of scientific information ordemonstrating certain naturalphenomena, the student goes through aprocess similar to a library researchreport or meta-analysis in any othersubject. Projects of this type may beappropriate for some students at a veryearly level, but they usually do notprovide experiences that developproblem-solving skills related to thescientific process.

On the other hand, theexperimental project poses aquestion, or hypothesis, which is then

answered by doing an experiment ormodeling a phenomenon. The questiondoesnt have to be something neverbefore answered by scientistits notnecessary to conduct original research.The process of picking a topic, designingan experiment, and recording andanalyzing data is whats important.

Consequently, this book focuses on theexperimental project.

Teachers can use classroomprojects several different ways.Sometimes its appropriate for the whole

class to work together; other timesstudents can work in groups orindividually. The decision depends onthe capabilities of the students, how theexperimental results are to be used, andthe imagination of the teacher. In anycase, the project should follow thescientific method and the studentsshould all maintain laboratory notebooksand prepare final written and/or oral

reports for the class.Many of the ideas contained in thisbook will also be suitable for individualprojects at science fairs andconventions. In these situations,students are generally expected to workindependently, with a written report anda display for the fair as the finalproducts. There are a number of goodreferences on the process of preparingprojects for science fairs. References

are listed in each chapter.

Safety and EthicalConsiderations

Basic safety precautions should be takenwhen an experiment is in progress. Allstudents should wear safety glasses atall times. In addition, some scienceprojects involve flammable or toxic

materials that are potentially hazardous,and extreme care should be taken. Andwhen heat or electricity is used, makesure the students wear protective glovesand handle the equipment correctly.Teachers should check their schoolpolicies and state laws concerning the


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use of hazardous chemicals or biologicalmaterials. (For example, mercurythermometers are rarely used at all inscience classrooms today.) Also,students anticipating science fair

competition should make sure theyunderstand the rules governing sciencefair projects. (Details should beavailable from the director of your local,regional, or state fair.)

There are ethical and legalconsiderations related to using animalsand human in science projectseventhose that simply ask questions ofpeople. The practice is generally

discouraged, both in classrooms and inscience fairs. However, if a vertebrateor human subject is to be used in ascience project, the teacher shouldconsult school policies and seek theadvice of appropriate schooladministrators. As is the case for safetyissues, students designing projects forscience fairs should understand theregulations on animal and humanexperimentation before beginning the

project.

About This Book

Throughout the process ofcompiling this book, weve benefitedtremendously from the all the teacherresearchers and their NREL mentorsthat have contributed to the projectideas.

First, the book is written forteachers and other adults who educatechildren in grades K-12 by K-12teachers. This allows us to includeprojects with a variety of levels of

difficulty, leaving it to the teacher toadapt them to the appropriate skill level.

Second, the book generallyfocuses on experimental projects thatdemonstrate the scientific method. We

believe that learning the experimentalprocess is most beneficial for studentsand prepares them for furtherendeavors in science and for life itselfby developing skill in making decisionsand solving problems. Although thismay appear to limit the booksapplication to more advanced studentsand more experienced science teachers,we believe that some of the ideas can

be applied to elementary school levelchildren and teachers as well. Inaddition, we recognize that there arenumerous sources of nonexperimentalscience activities in the field, and wehope this book will fill a gap in theavailable material.

Third, weve tried to address thedifficulties many teachers face in helpingtheir students get started on scienceprojects. By explaining the processes

and including extensive resourcesuggestions, we hope to make thescience projects more approachable andenjoyable. We hope the book willprovide direction for teachers who arenew to experimental science.

And finally, in each section ofideas, weve tried to include a broadsampling of projects that cover most ofthe important concepts related to each

technology.We hope the book will be helpfuland will fill a gap in published materialon science projects in renewable energyand energy conservation. If so, everymember of our society will benefit.


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Science projects are an effectivetool for helping students learn valuableskills theyll need later in their educationand their careers because they areinterdisciplinary activities involvingmath, language, arts, and otheracademic areas. Yet when students areasked to do a project for the first time-either alone or in a group-the processsometimes seems somewhatintimidating, and the student often hasa hard time knowing where to start.Thats why encouragement anddirection from the teacher are vital.

Keep in mind that involving eachstudent in a science project can often domore to generate interest in sciencethan a teacher can ever hope to achievethrough lectures and demonstrations.

Doing science projects may alsoseem difficult for teachers who were notscience majors or who are using scienceprojects as instructional tools for thefirst time, but it really isnt. All youneed to do is to coach students to break

the project up into manageable partsand follow the scientific method asoutlined in the next section. Thereferences cited in the back of the bookcan also help you get started. Andremember, you are not alone. In everycommunity-no matter how remote orsmall there are resources that can helpyou and your students.

Help and information can be

obtained from industries, hospitals,government agencies, educationdepartments, colleges, and universities,animal hospitals, zoos, and museums.

Dont overlook resources in yourown school district. Chances are goodthat someone has experience withscience projects or even specific

research interests. These people areoften quite willing to help either you oryour students. A number of schooldistricts even offer workshops that dealwith science projects (often withgraduate credit). You may find this agood way to get started. We also offersuggestions here that should be usefulto teachers when using science projectsas instructional tools.

Types of Science Projects

When introducing the concept of

science projects, one of your first taskswill be to help students understand thedifference between the basic types ofscience projects: nonexperimental andexperimental.

Nonexperimental projectsbasically display or demonstrateinformation that is already known; theydo not involve experiments designed bystudents to solve a problem. Projects of

this type are more useful to students inlearning how to search for informationabout a given topic on the web or in thelibrary and to report the informationgathered to the teacher or thoseinterested. In general, these projectsare not appropriate for competitivescience fairs and do not teach the skillsof critical thinking and problem solving.

Experimental projects involvethe student in critical thinking and

scientific processes, such as designingexperiments to solve problems,developing models of scientific conceptsor mathematical processes, collectingand recording data, analyzing andpresenting data, and drawingconclusions that result in some new

The Role of the Teacher


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understanding of a concept or idea.Projects of this type focus on discoveryand investigation. Unfortunately, theseprojects do not generally predominate ineither the classroom or at science fairs.

Tips for the Teacher

The teacher can help the studentat each step along the way of anexperimental project. Weve tried tooutline some tips below for each step.

1. Selecting a project topic

One of the most difficult parts of ascience project for students isselecting a topic. Too often,students think they must do aproject that involves truly ground-breaking research-like curingcancer or inventing something new.Thats not at all the case. Instead,you should encourage student tochoose an area of interest and useinformation written or presented by

others to identify a project topic.Above all, keep it simple! Thisprocess must begin early in the yearand can be accomplished in a varietyof ways:

Introduce students to possibletopics with each lesson orconcept presented and solicitideas.

Inform students early in the yearthat they will be doing a sciencefair project and that they shouldbe thinking about a topic.

Have students write down andassign priorities to areas ofinterest.

Encourage students to askquestions.

Provide lists of topic ideas forstudents to use. (Keep a list onfile and add to it as students

make suggestions and you readof new ideas.)

Have students read articles inscientific periodicals and ontrusted scientific websites. Thiscan help students focus onproject ideas.

Encourage students to go to thelibrary (or take them thereyourself.)

During the process of identifying atopic, the student reviews articleswritten by other researchers and is,in essence, conducting a literaturereview. Regardless of the studentsage, the teacher should encouragethe student to record the sources ofher information. We suggest usingindex cards because theyre easy toorganize. The student will need this

information when its time to writethe final report.

2. Identifying a specific problem orquestion

This portion of a science project isvery closely related to the selectionof a specific topic because it simplyinvolves asking questions about thetopic chosen. The difficulty comes in

deciding whether it is possible forthe student to answer the question.Here are some suggestions:

Have the student gather moreinformation, only this time bevery specific. If the topic is


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beyond you or the references inthe school library, look tocommunity resources or theinternet. Students will be lessfrustrated if they first learn some

basic background knowledgebefore beginning.

Have the student make thecommunity contacts. It may benecessary for you to make theinitial contact, but once this isdone, you will be able to call onthat person in the future.

Encourage the student to thinkabout-what she wants to find out-what materials and equipmentare needed-how shell try to answer thequestion.

3. Preparing the research proposal

Students of all ages should have aplan of action. The sophistication ofthis portion of the project depends

on the ability of the student, yourexpectations, and whether thestudent intends to participate in ascience fair. In all cases, theresearch proposal should containbackground information, problem orpurpose or hypothesis, experimentalplan, and references. Here are somesuggestions: Have each student prepare a

project proposal. Remind the student to write the

methods and materials section sothat anyone could read it and dothe experiments. Do not writethis section in steps, e.g., Step 1,Step 2, and so on.

Review the proposal anddetermine whether the project is- feasible for the student to do-safe-experimentally sound, e.g.,

experiments are controlled andonly one variable at a time istested, experiments arereplicable (important if statisticswill be applied).

Do not allow students to begintheir projects until they have yourapproval and have done theirbackground research.

Meet with each student andreview the project proposal.Discuss problems that might beencountered and the kinds ofdata she expects to collect.

Discuss how and where the dataare to be recorded.

4. Conducting the experiment(s)

This part of the project has thetendency to generate excitement

because of the anticipation that hasbuilt up in the planning stages.Students will approach this part at ahigh energy level and must bemonitored carefully so that theyoperate safely. It is also the timewhen problems will crop up. Toavoid some of these problems, wesuggest: Make certain that students have

a notebook for recording data

and that they have made planson how to do so, e.g., tables,charts, sketches, computers.

Have the student prepare aschedule for conductingexperiments and record it in hernotebook.


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Make sure that proper safetyprocedures are followed.

Encourage the student toapproach the experiment in aconservative fashion and not put

all her eggs in one basket. Inother words, conduct somepreliminary tests and refine theprocedures as necessary. Recordany revisions in the notebook.

Monitor progress frequently atthis stage.

5.Analyzing and interpreting thedata

In this section, you will most likelyneed to spend extra time monitoringthe students progress. Analysis andpresentation of ones data areextremely important because theycan facilitate the interpretive processand the formulation of conclusions.If students have not had practice inpreparing graphs and tables, or indoing simple mathematical

calculations, then it may be prudentto present a lesson at this point.Here are some suggestions that maybe helpful. Quantitative data usually are best

presented in tables and graphswith the aid of graphing softwaresuch as Excel. Have someexamples on hand such as thosefound in journals, textbooks, oreven from the work of other

students. Insist that advanced students

apply simple statistics such ascalculating the mean, standarddeviation, standard error of themean, t-tests, or Chi-square.Remember, experimental design

is important when it comes to theapplication of statistics.

Coach the student to prepare anarrative in her notebook thatpresents the data and refers to

graphs and tables. A resultssection that includes only a tableor graph and no text is notcomplete.

Emphasize that results are bestpresented in a straightforwardmanner, with no conclusions orvalue judgments. (This is hardfor most students to do but is askill one can develop.) Instead,significant data should be pointedout.

Remind students that use ofphotographs, sounds, and evenvideo, are excellent ways toreport qualitative data and toshow comparisons orrelationships. However cautionthe student to keep the mediafocused more on the science thanentertainment so that it does not

distract from the project.

6. Interpreting and discussing theresults

Now its time for the student toexplain what she thinks the resultsmean. Again, this is a skill thatmany students have not fullymastered and is one that improveswith practice. The tendency is for

the student to make statements thatare not supported by the data. Ifthe data have been analyzed andpresented in a satisfactory manner,inferences can be made more easily.If not, frustration tends to build inboth the teacher and the student.


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Be patient and consider thesesuggestions.

Have the student prepare a list ofconclusion statements and any

possible patterns (interpretationsof the data) and write them inher notebook.

Meet with the student and goover the statements. If studentsare working in groups on aproject, meet with all of them atthe same time. Some teacherswill have sessions where studentspresent their data andconclusions to the class. This istimes consuming, but it is veryeducational for the students andmay give them some new ideas.Students could even createPowerPoint presentations.

Once conclusion statements havebeen developed, have thestudent prepare a writtendiscussion that includesdescriptions of any patterns or

relationships that she thinks aremeaningful. In effect, she ispreparing a defense of herproject conclusions.

7. Preparing the final report

Whether students are working ingroups or as individuals, it isimportant that you require a finalwritten report. The format of this

report is up to you, the teacher, butwe suggest you follow the outlinepresented in the next chapter of thisbook. It would be unfair to assumethat students could instantly write afinal report by simply giving them alist of the components. But if the

student has followed the guidelinesup to this point, most of the materialis completed, either in the researchproposal or her notebook. Here aresome additional suggestions.

Decide, before students begintheir projects, what you want inthe final report. (Students doingprojects for science fairs will needto include all the suggestedcomponents in the section onHow To Do a ScienceProject.) This is also a greatopportunity to team up with alanguage arts teacher andintegrate the curriculum with thelanguage arts teachings intechnical writing.

Before students begin preparingtheir final reports, review theformat and explain what youexpect.

8. Preparing for the oral report

If you have used science projects asa class activity, then you should giveeach group or individual theopportunity to share with the classthe results of the research. This isimportant in building communicationskills and can serve as a source ofinformation about science for otherstudents. It is also the job of allscientists to communicate what theyhave learned from their research.

Here are some suggestions:

Limit the presentations to amaximum of 10 minutes followedby 5 minutes of questions fromthe class.


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Have students pattern the formatafter the written report: title,introduction, statement of theproblem or hypothesis, methods(brief), discussion, and analysis &

conclusions. Allow the group reports to be

longer because every member ofthe group must be involved insome aspect of the oralpresentation.

Help prepare students competingin science fairs. They wont havetimed presentations, but they willhave to explain their projects to

judges. Many teachers will havestudents who are preparing forscience fairs present their projectresults to other students andundergo intense questioning oftheir conclusions. This is goodpractice and sharpens theirpresentations.

9. Preparing displays for sciencefairs

Preparing displays can be very timeconsuming and requires a lot ofplanning by the student beforepreparation. Most project displaysare prepared by the student athome, but parts can be prepared atschool, depending on the facility andthe teacher. For example, theschool can supply computers,printers, copy machines, and art

supplies. Students will need accessto this equipment, thereforeinvolving the teacher. Somesuggestions: Secure registration information,

rules and regulations, and otherrequirements from the science

fair director well in advance ofthe science fair. Included in thisinformation should be instructionsand size limitations for scienceproject displays.

Have the student prepare a planillustrating the layout of herdisplay before actual constructionbegins. There are severalreferences in this book that areuseful and contain informationthat is directly related. Here isanother opportunity to integratecurriculum with the art teacher.

A couple of other pointers canhelp you throughout the process. Ourfirst suggestion is to establish aschedule at the outset, so that eachstudent knows whats expected.Science projects take time to plan andcomplete; therefore, careful planningmakes the work more enjoyable for thestudent and the teacher, especially if itprevents working past midnight theweek before the due date. If you are

using projects as classroom activities,you are easily looking at 1-3 weeks ofclass time from beginning to end.Students who are working on projectsfor science fairs should expect to spend2-6 months. Dont let this discourageyou from using science projects as alearning tool. Some of the best learningtakes place when students are involved.Here are some suggestions forestablishing a schedule.

Break up the project into units thatfollow the steps outlined in thissection.

Allocate time to each unit dependingon your objectives or when the sciencefair is to be held.


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Give a copy of the schedule to eachstudent and post it on the bulletinboard. Some teachers even prepare alarge visual display on a bulletin boardthat depicts how much is done by a

certain time.

Finally, dont overlook thepositive contributions that your studentsparents can make. They often serve askey actors science fair projects. Youshould capitalize on this resource andprovide information to parents in theform of:

Guidelines for selecting projectsGuidelines for constructing projectsGuidelines for parental involvementGrading or judging criteriaSchedule for completing various

aspects of the projects.

This information should beprovided to parents in written form.Some teachers send the informationthrough the postal service or present it

a parent meeting early in the process.A little assistance to parents canestablish their role and set them up asguides who can provide individualizedinstruction to their child. Not only willlearning take place, but sharingbetween parent and child will beenhanced.

The ideas presented in thissection are not intended to be answersto all problems facing teachers who use

science projects as instructional tools.Instead, they represent usefultechniques that teachers have used as afoundation for developing their ownideas and strategies in using scienceprojects in or out of the classroom.Teachers play key roles in the education

of children, and they must continue toidentify and develop strategies thatresult in the improvement of skills increative thinking and problem solving.The use of science projects offers, in or

out of the classroom, one strategy todevelop these skills. We hope that youuse the suggestions presented in thisbook and that its resources can help youdevelop your own strategies forteaching creative thinking skills.


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The scientific method is a patternof inquiry that forms a structure for

advancing scientific understanding. Byidentifying a problem, forming ahypothesis, designing and conducting anexperiment, taking data, and analyzingthe results, scientists have answeredquestions ranging from the simplest tothe most complex. Yet the process canbe broken down into several distinctsteps.

Weve tried to be quite explicit in

outlining the steps of the process. Andwe believe doing all the steps isappropriate for the student doing anindividual projecteither as a classroomproject or for a competitive fair. On theother hand, teachers doing projects inthe classroom might choose to skipsome of the steps, depending on thelevel of the students and the timeavailable.

1. Identify an area of interest Decide what area of science is

of interest e.g. physics, biology,chemistry, or engineering.

Narrow the area of interest sothat it is more specific, e.g.solar energy, plants, orstructures.

2. Gather information

Our knowledge of the world resultsfrom ideas and observations madeby us and others. Many of theseobservations are recorded in suchscientific literature as scientific

journals, government documents,periodicals, websites, and books.

Search for information in thearea of interest in the library

and on the internet. Begin in an organized manner

by using reference materialsuch as the Readers Guide orthe card catalog.

Keep in mind that mostscientific journals publishinformation pertaining to asingle field of science. Forexample, the American Journal

of Physics and the AmericanJournal of Botany relate tospecific topics. On the otherhand, some periodicals, such asScientific Americanand Science,cover a range of scientificissues.

Make sure to record theauthor(s), titles of the articleand the journal, the pagenumbers, website addresses,

and pertinent publishinginformation for every referenceused. (Recording thisinformation on note cards ishelpful.)

3. Select a specific problemwithin the area of interestIt is important to narrow theresearch area to a specific

problem. One common error is totry to do too much. (This processwould be repeated as moreinformation is gathered.

How To Do a Science Pro ect


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4. Gather more information

It may be necessary to return tothe library and look for informationthat deals directly with the

specific topic. Look for ideas thatmay help in the experimentaldesign or for ideas thatcomplement the topic.

5. Plan an investigation or anexperimentKeep these things in mind whendesigning the experiment:

What are the variables? Are the variables appropriate? Are the variables independent? Are the variables measurable? What kind of controls will be

included? What data will be collected? Is the experiment designed

appropriately if the results areto be analyzed statistically?

Are the materials and

equipment available? Are there any special safety or

environmental concerns?

If the project uses mathematical orcomputer modeling instead ofexperimentation, how will theresults be validated? Is there away to test the model?When the approach to theexperiment is clear, its time towrite a proposal. The proposalshould describe the experiment indetail, including required materialsand equipment, any safetyconcerns, and expected results. Itwill allow the teacher or thescience fair review committee to

evaluate the appropriateness of theproject.

Include the following in theproposal:

Background information: Areview of the literaturesummarizing informationrelated to the project. Be sureto cite all references.

Purpose and hypothesis: A briefdescription of the purpose ofthe project and a statement ofthe hypothesis.

Experimental design: A detailedexplanation of the research planand the materials needed isincluded in this section. Themethods and materials shouldbe described in a way thatanyone could duplicate theexperiment(s).

Literature cited and references:Include a list of all authors andwebsites cited and list ofsupplemental references.

6. Obtain approval of theproposal from the teacher orscience fair review committee

7. Conduct the experiment(s) andcollect data

Record the data in a notebook.Record the data immediately,completely, and accurately. (It

is better to record too muchdata then not enough.)

Record other observationsabout the progress, takepictures, make sketches. Aresome things not goingaccording to plan? Are there


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any surprises? Theseobservations may be importantlater.

8. Organize and report the results

Most data involve numbers and canbe quantified. Therefore, usingstatistics, graphs, tables, andcharts is appropriate. Remember,this is the portion of the researchon which conclusions are based.The better this portion ispresented, the easier it is toformulate conclusions. Datashould be presented:

In written or word processedform with graphs, table andcharts

Without conclusions or valuejudgments.

9.Analyze and discuss the resultsThink about the results. What dothey mean? How should they beinterpreted? By discussing various

aspects of the experiment andobservations, provide additionalcontext for the results shown bythe data. Look for patterns,relationships, and correlations.

10. Formulate conclusionsWas the hypothesis supported ordisproved? This is an importantstep and must emphasize what hasbeen learned from doing the

project. Conclusion statementsmust be supported by datacollected and related directly to thepurpose and hypothesis.

11. Assess the projectDid the experiment go as planned?If so, were there other interestingaspects that deserve follow-upresearch? If the experiment did

not go as planned, why not? Wasthe hypothesis too broad? Was theexperimental design inappropriate?If the hypothesis was notconfirmed, what was learned?

Answers to all these questions canhelp form recommendations forfurther research.

12. Write the final reportThe final report, whether it is to bepresented orally or in written form,should include the following:

Title- should be self-explanatory, i.e.

the reader should be able to tellwhat the research is aboutwithout reading the paper.

Avoid technical jargon in thetitle.

Abstract- a brief condensation of the

entire report, 150 to 250 wordsfor advanced students; shorterfor students in lower gradelevels. This should be writtenlast.

- Includes the purpose, very briefexplanation of methods, andconclusions.

Introduction

- contains backgroundinformation with citedreferences and a statement ofthe problem or purpose.

Methods and Materials


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- contains an explanation of howthe work was done(experimental design)

- describes materials what? how used?

- Is stated briefly and clearly sothat others could repeat theexperiments.

Results- includes written explanation of

the data in a straightforwardmanner with no conclusions or

judged statements- uses tables, graphs, pictures,

and other types of data whereappropriate.

Discussion- explains what the results mean- describes patterns,

relationships, and correlations. Conclusions- presents the important

conclusions that the readerneeds to know

- includes a discussion ofproblems encountered and

recommendations for furtherresearch.

Literature Cited- lists alphabetically by author all

published information referredto in the text of the paper.Other references can be usedand referred to in abibliography.

Acknowledgements- lists and gives credit to people

who were helpful in providingmaterials and equipment orideas.

13. Present the results orallyIf this is a project for theclassroom, make an oralpresentation about the work to theclass. If the project is for a

science fair, prepare a display (seescience fair officials for details) andprepare to discuss the project withthe judges. In either case, beprepared by:

becoming knowledgeable aboutthe project

practicing the presentationbefore others

talking clearly acting interested dressing neatly


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On the following pages youll findideas contributed by a select group ofteacher researchers from across the

nation for science projects in all therenewable energy technologies. Wevealso included ideas in related areas,such as superconductivity and materialand chemical processesthese aretechnologies that will increase theusefulness of renewable energysystems. In addition, weve included aproject for geothermal energy, which,strictly speaking, is inexhaustiblenotrenewable. For each technology, we

begin with a brief introduction and a listof sources of information relevant tothat particular topic.

Most of the ideas for projects inenergy efficiency relate to uses ofenergy familiar to students. Theyshould help show the student the widevariety of actions that can be taken tosave energy in our homes, schools, andbusinesses. Yet these topics dont beginto demonstrate the diverse researchunder way in government and industrylaboratories that will save energy in ourindustries, our utilities, and ourtransportation system. Research inthese areas is very industry-specific andis difficult to summarize with a fewscience projects. If youd like to pursuethese areas further, contact the U.SDepartment of Energy

For each project idea, weve tried

to give you enough information to getstarted without providing all theanswers. Weve given hints on how toset up and conduct the experiment andincluded schematics, where appropriate.Lists of special required equipment(other than standard laboratoryequipment) are also included. In

addition, information on specificresources should help you find specialequipment or in-depth information on

the individual project. In this case,weve tried to keep references generalto avoid naming specific companies orindividual scientists. You can refer tothe Resources section of each sectionfor more detailed information. Finally,many projects include tips for expandingthe idea for more advanced students.

And a special note about safetyeach project idea lists unusual safety orenvironmental concerns. However, the

lists are not exhaustive and do not listbasic safety principles common to alllaboratory procedures such as wearingprotective eyewear and clothing. Ifyoure unsure about a certainprocedure, always err on the side ofprecaution. And if youre new to thebusiness of conducting science projects,seek advice from an experiencedteacher or the science coordinator inyour school district.

At the end of each section weveadded a list of simple statements orquestions that could form the basis foradditional projects. These shouldprovide lots of ideas for you and yourstudents.

We hope youll use the whitespaces and the blank pages designedinto the book to record more ideas,lessons learned, and personal

experiences gained from conducting thevarious projects. If you find errors inthis book, please bring them to theattention of the NREL EducationPrograms at the National RenewableEnergy Laboratory in Golden, CO at303-275-3000.

Project Ideas


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One of the fun parts of science isdiscovering things on your own. This is

the focus of Standard A, Science asInquiry, from the National Science

Education Standards. Under the abilitiesto do scientific inquiry, this standardstates, "Students should develop the

ability to refine and refocus broad andill-defined questions." For this reason,we recommend stating the objective,

and then have the students try to figureout the best options for accomplishingthat objective. We think this is a better

approach than giving a step-by-stepcookbook approach to making

instruments that measure the sun'senergy. Because of this, we suggest thatyou do not show students this book andinstead have the students try to designand test their work as much as possiblewith a little coaching from you. After the

students have designed and tried theirexperiments, get them to suggest

improvements and if there is time, testtheir improvements. After these

experiments are run, then teach theconcepts about why they work.

All projects have an element of inquiry

(standard A) by posing questions andthen having the student try to discoverthe answer through the data collection,interpretation, and communication.Because the projects involve the sunand it's energy, all include physicalscience transfer of energy (standard B)and earth science through the relationof the sun and how it affects the earth(standard D). In addition to thesestandards, each of the projects has

additional strengths. The sciencecontent standard letter shows in thesecond column as well as other strongareas. You know your students the best,but we've also included a suggestedrange of grades for each project.

Project Key Standards Grades

Pizza BoxOven

E-Design 6-8(3-5 if givenWeb site first)

SolarResourceSimulator

E-Design, D-Earth, socialstudies

6-8

MeasuringSolarRadiation

E-Design 6-12

Length ofDay aroundthe World

A-Communication(ePals), D-Earth,social studies,English

3-8

Capture

SolarEnergy!

A-

Communication(ePals), math

8-12

(3-7 temponly)

For the Teacher

What does the Sun give us?


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Pizza Box Solar Heater: The firstproject is the pizza box solar heater. Weare excited because it has so manypossibilities to teach multiple standardsand to motivate students. We suggest

you do the following:

1. Give each group of students apizza box.

2. Have available in a supply area forall students various materials suchas glue, scissors, clear packingtape, new overheadtransparencies, wax paper,aluminum foil, white, black, andother colors of construction paper).

3. Tell the students that theirobjective is to make the hottest"oven" possible using the sun.

4. You may want to stimulate priorknowledge by asking them why itgets hot in a car.

5. In the first period, have thestudents design their oven in anotebook.

6. During this period or the next,work with the class to design arubric on what is meant by the

"best" oven. Options could includehottest oven, quickest to heat,easiest design and instructions toread.

7. In the second class period, havethe students construct their pizzabox oven.

8. In the third period, ask thestudents what factors might affectthe temperature in their oven(outside air temperature, wind,clouds). Ask them to measure

these factors and the oventemperature over time. Make sureyou have thermometers that canregister up to 300F or 150C.

9. If you have time in a fourth period,have students graph thetemperature over time.

10. Allow additional periods to havethe students communicate abouttheir oven and improve theirdesign.

11. After the students build the"ultimate" ovens, ask the studentswhy they think the best ovensworked the way they did. Thiscould be a discussion or written.

12. Have students grade their ovensbased on the rubric the classcreated.

13. Allow students to improve theirgrade by making changes to their

oven, possibly as homework.14. Only at this point would we

introduce the students to the Website(http://www.solarnow.org/pizzabx.htm. You could have the studentsconstruct the oven on the siteusing their instructions andcompare the performance.

15. When students start talking aboutthe sun's angles, colors of the

paper, ability of the sunlight tobounce and stick in the box, youcan introduce the physical science(content standard B) concepts.These may include light, heat, andenergy definitions includingreflection, absorption, photons vs.
http://www.solarnow.org/pizzabx.htmhttp://www.solarnow.org/pizzabx.htmhttp://www.solarnow.org/pizzabx.htmhttp://www.solarnow.org/pizzabx.htm


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waves, motions of molecules, andso forth. The discussion could alsolead to the sun's energy and howthe tilt of the earth producesdifferent seasons because the rays

of the sun spread out more or lessdirectly (Earth in the Solar System- content standard D).

16. If desired as a final assessment,have the students explain indiagrams and words, why the boxheats up. This should include theirideas in step 11 but would alsoinclude the technical terms that theclass discussed in step 15.

17. Another final assessment is to havethe students design an even moreefficient solar cooker or waterheater using any materials theyhave. You could tell the studentsthat the goal would be to speed upthe time for the temperature toreach a certain point or increasethe maximum temperature.

18. As a bonus, have the students cooks'mores, popcorn, cookies, hotdogs

or something else fun in their pizzaboxes.

Solar Resource Simulator: Projectnumber 2 is also a versatile teachingtool: it can be adapted to teach EarthSystems (seasons) as well as PhysicalScience (properties of light). Further,the visual nature of the project can help

meet the needs of a variety of learnersand address common misconceptions ofEarth Systems.

Class Project ideas: The classcould investigate the differences in

voltage for a given geographic region asthe year progresses. For example: in thesummer, the North Pole may read 0.35vand 0.00v in the winter. Create aspreadsheet and graph the solarirradiance (in volts or amperage) for agiven area over a given time frame. Theclass could also investigate the changesthat occur when the Earth is tiltedgreater than or less than 23.5.

Measuring Solar Radiation: We likedthe pizza box solar cooker because it isso inexpensive to make and most of thematerials you can easily get. Thepyranometer is more expensive, butgives more immediate results. Thisinstrument measures the sun's energyby displaying electrical current. It offersa great introduction or illustration ofmeasuring energy and the concepts of

electricity. The benefit of thisexperiment is that the results from themeter are immediate and you canchange the environmental conditionsand get the result right away. Boththese experiments can lead todiscussions of pollution and globalwarming.


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Length of Day Around World: Thisexperiment is the least expensive if youalready have a computer and anInternet connection. The strength of thisproject is that your students get to

communicate with other classesthroughout the world and so in additionto the Physical and Earth Standardsyou're working on, you can includesocial students (geography) standardsas well. Because of the possibilities ofcommunicating and analyzing otherresults with students across the worldvia the Internet this project meets thecommunication portion Science asInquiry (content standard A) andScience and Technology (contentstandard E).

You will need to sign up a fewweeks before you want to do thisproject. First, go to www.epals.com andsign up your class. Second, find classesthat also want to work on this project.

Capture Solar Energy: Project 5 isanother lesson that is very inexpensiveand a good lesson in understanding

energy conversion. As an extension,students could start with ice below 0Cand graph the temperature increase.Students should see the slope of thegraph decrease at 0C due to the latentheat of fusion (heat of fusion for wateris 0.366 Joules/ gram).

Other ideas: Students can calculatethe efficiency of the solar collector andchallenge each other to build moreefficient solar collectors.

Calculations: The following is anexample of calculating the energycaptured by a solar collector.

How much solar energy is captured if100ml of water is raised 10 degreesover 10 minutes using a 10cm x 10cmsolar collector?

Answer:1. 100ml water x 1 g/ml = 100g2. 100 g x 10C = 1000 calories3. 1000 cal x 4.186 Joules=4,186 J4. 10 minutes x 60 seconds = 600seconds5. 4,186 J 600 s = ~ 6.97 Watts

Answer = ~ 6.97 Watts

To convert to W/M2:1. 10cm x 10cm = 100cm2 = 0.01M2

2. 6.97 Watts 0.01M2

= 697 W/M2

Answer: 697 W/M2

*Note: Solar irradiance is ~ 1000 W/M2on a clear summer day.

For elementary and middle schoolstudents, you could modify thisexperiment to just have studentsmeasure temperature of this apparatuson various days. Have students recordother possible environmental factorsthat might affect the temperature of thewater. To reinforce the inquiry basis ofthis experiment, ask the students aboutwhich variables they think might affectthe water temperature.
http://www.epals.com/http://www.epals.com/


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This is the second experimentthat would work well through globalcollaboration with www.epals.com.Have classes throughout the world sendyou their data.

National Science EducationStandards by the National Academyof Sciences

Science Content Standards: 5-8Science As Inquiry Content Standard A:

Abilities Necessary To DoScientific Inquiry

Understandings About Scientific

InquiryPhysical Science- Content Standard B:

Transfer of EnergyEarth Science- Content Standard D:

Earth in the Solar SystemScience and Technology- Content Standard E:

Abilities of technological designUnderstandings about scienceand technology

Science Content Standards: 9-12Science As Inquiry Content Standard A:

Abilities Necessary To DoScientific Inquiry

Understandings About ScientificInquiry

Physical Science- Content Standard B:

Conservation of energy and

increase in disorderInteractions of energy andmatter

Earth Science- Content Standard D:

Energy in the Earth SystemScience and Technology- Content Standard E:

Abilities of technological designUnderstandings about science

and technology


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Ah, the sun. Picture yourselfoutside right now, or even better gooutside if the sun is shining. What do

you think the sun is good for? How doesit affect you? There is no right answer.Just think a minute before you continuereading.

One of the ideas that you mayhave thought is that the sun provides usheat. It feels so good when we are coldand we feel the warm sun on our skin.Of course, if we have too much sun, weget sunburned. Can you imagine if theEarth were closer to the sun? Yeah, we

would get toasted. If we had too muchsun, it would be too hot for us and otherliving things to live. The sun has anamazing amount of heat and we get justa very small amount since we are so faraway, but that amount is just right forus.

Another idea you may havethought of is light. Without the sun, wecouldn't see. You say, "what about themoon?" Aha, the moon doesn't have anylight of its own. All of the light we see is

really sunlight that is reflected orbounced off our moon.

You might argue again, well Iwould just turn on a light or use aflashlight. Then I would be able to see.Well, where did that energy to shine thelight come from? In fact, where doesthe energy to build, light, and heat ourhouses and schools come from? The sunactually has created almost all of theenergy we use today. Oil and gas ismade up of compressed plants anddinosaurs and other living things frommany millions years of ago. The livingthings depended on plants to makeenergy from sunlight. That energy wasstored and we get to use it now, at leastuntil we run out or it gets too expensive.

If we want to find more energy,we can look back to the sun itself. Allthe light and heat we feel is energy that

we might be able to use. How muchenergy could the sun give us? Howmuch would this energy cost us? Howcan we capture the energy and use itfor our needs? You will be doing someexperiments that will begin to answerthese questions.

The first experiment you can dois build a solar oven from a pizza box.The energy from the sun will increasethe temperature. The more efficient you

make your solar oven and the moreenergy available from the sun, thehigher the temperature will go. You canmeasure the energy you have by usingan oven thermometer.

Technology Description


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For Advanced Students: The term forthe amount of energy produced by thesun over a specific area is solar

irradiation and is usually expressed interms of watts per square meter(Watts/m2). One of the ways you canmeasure this energy is through specialinstruments called pyranometers orpyrheliometers. A pyranometermeasures the sun's radiation and anyextra radiation that has been scatteredby particles in the sky. A pyrheliometermeasures the direct sun's radiation. Inproject 3 you make a pyranometer and

pyrheliometer by using a solar cell (alsocalled a photovoltaic or PV cell). Youconnect the cell to something thatmeasures current such as a millameteror voltmeter.

The first step in understandingsolar irradiation is understanding thesun itself. The sun is a sphere ofintensely hot gasses about 150 millionkilometers from Earth. The temperature

on the sun ranges from about 5,700degrees Celsius at the surface to anestimated 14 million degrees Celsius inthe center. The amount of energy thatreaches earth is an extremely smallfraction, only about one-billionth of theenergy on the sun.

This energy that reaches theoutside of the Earth's atmosphere onlychanges about +/- 3% over the courseof the year. This energy is known as thesolar constant. The number for this is

generally accepted as 1367 Watts/m2

).However, the dust, air molecules, andmoisture in the atmosphere, combinedwith the exact location of the observerin relation to the sun, dictate theamount of energy that reaches Earth'ssurface. In project 2 you measure thedifference in energy between differentparts on a model of the Earth and inproject 4 you measure the amount oflight people see in different parts of theworld.

Resources:C. Freudenrich, "How the Sun Works,"

[Online document], Available:http://science.howstuffworks.com.

National Aeronautics and SpaceAdministration (NASA), "The Sun.NASA Fact Sheet," [Online

document], Available:www.nasa.gov.

National Aeronautics and SpaceAdministration (NASA), "Watchingthe Sun: Measuring Variation in SolarEnergy Output to Gauge its Effect onLong-term Climate Change" [Onlinedocument], Available:http://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/and http://terra.nasa.gov/. These

sights also contain images and dataabout global conditions.

National Renewable Energy Laboratory(NREL), "Glossary of Solar RadiationResource Terms," [Onlinedocument], Available: www.nrel.gov.
http://science.howstuffworks.com/http://www.nasa.gov/http://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/http://terra.nasa.gov/http://www.nrel.gov/http://www.nrel.gov/http://terra.nasa.gov/http://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/http://www.nasa.gov/http://science.howstuffworks.com/


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National Renewable ResourcesLaboratory (NREL), Science Projectsin Renewable Energy and EnergyEfficiency, 1991, American SolarEnergy Society.

1 Pizza Box Solar Oven

Learning Objective: To design andeffective pizza box solar oven.

Questions: How can you trap theenergy from the sun and turn it intosomething useful, like heat? Whatfactors will affect how high thetemperature will go?

Control and Variables: Day of year(season and tilt of earth will determinehow direct the rays of the sun are), skyconditions (pollution, clouds),temperature of the air, design and

dimensions of oven.

Materials and Equipment: Pizza box(eat out or ask for one at a pizzarestaurant), black construction paper,aluminum foil, clear transparencies(office supply store), scissors, clearpacking tape or glue, drinking straw ordowel to hold the box open, oventhermometer.

Safety and EnvironmentalRequirements: Never look directly atthe sun. If the temperature in your ovengets too warm, you may need ovenmitts or open the box and wait until thebox cools down to touch anything insidethe box.

Suggestions: Cover bottom of boxwith aluminum foil and then a layer ofblack paper. One inch from the edge ofthe box cut a hole in the top of the boxleaving one edge on the same side asthe box's hinge. Glue aluminum foil on

inside part of the box lid. Tape clearplastic over this hole. When you gluethe clear plastic to the pizza box, makesure you have a tight seal. Point theopening of the box directly at the sunand prop the lid open. Record thetemperature inside the box on differentdays. Also, record any data you thinkmight affect the temperature in the box(cloud cover, date and time, andtemperature outside the box). After youcheck your temperature, line your boxwith plastic wrap and try cookingpopcorn, cookies, or heating water tomake tea or hot chocolate.

For your science project displaythe data you recorded above. Explainhow the oven works. Make suggestionson how to create a better solar oven.For example, you might check outhttp://www.solarnow.org/pizzabx.htm

and see how they did their box.

Project Ideas
http://www.solarnow.org/pizzabx.htmhttp://www.solarnow.org/pizzabx.htm


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2 Solar Resource Simulator

Learning Objective: To design anearth-sun simulator in order to learnhow solar energy is distributed aroundthe Earth.

Control and Variables: Day of theyear, time of day.

Costs: solar cell = $5, multimeter =$20, globe = varies, 100 Watt halogenlamp = $10 (you can substitute with aprojector if available)

Project:

Materials and Equipment: Worldglobe or Styrofoam sphere, solar celland/or pyranometer, multimeter, Velcrotape, protractor/angle finder, projectorand/or halogen lamp.

Solar cells, voltmeter, halogen lamp andprojector can be found at majorelectronic stores. You can purchase theStyrofoam sphere at a hobby shop.

Safety and EnvironmentalRequirements:CAUTION: Don't lookdirectly at the sun or projector. You candamage your eyesight permanently.

Suggestions: Cut the Velcro strip longenough to reach both North and Southpoles. Tape the other side of Velcro tothe solar cell. Stick the solar cell whereyou want on the globe or Styrofoam

sphere. Place the projector or lightsource about 20-30 inches from theglobe and shine the light on theequator. Make sure the solar cell isparallel to the globe's surface. Measurethe voltage/amperage for North Pole,40 N latitude, the Tropic of Cancer, theequator, the Tropic of Capricorn, 40 Slatitude, and the South Pole.

Further Inquiry:1. Compare the length of time of

illumination and angle of light rayswith the energy collected from thesolar cell. For example record theenergy for direct rays for 5, 10, and15 minutes. Then record the energyfor indirect rays.

2. Investigate the effects of distancefrom light source to the solar cell.Compare this to the distance sunlight

travels through the atmosphere fromsunrise to noon and/or the equatorto the Arctic Circle.

3. What conclusions can you make?What can you say about how hot thesun must be to receive the amountof energy at the Earths surface?

3 Measuring Solar Radiation

Learning Objective: To measure theenergy of the sun.

Questions: How much solar radiation isavailable each day? Week? Month?

Control and Variables: Day of year(hours of daylight), orientation of

Solar cell atequator

Projectoror halogen

lamp

Solar cellat North

multimeter
http://window.opener.immdownload%28%27tr00262_%27%2C%278%27%2Cescape%28window.opener.content.location.href%29%2C%271%27%29/http://window.opener.immdownload%28%27tr00262_%27%2C%278%27%2Cescape%28window.opener.content.location.href%29%2C%271%27%29/


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equipment toward sun: Horizontal, tiltangle, azimuth, sky conditions.

Materials and Equipment: Solar cell.Paper towel tube or another tube that is

10 times longer than radius.Millammeter (0-50) or resistors and avoltmeter (0-10 volts).

Safety and EnvironmentalRequirements: CAUTION: Do notlook directly at the sun. It can damageyour eyesight permanently.

Suggestions: Install a low-cost

pyranometer (without tube) andpyrhellometer (with tube) system asshown in the figures. Compare the datayou get with summaries of the 30-yearmeans.

Further Inquiry:1. Compare direct sun (with tube) with

full sky radiation (without tube).2. How does cloud cover and humidity

affect measurements?

3. How do different colored filters affectmeasurements? Try coloredtransparencies or other transparentmaterial.

4. How does air pollution affect yourresults? What could you use tosimulate air pollution?


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4 Length of Day around theWorld

Learning Objective: To measure howthe length of day changes depending onwhere you are in the world.

Control and Variables: Day of yearand geographic location.

Materials and Equipment: Internetaccess, local newspaper.

Suggestions: Epals.com is a Web sitefor students and teachers. This site

allows you to communicate with over 4million students around the world. Theteacher needs to sign up the class first.

You will need to record how long theday is and send this information to otherstudents throughout the world andrecord and graph their answers.

5 Capture Solar Energy!

Objective: To measure solar energywith a homemade solar collector.

Variables: Time of day, time of year,location, atmospheric conditions.

Special Equipment: square plasticfood storage container, black paint,heavy-duty clear plastic wrap,thermometer, graduated cylinder, clock

/ watch, and ruler.

Set up:

Hints: What was the volume of waterbefore you started? What is the area ofyour solar collector? What was thetemperature of the water vs. outside airbefore you began your investigation?What was the final temperature of thewater? Did you use the metric system?How often did you record thetemperature? What did the graph looklike?

Useful Conversions:1 calorie = 1 gram water raised 1C

1 Watt = 1 Joule per second (1 J/s)1 calorie = 4.186 Joules

Area = Length x Width1 ml water = 1 gram waterStandard irradiance value (Suns Power)= Watts per Meter squared (Watts/ M2)

Further Inquiry:1. Does the rate of temperature

increase differ if you started with iceinstead of water?

2. Can you use something other thanwater to collect the Suns energy?

3. What factors can affect solarirradiance?

4. How does outside air temperaturesaffect your measurements?

Solar collector(black storage

container)

Sun

Plastic

wrap

Thermomete


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What is the connection betweenweather variables, such as temperature,

relative humidity, and cloudiness, andthe changes in available solar energy.

How does the available solar energychange with altitude or elevation? (Hint:How does the density of the atmospherechange with altitude?)

How does the brightness of variousindoor lamps compare to that ofsunlight?

How would you determine theapproximate solar radiation resource atyour home if you had values for severalcities nearby?

How does the pattern of solar radiationthrough the day (or year) match theneed for air conditioning, heating,cooking, and hot water in your home?

Where are the warmest and coldestparts of your home in the summer? Inthe winter? Compare the locations withthe position of the sun in the sky.

How much solar energy comes fromscattered light rather than directly fromthe sun? What factors affect this?What is the color of sunlight?

How rapidly does the focused light froma magnifying glass move at differenttimes of a day?

How does a light source spread out withdistance?

How can you determine solar noon andsolar north at various longitudes anddays of the year?

Why are sunrises and sunsetspredominantly red?

Why does the sky turn blue?

Why are the oceans blue?

Investigate the terrestrial solarirradiance spectrum, why is the UVspectrum relatively low? Why are there

dips periodically in the spectrum? (Forirradiance data: www.nrel.gov/srrl

More Project Ideas
http://www.nrel.gov/srrlhttp://www.nrel.gov/srrl


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Derek Nalley and Scott Pinegar

National Science Standards:

Standard A: Science as Inquiry: Students have theability to develop questions/ideas, formulate tests andexperiments, analyze data and come to conclusionsabout their questions/ideas.Specific standards met in this module:

Abilities necessary to do scientific inquiry Understandings about scientific inquiry

Standard B: Physical Science: Students know and understand the nature of

matter from the microscopic to the macroscopic levels and the interaction ofenergy and matter. Students understand mathematics as an interpretation ofphysical phenomena.Specific standards met in this module:

Conservation of energy and increase in disorder Interactions of energy and matter

Standard D: Earth and Space Science: Students understand the earthsprocesses, interaction of matter and energy, origin and evolution of the earthsystem and the universe.Specific standards met in this module:

Energy in the earth system

Standard E: Science and Technology: Students understand the interrelationshipbetween science and technological design and advancement.Specific standards met in this module:

Abilities of technological design Understandings about science and technology

Standard F: Science in Personal and Social Perspectives: students understandhealth issues relating to their own health and the health of communities.Students understand the human impact on natural resources and theenvironment and that they are part of a global environment.Specific standards met in this module:

Natural Resources Environmental quality Natural and human induced hazards Science and technology in local, national, and global challenges

Photovoltaics and Solar Energy


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Standard G: History and Nature of Science: Students understand that science isdone by humans either individually or in teams and can be done on a small scaleof field tests or on a large scale with many scientists working on one question.Science is also a unique way of knowing which depends on logic and observationof the natural world and also is ever changing based on new ideas and data.

Specific standards met in this module: Science as a human endeavor Nature of scientific knowledge

Teachers Overview:This module will address issues dealing with the energy from the sun, the energyneeds of students in the classroom and ultimately energy needs as a nation.Students will use a Photovoltaic (PV) cell to measure the energy from the sun.Using a light bulb with a known wattage the students will illuminate the lightbulb using the PV cell. This way the students will know the approximate energycoming from the PV cell. An alternative way for the students to calculate theenergy coming from the PV cell is to measure the voltage and the current outputfrom the PV cell across a resistor and use the equation P = IV to calculate thepower produced. This is the way that is planned out in the labs related to thisunit. From here the students use the efficiency of the PV cell and the area of thecell to calculate the energy of the sun at that time of day. Also students willexperiment with different color filters to determine the energy output of the solarpanel at different wavelengths. This will allow them determine the spectrum oflight in which the sun emits the most energy.

At home the students keep track of the energy they use in terms of kilowatt-

hours by finding the energy usage of all of the appliances they use on a dailybasis. After investigating their daily usage of energy the students can thencalculate how much PV they would need in order to supply them with the energythey use on a daily basis. Next they compare the benefits of using PV rather thanconventional means of electricity generation such as coal burning or nuclearpower. Specifically the students calculate how much coal is required to createthe electricity they use on a daily basis and then compare this cost to the cost ofthe PV system they would need. Environmental benefits and consequences arealso addressed in this comparison.

Learning Objectives:

Students will learn about energy conservation and transformation, specificallyfrom radiant energy to electrical energy. Students will understand scientificinquiry as it pertains to taking data and making conclusions about that data.Students will understand their personal connection to the energy they use andthe cost of generating that energy. Students will explore further the energyassociated with the Earth/Sun system and how the energy from the sun drivesmany of the processes on Earth. Finally the students will begin to understand the


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connection between science and technology, the limitations of technology andwhat science and engineering is doing to overcome these limitations.

Time Allotted:Pre-Test and Review: 45-50 min

Introduction and basic instruction: 2 hrsLab-Measuring the Suns energy(Weather Dependent): 2 hrsHW-Student Energy Use worksheet: 30 minLab-Measuring the Suns Spectrum(Weather Dependent) 1 hrLab-Measuring the Suns Spectrum(Plant setup in advance) 1 hrReview of nation wide energy use: 30 minResearch Traditional methods of electricity production: 1 hrDesign PV system that fits students energy needs: 30 minResearch cost of PV system: 30 minCompare/Contrast PV electricity and Coal electricity 1 hrPost-Test 1 hr

Vocabulary:PhotovoltaicWattsKilowatts

Kilowatt Hours

Photoelectric EffectCurrent

VoltagePower

EfficiencySpectrumWavelengthFilter

Resources/Materials:Materials

Photovoltaic Solar Cells with attached resistor (10 Ohm)

(www.siliconsolar.com prices range from $6.00 to $20.00)Color Filters (Clear, Red, Green, Blue, Black)

(www.pasco.com Ray box color filter set)5 Cardboard Boxes (shoe boxes work well, students can donate from

home)5 Plants (Any green house, Home Depot, Lowes etc)

$2 - $3 per plantWorksheets (see attached)

Measuring Suns Energy LabMeasuring Suns Wavelength LabPlant Info Sheet

Student Energy Use worksheetPre-TestPost-TestElectricity generation research on world wide webPrice list of PV cells for home use
http://www.siliconsolar.com/http://www.siliconsolar.com/http://www.pasco.com/http://www.pasco.com/http://www.pasco.com/http://www.siliconsolar.com/


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ResourcesWorld Wide Web for research on electricity generation and PV pricelists.

Prerequisite Knowledge:

Beginning the lesson the students must have a basic knowledge of thephotoelectric effect. Generally, students would not come into class with thisknowledge so the introduction must give a short explanation of the effect. Thisdoes not have to be in much depth, just enough to understand that light can beconverted to electricity.

Main Activities:Labs-Measuring the Suns Energy and Spectrum

1. Students are given an introduction to the equipment they will be usingand how to use the equipment properly/safely.

2. Students read the procedure as they follow along while the teacherdemonstrates each step of the lab. This is presented in front of the entire

class.3. Give students time to set up the lab and begin testing theirapparatus.4. The next day students have the class period to set up theirapparatus and take data for the lab.

HW Student Energy Use Profile1. Hand out profile worksheet to each student.2. Explain the procedure for the profile and explain any calculations that

need to be done within the profile worksheet. This should be presented to

the entire class.3.Answer any individual question that may arise after the explanation.

Research Traditional Electricity Production1. This will be done on the internet, suggested websites should be given so

students may find the information.2. Present assignment to the entire class explaining each question they must

answer.3. Give the rest of the class period for the students to do independent

research on the internet.Design a PV System

1. Students must have their energy use profile done and with them to do

this activity.2. Each student will use their energy profile and the data they collected in

the Measuring the Suns Energy lab to calculate the area of PV theywould need to supply them with electricity.

3. Walk the students through a simple example calculation of the area of PVthat they would need.


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4. Give students websites/handouts that have price lists of PV systems thatthey can choose from. Students then decide on the cost of their personalPV system.

Compare/Contrast PV Electricity to Traditional Electricity1. Demonstrate to the students the format of writing desired by the teacher.

(ex: Two column list, paragraph form, essay form, etc)2. Each student should have their work from the previous activities before

they attempt this activity. Students should use the information that theyobtained through the unit to support their points in this activity.

Evaluation:Pre-Test

The pre-test will evaluate the students knowledge of PV and solar energyat the beginning of the module.

Post-TestThe post-test will be given to the students after the module to formally

examine their knowledge of the material covered. This test will cover the basicknowledge students should have gained about PV systems, the suns spectrum,the environmental impact of traditional energy production, the cost analysis ofthe PV system, energy conservation and transformation, the earth/sun energyrelationship, and the basic calculations that the students performed during themodule.

Formative AssessmentsThe formative assessments such as the lab, the compare/contrast

assignment and other activities will assess student knowledge of scientificinquiry, energy transfer and conservation, the connection between science andtechnology, and personal and social perspectives of the science.


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Answer the following questions to the best of your ability.

1. Electricity is generated when a photon of light reacts with what other typeof substance?a. metal b. waterc. glass d. plastic

2. How much estimated energy reaches the surface of the earth?a. 300 watts b. 1500 watts/meter2c. 1000 watts/meter3 d. 1000 watts/meter2

3.A particular solar panel produces 500 watts of power. How many 150 wattlight bulbs could the solar panel completly light up?a. 4 light bulbs b. 3 light bulbsc. 7 light bulbs d. 9 light bulbs

4. How is most of the electricity generated in the United States?a. Coal power plants b. Hydroelectric power plantsc. Nuclear power plants d. Wind farms

5. In a solar panel we convert ____________ energy to ____________

energy.a. chemical, electrical b. electrical, radiantc. kinetic, chemical d. radiant, electrical

6. (True/False) The energy from the sun is completely transformed intoelectrical energy by using a solar panel.

7. (True/False) We will never run out of fossil fuel natural resources thatcreate the majority of the electricity we use in the United States.

8. Describe, in the space below, how you might measure the amount of

energy is coming from the sun at any given time during the day.

Photovoltaic Pre-Test


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In this lab you and your partnerwill measure the energy of the sunusing a small solar panel, a meterstick and a calculator. You will see from just a few simple calculations and

measurements the energy from the sun can be calculated.

Part I: Angle of the sun

Part II: Set up of the solar panel

Use the solar panel that you have been given and set it up so that its face isperpendicular (90 degrees) to a ray of sunlight that is coming from the sun.Measure the angle of the solar panel with respect to the ground and label thisangle in a diagram you draw in the space provided below.

1. Write down the time of day you are

taking the measurements in the box to

the right.

2. Measure the height of the post in the

court yard in meters.

3. Measure the length of the shadow of

the post in meters.4. Draw a diagram of this situation and

label the lengths on the diagram.

5. Calculate the angle of the sun from

your measured height and length using

the following equation:

Tan = Post height/shadow length

6. This is the angle of the sun at this

time of day.

Time: _______________

Post height: _________________

Shadow Length: _________________

Diagram:

Angle: ________________ (show work below)

Solar Panel Diagram

LAB:Measuring the Power from the Sun


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Part III: The Data

Now you must perform the experiment and collect the data for this experiment.

Part IV: The calculations

Now that you have measured thecurrent and the voltage from the solar panel you can calculate the power givenby the solar panel using the equation Power = Current x Voltage. Do thiscalculation and show your work below. (dont forget units)

The power calculated above is the power given by the solar panel, but the solarpanel has a particular efficiency. This means that the solar panel only convertspart of the energy of the sun to electricity. Use this efficiency to calculate thepower coming from the Sun. (dont forget units)

The power of the sun is a bit misleading because the power that the solar panelproduces is a function of its area. Thus it is better to talk about the energy of the

1. Measure the area and find theefficiency of the solar panel. Draw a

diagram of that area below and label

the length of each side.

2. Measure the current and voltage

coming from the solar panel when

everything is set up correctly.

The Data:

1. Area of Solar Panel: _______________

Efficiency: ___________

2. Current: _____________Voltage: _____________

Power: ______________

Power of the Sun: ______________


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sun per area. We call this quantity the Irradiance of the sun and use the unitsW/m2. Use the area measurement of the solar panel and determine theirradiance of the sun in W/m2. Use the space provided below to show your work.

Part V: Analysis Questions

1.A house that is run completely on solar power will have a maximum needof 10.5 kW of energy at any one time. If you use the solar panels that weused in this lab to supply the power, what would the total solar panel areaneed to be?

2. What would we have to do in order to decrease the area of the solarpanels in question 1 above?

3. What are the advantages to using solar power to provide energy to ahouse over the traditional methods of providing energy?

4. What are the disadvantages of using solar power to provide energy to ahouse?

Irradiance of the Sun: ______________


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In this lab you and your partnerwill measure the energy ofdifferent light spectra using a smallsolar panel, a meter stick, color filters, plants, cardboard boxes, and a calculator.

You can then decide which spectrum of light the sun is radiating more and thenfind out why certain things in nature are how they are.

Part I: Setting up the plant boxes

Start with 5 plants that are as close to identical as possible. Measure theindividual plants height and take note of how healthy the plant looks. Makenotes of any dead or wilting leaves. Keep the plant info sheet with the plant sothat its info isnt mixed with another plant.

Now take the five cardboard boxes and remove the top and one side for eachbox. Place a plant in each box and center it. Now tape the individual color filtersonto each box so that they fully enclose the plant, but do not tape it so securelythat it cant be removed easily. This is because youll still need to water theplants daily. Tape the plant info sheet to the back of the box.

You should now have 5 boxes, one with a clear filter, black filter, green filter, redfilter, and blue filter enclosing the plant; each with plant info attached. Place theboxes in the window so that each is facing outward to get the most sunlight intothe box.

Part II: Measuring the angle of the sun

1. Write down the time of day you are taking the

measurements in the box to the right.

2. Measure the height of the post in the court

yard in meters.

3. Measure the length of the shadow of the post in

meters.

4. Draw a diagram of this situation and label the

lengths on the diagram.

5. Calculate the angle of the sun from your

measured height and length using the following

equation:

Tan = Post height/shadow length

6. This is the an le of the sun at this time of da .

Time: _______________

Post height: _________________

Shadow Length: _________________

Diagram:

Angle: ________________ (show work below)

LAB:Measuring the Suns Spectrum


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Part III: Set up of the solar panel

Use the solar panel that you have been given and set it up so that its face isperpendicular (90 degrees) to a ray of sunlight that is coming from the sun.Measure the angle of the solar panel with respect to the ground and label this

angle in a diagram you draw in the space provided below.

Part IV: The Data

Now you must perform the experiment and collect the data for this experiment.

Solar Panel Diagram

1. Measure the current and voltage

across the resistor attached to t

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