Handbook ofLighting Design

E EditionRüdiger GanslandtHarald Hofmann

Vieweg

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Title Handbook of Lighting Design

Authors Rüdiger GanslandtHarald Hofmann

Layout and otl aicher andgraphic design Monika Schnell

Drawings otl aicherReinfriede BettrichPeter GrafDruckhaus Maack

Reproduction Druckhaus Maack, LüdenscheidOffsetReproTechnik, BerlinReproservice Schmidt, Kempten

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© ERCO Leuchten GmbH, LüdenscheidFriedr. Vieweg & Sohn Verlagsgesell-schaft mbH, Braunschweig/Wiesbaden1. edition 1992

The Vieweg publishing company is a Ber-telsmann International Group company.

All rights reserved. No part of this publi-cation may be reproduced in any form orby any means without permission fromthe publisher. This applies in particular to(photo)copying, translations, microfilmsand saving or processing in electronic systems.

Printed in Germany

For the most part of the history of mankind,from the origins of man up to the 18.century, there were basically two sourcesof light available. The older one of thesetwo is daylight, the medium by whichwe see and to whose properties the eye hasadapted over millions of years. A considerabletime elapsed before the stone age, withits development of cultural techniques andtools, added the flame as a second, artificial light source. From this timeon lighting conditions remained the same for a considerable time. The paintings in the cave of Altamira were created to beviewed under the same light as Renaissanceand Baroque paintings.

Lighting was limited to daylight andflame and it was for this very reason thatman has continued to perfect the appli-cation of these two light sources for tensof thousands of years.

1.1.1 Daylight architecture

In the case of daylight this meant consi-stently adapting architecture to the requirements for lighting with natural light.Entire buildings and individual roomswere therefore aligned to the incidence ofthe sun’s rays. The size of the rooms was also determined by the availability ofnatural lighting and ventilation. Differentbasic types of daylight architecture developed in conjunction with the lightingconditions in the various climatic zonesof the globe. In cooler regions with a predominantly overcast sky we see the development of buildings with large, tallwindows to allow as much light into thebuilding as possible. It was found that diffuse celestial light produced uniformlighting; the problems inherent to brightsunshine – cast shadow, glare and overheating of interior spaces – were restricted to a few sunny days in the yearand could be ignored.

In countries with a lot of sunshinethese problems are critical. A majority of the buildings here have small windows located in the lower sections of the buil-dings and the exterior walls are highly reflective. This means that hardly any directsunlight can penetrate the building. Eventoday the lighting is effected in the mainby the light reflected from the building’ssurfaces, the light being dispersed in the course of the reflection process and alarge proportion of its infrared componentdissipated.

When it came to the question of whetherthere was sufficient light, aspects relating to aesthetic quality and perceptualpsychology were also taken into accountwhen dealing with daylight, which is evident in the way architectural details aretreated. Certain elements were designeddifferently according to the light availableto promote the required spatial effectthrough the interplay of light and shadow.In direct sunlight reliefs, ledges and the

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1.1 History1.1.1 Daylight architecture

The history of architecturallighting

1.1

Daylight architecture: large, tall windows.

Sunlight architecture: small, low windows, reflective outer walls.

1.1 History1.1.2 Artifical lighting

fluting on columns have a three-dimensionaleffect even if they are of shallow depth.Such details require far more depth underdiffuse light to achieve the same effect.Facades in southern countries thereforeonly needed shallow surface structures,whereas the architecture of more northern latitudes – and the design of interior spaces – was dependent on morepronounced forms and accentuationthrough colour to underline the structureof surfaces.

But light does not only serve to renderspatial bodies three-dimensional. It is anexcellent means for controlling our perception on a psychological level. In oldEgyptian temples – e.g. in the sun temple of Amun Re in Karnak or in Abu Simbel –you will not find light in the form of uniform ambient lighting, but as a meansto accentuate the essential – colonnadesthat gradually become darker allowthe viewer to adapt to lower lighting levels,the highlighted image of the god thenappearing overwhelmingly bright in con-trast. An architectural construction canfunction similar to an astronomical clock,with special lighting effects only occurringon significant days or during particularperiods in the year, when the sun rises or sets, or at the summer or the winter solstice.

In the course of history the skill to createpurposefully differentiated daylightingeffects has been continually perfected,reaching a climax in the churches ofthe Baroque period, – e.g. the pilgrimagechurch in Birnau or the pilgrimage churchdesigned by Dominikus Zimmermann in Upper Bavaria – , where the visitor’sgaze is drawn from the diffuse brightnessof the nave towards the brightly lit altar area, where intricate wood carvingsdecorated in gold sparkle and stand out in relief.

1.1.2 Artificial lighting

A similar process of perfection also tookplace in the realm of artificial lighting, a development that was clearly confined bythe inadequate luminous power providedby the light sources available.

The story began when the flame, thesource of light, was separated from fire,the source of warmth - burning brancheswere removed from the fire and used fora specific purpose. It soon became obviousthat it was an advantage to select piecesof wood that combust and emit light particularly well, and the branch was replaced by especially resinous pine wood.The next step involved not only relying on a natural feature of the wood, but, inthe case of burning torches, to applyflammable material to produce more lightartificially. The development of the oillamp and the candle meant that man thenhad compact, relatively safe light sourcesat his disposal; select fuels were used eco-

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The influence of light onnorthern and southernarchitectural design. Inthe south spatial formsare aligned to the correlation of the steepangle of incident sun-light and light reflectedfrom the ground. In thenorth it is the lowangle of the sun’s raysthat affects the shapeof the buildings.

Greek oil lamp, a massitem in the ancientworld

Oil lamp made of brass

1.1 History1.1.2 Artificial lighting

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Lamps and burners da-ting back to the second half of the 19.century, copper engra-ving. Based on theconstruction of the Argand burner, the oillamp was adaptedthrough numeroustechnical innovationsto meet a wide varietyof requirements.The differences betweenlamps with flat wicksand those with themore efficient tubularwicks are clearly evi-dent. In later paraffinlamps the light fuel

was transported to theflame via the capillaryaction of the wickalone, earlier lampsthat used thick-bodiedvegetable oils requiredmore costly fuel supplysolutions involvingupturned glass bottlesor spring mechanisms.In the case of especi-ally volatile or thick-bodied oils there werespecial wickless lampsavailable that producedcombustible gaseousmixtures through the inherent vapourpressure produced by the volatile oil or byexternal compression.

1.1 History1.1.3 Science and lighting

nomically in these cases, the torch holderwas reduced to the wick as a means oftransport for wax or oil.

The oil lamp, which was actually de-veloped in prehistoric times, representedthe highest form of lighting engineeringprogress for a very long time. The lamp itself – later to be joined by the candlestick– continued to be developed. All sorts of magnificent chandeliers and sconceswere developed in a wide variety of styles,but the flame, and its luminous power, remained unchanged.

Compared to modern day light sourcesthis luminous power was very poor, and artificial lighting remained a make-shift device. In contrast to daylight, whichprovided excellent and differentiatedlighting for an entire space, the brightnessof a flame was always restricted to its direct environment. People gathered around the element that provided light or positioned it directly next to the objectto be lit. Light, albeit weak, began to mark man’s night-time. To light interiorsbrightly after dark required large numbers of expensive lamps and fixtures,which were only conceivable for courtlygatherings. Up to the late 18th centuryarchitectural lighting as we know it today remained the exclusive domain of day-lighting.

1.1.3 Science and lighting

The reason why the development of effi-cient artficial light sources experienceda period of stagnation at this point in timelies in man’s inadequate knowledge in thefield of science. In the case of the oillamp, it was due to man’s false conceptionof the combustion process. Until the birth of modern chemistry, the belief laiddown by the ancient Greeks was taken to be true: during the burning process a substance called “phlogistos” was released.According to the Greeks, any materialthat could be burned therefore consistedof ash and phlogistos ( the classical elements of earth and fire), which were separated during the burning process –phlogistos was released as a flame, earthremained in the form of ash.

It is clear that the burning processcould not be optimised as long as beliefswere based on this theory. The role of oxidation had not yet been discovered. It was only through Lavoisier’s experimentsthat it became clear that combustion was a form of chemical action and thatthe flame was dependent on the presenceof air.

Lavoisier’s experiments were carriedout in the 1770s and in 1783 the new fin-dings were applied in the field of lighting.Francois Argand constructed a lamp thatwas to be named after him, the Argandlamp. This was an oil lamp with a tubularwick, whereby air supply to the flame was effected from within the tube as well as from the outer surface of the wick.

Improved oxygen supply together with anenlarged wick surface meant a huge andinstantaneous improvement in luminousefficiency. The next step involved surroun-ding wick and flame with a glass cylinder,whereby the chimney effect resulted in an increased through-put of air and a further increase in efficiency. The Argandlamp became the epitome of the oil lamp. Even modern day paraffin lamps workaccording to this perfected principle.

Optical instruments have been recognisedas aids to controlling light from very earlytimes. Mirrors are known to have beenused by ancient Greeks and Romans andthe theory behind their application setdown in writing. There is a tale about Archimedes setting fire to enemy shipsoff Syracuse using concave mirrors. And there are stories of burning glasses,in the form of water-filled glass spheres.

At the turn of the first millennium,there were a number of theoretical worksin Arabia and China concerning the effectof optical lenses. There is in fact concreteevidence of these lenses dating fromthe 13th century. They were predominantlyused in the form of magnifying glasses or spectacles as a vision aid. The materialfirst used was ground beryl. This costlysemi-precious stone was later replaced byglass, manufactured to a sufficiently clearquality. The German word for glasses is “Brille”, demonstrating a clear semanticlink to the original material used for thevision aid.

In the late 16th century the first tele-scopes were designed by Dutch lens grinders.In the 17th century these instrumentswere then perfected by Galileo, Keplerand Newton; microscopes and projectorequipment were then constructed.

At the same time, some basic theoriesabout the nature of light originated.Newton held the view that light wasmade up of numerous particles – a view that can be retraced to ancient time. Huygens, on the other hand, saw light asa phenomenon comprising waves. The twocompeting theories are substantiated by a series of optical phenomena and existedside by side. Today it is clear that light can neither be understood as a purely particle or wave-based phenomenon,but only through an understanding of thecombination of both ideas.

With the development of photometrics– the theory of how to measure light –and illuminances – through Boguer andLambert in the 18th century, the most essential scientific principles for workablelighting engineering were established. The application of these various correlatedfindings was restricted practically exclu-sively to the construction of optical in-struments such as the telescope and themicroscope, to instruments therefore thatallow man to observe, and are dependenton external light sources. The activecontrol of light using reflectors and lenses,known to be theoretically possible and

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Christiaan Huygens. Isaac Newton.

Paraffin lamp with Argand burner.

1.1 History1.1.4 Modern light sources

occasionally tested, was doomed to faildue to the shortcomings of the lightsources available.

In the field of domestic lighting thefact that there was no controllable, centrally situated light available was notconsidered to be a concern. It was com-pensated for by family gatherings aroundthe oil lamp in the evenings. This short-coming gave rise to considerable problemsin other areas, however. For example, in lighting situations where a considerabledistance between the light source and the object to be lit was required, aboveall, therefore, in street lighting and stagelighting, and in the area of signalling, especially in the construction of lighthouses.It was therefore not surprising that the Argand lamp, with its considerably improved luminous intensity not only served to light living-rooms, but was welcomed in the above-mentioned criticalareas and used to develop systems thatcontrol light.

This applied in the first place to streetand stage lighting, where the Argandlamp found application shortly after itsdevelopment. But the most important usewas for lighthouses, which had previouslybeen poorly lit by coal fires or by using a large number of oil lamps. The proposal to light lighthouses using systems compri-sing Argand lamps and parabolic mirrorswas made in 1785; six years later the ideawas used in France’s most prominentlighthouse in Cordouan. In 1820 AugustinJean Fresnel developed a composite system of stepped lens and prismatic ringswhich could be made large enough to concentrate the light from lighthouses;this construction was also first installedin Cordouan. Since then Fresnel lenses havebeen the basis for all lighthouse beaconsand have also been applied in numeroustypes of projectors.

1.1.4 Modern light sources

The Argand lamp marked the climax of a development which lasted tens of thou-sands of years, perfecting the use of theflame as a light source. The oil lamp at itsvery best, so to speak. Scientific progress,which rendered this latter developmentpossible, gave rise to the development of completely new light sources , whichrevolutionised lighting engineering at anincreasingly faster pace.

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Beacon with Fresnellenses and Argand burners.

Augustin Jean Fresnel.

Fresnel lenses and Argand burners. Theinner section of the luminous beam is con-centrated via a steppedlens, the outer sectiondeflected by means of separate prismaticrings.

1.1 History1.1.4 Modern light sources

1.1.4.1 Gas lighting

The first competitor to the Argand lamp wasgas lighting. People had known of the existence of combustible gases sincethe 17th century, but gaseous substanceswere first systematically understoodand produced within the framework ofmodern chemistry. A process for recoveringlighting gas from mineral coal was developed in parallel to the Argand lampexperimentation.

Towards the end of the 18th centurythe efficiency of gas lighting was demon-strated in a series of pilot projects – a lecturehall in Löwen lit by Jan Pieter Minckellaers;a factory, a private home and even an automobile lit by the English engineerWilliam Murdoch. This new light sourceachieved as yet unknown illuminance levels. It was, however, not yet possible tointroduce this new form of lighting on a large scale due to the costs involved inthe manufacture of the lighting gas and in removing the admittedly foul-smellingresidues. A number of small devices weredeveloped, so-called thermo-lamps,which made it possible to produce gas forlighting and heating in individual house-holds. These devices did not prove to be as successful as hoped. Gas lighting onlybecame an economic proposition with the coupling of coke recovery and gasproduction, then entire sections of townscould benefit from central gas supply.Street lighting was the first area to be connected to a central gas supply, followed gradually by public buildingsand finally private households.

As is the case with all other lightsources a series of technical developmentsmade gas lighting increasingly more efficient. Similar to the oil lamp a varietyof different burners were developedwhose increased flame sizes provided increased luminous intensity. The Argandprinciple involving the ring-shaped flamewith its oxygen supply from both sidescould also be applied in the case of gas lighting and in turn led to unsurpassedluminous efficacy.

The attempt to produce a surplus ofoxygen in the gas mixture by continuingto develop the Argand burner produced a surprising result. As all the carbon con-tained in the gas was burned off to pro-duce gaseous carbon dioxide, the glowingparticles of carbon that incorporated thelight produced by the flame were no longerevident; this gave rise to the extraor-dinarily hot, but barely glowing flame ofthe Bunsen burner. There was therefore a limit to the luminous intensity of self-luminous flames; for further increases in efficiency researchers had to fall backon other principles to produce light .

One possibility for producing highly efficientgas lighting was developed through thephenomenon of thermo-luminescence, theexcitation of luminescent material by

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Lighting shop windowsusing gas light (around1870).

Carl Auer v. Welsbach.

Drummond’s limelight. The incandescentmantle as invented by Auer v. Welsbach.

1.1 History1.1.4 Modern light sources

heating. In contrast to thermal radiation,luminous efficacy and colour appearancein this process were not solely dependenton the temperature, but also on the kindof material; more and whiter light was produced using temperature radiationmethods.

The first light source to work accordingto this principle was Drummond’s limelight, which was developed in 1826.This involved a piece of limestone beingexcited to a state of thermo-luminescencewith the aid of an oxy-hydrogen burner.Limelight is admittedly very effective, butrequires considerable manual control withthe result that it was used almost exclu-sively for effect lighting in the theatre. It was only in 1890 that Austrian chemistCarl Auer von Welsbach came up with a far more practical method for utilisingthermo-luminiscence. Auer von Welsbachsteeped a cylinder made of cotton fabric in a solution containing rare earths – sub-stances that, similar to limestone, emit a strong white light when heated. Theseincandescent mantles were applied toBunsen burners. On first ignition the cottonfabric burned, leaving behind nothing butthe rare earths – the incandescent mantle ineffect. Through the combination of theextremely hot flame of the Bunsen burnerand incandescent mantles comprising rareearths, the optimum was achieved in the field of gas lighting. Just as the Argandlamp continues to exist today in the form of the paraffin lamp, the incandescentor Welsbach mantle is still used for gaslighting, e.g. in camping lamps.

1.1.4.2 Electrical light sources

Incandescent gas light was doomed to gothe way of most lighting discoveries thatwere fated to be overtaken by new lightsources just as they are nearing perfection.This also applies to the candle, which only received an optimised wick in 1824to prevent it from smoking too much.Similarly, the Argand lamp was pipped atthe post by the development of gaslighting, and for lighting using incandescentmantles, which in turn had to competewith the newly developed forms of electriclight.

In contrast to the oil lamp and gaslighting, which both started life as weaklight sources and were developed to be-come ever more efficient, the electric lampembarked on its career in its brightestform. From the beginning of the 19thcentury it was a known fact that by crea-ting voltage between two carbon electrodesan extremely bright arc could be pro-duced. Similar to Drummond’s limelight,continuous manual adjustment was required, making it difficult for this newlight source to gain acceptance, added to the fact that arc lamps first had to beoperated on batteries, which was a costlybusiness.

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Hugo Bremer’s arclamp. A simple springmechanism automati-cally controls the dis-tance between thefour carbon electrodesset in the shape of a V.

Jablotschkow’s versionof the arc lamp, ex-posed and with glassbulb.

Arc lighting at thePlace de la Concorde.

1.1 History1.1.4 Modern light sources

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Siemens’ arc lampdating back to 1868.According to the des-cription: an adjustablespotlight complete with“concave mirror, car-riage, stand and anti-dazzle screen" –the oldest luminaire in Siemens’ archives documented in the formof a drawing.

1.1 History1.1.4 Modern light sources

About mid-century self-adjusting lampswere developed, thereby eliminating theproblem of manual adjustment. Generatorsthat could guarantee a continuous supplyof electricity were now also available. It was, however, still only possible to operateone arc lamp per power source; seriesconnection – “splitting the light”, as it wascalled – was not possible, as the differentburning levels of the individual lampsmeant that the entire series was quicklyextinguished. This problem was only solved in the 1870s. The simple solutionwas provided by Jablotschkow’s version of the arc lamp, which involved twoparallel carbon electrodes set in a plastercylinder and allowed to burn simulta-neously from the top downwards. A morecomplex, but also more reliable solutionwas provided by the differential lamp, developed in 1878 by Friedrich v. Hefner-Alteneck, a Siemens engineer, wherebycarbon supply and power constancy wereeffected via an electromagnetic system.

Now that light could be “divided up” thearc lamp became an extremely practicallight source, which not only found individual application, but was also usedon a wide scale. It was in fact appliedwherever its excellent luminous intensity could be put to good use – once again inlighthouses, for stage lighting; and, aboveall, for all forms of street and exteriorlighting. The arc lamp was not entirely suitable for application in private homes,however, because it tended to produce far too much light – a novelty in the fieldof lighting technology. It would takeother forms of electric lighting to replacegas lighting in private living spaces.

It was discovered at a fairly early stage,that electrical conductors heat up to pro-duce a sufficiently great resistance, andeven begin to glow; in 1802 – eight yearsbefore his spectacular presentation of thefirst arc lamp – Humphrey Davy demon-strated how he could make a platinum wireglow by means of electrolysis.

The incandescent lamp failed to esta-blish itself as a new light source for technical reasons, much the same as the arclamp. There were only a few substancesthat had a melting point high enough tocreate incandescence before melting.Moreover, the high level of resistance required very thin filaments, which weredifficult to produce, broke easily andburnt up quickly in the oxygen in the air.

First experiments made with platinumwires or carbon filaments did not producemuch more than minimum service life.The life time could only be extended whenthe filament – predominantly made of carbon or graphite at that time – wasprevented from burning up by surroundingit with a glass bulb, which was either evacuated or filled with inert gas.Pioneers in this field were Joseph WilsonSwan, who preceded Edison by six months with his graphite lamp, but above

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Heinrich Goebel, experi-mental incandescentlamps (carbon fila-ments in air-void eau-de-cologne bottles).

Joseph Wilson Swan,Swan’s version of theincandescent lampwith graphite filamentand spring base.

Thomas Alva Edison,Edison lamps, platinumand carbon filamentversion, as yet withoutthe typical screw cap.

1.1 History1.1.4 Modern light sources

all Heinrich Goebel, who in 1854 producedincandescent lamps with a service life of 220 hours with the aid of carbonizedbamboo fibres and air-void eau-de-colognebottles.

The actual breakthrough, however, wasindeed thanks to Thomas Alva Edison,who in 1879 succeeded in developing anindustrial mass product out of the experimental constructions created by hispredecessors. This product correspondedin many ways to the incandescent lamp as we know it today – right down tothe construction of the screw cap. The filament was the only element thatremained in need of improvement. Edison first used Goebel’s carbon filamentcomprising carbonized bamboo. Latersynthetic carbon filaments extruded fromcellulose nitrate were developed. The lu-minous efficacy, always the main weaknessof incandescent lamps, could, however,only be substantially improved with the changeover to metallic filaments. This iswhere Auer von Welsbach, who had already made more efficient gas lightingpossible through the development of theincandescent mantle, comes into his ownonce again. He used osmium filamentsderived through a laborious sinteringprocess. The filaments did not prove to bevery stable, however, giving way to tantalumlamps, which were developed a little later and were considerably more robust.These were in turn replaced by lampswith filaments made of tungsten, a mate-rial still used for the filament wire inlamps today.

Following the arc lamp and the incandes-cent lamp, discharge lamps took theirplace as the third form of electric lighting.Again physical findings were availablelong before the lamp was put to anypractical use. As far back as the 17th century there were reports about luminousphenomena in mercury barometers. But it was Humphrey Davy once againwho gave the first demonstration of howa discharge lamp worked. In fact, at the beginning of the 18th century Davy ex-amined all three forms of electric lightingsystematically. Almost eighty years passed, however, before the first trulyfunctioning discharge lamps were actuallyconstructed, and it was only after the incandescent lamp had established itselfas a valid light source, that the first discharge lamps with the prime purposeof producing light were brought onto the market. This occured at around the turn of the century. One of these was the Moore lamp – a forerunner of the modern-day high voltage fluorescenttube. It consisted of long glass tubes ofvarious shapes and sizes, high voltage and a pure gas discharge process. Anotherwas the low-pressure mercury lamp,which is the equivalent of the fluorescentlamp as we know it today, except that ithad no fluorescent coating.

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Cooper-Hewitt’s low-pressure mercury lamp.This lamp workedmuch like a modern-day fluorescent tubebut did not containany fluorescent mate-rial, so only very littlevisible light was pro-duced. The lamp wasmounted in the centrelike a scale beam, be-cause it was ignited by tipping the tubes bymeans of a drawstring.

Theatre foyer lit byMoore lamps.

1.1 History1.1.5 Quantitative lighting design1.1.6 Beginnings of new lighting design

The Moore lamp – like the high-voltage fluorescent tube today – was primarily used for contour lighting in archi-tectural spaces and for advertising purpo-ses; its luminous intensity was too low to be seriously used for functional lighting.The mercury vapour lamp, on the otherhand, had excellent luminous efficacy values, which immediately established it asa competitor to the relatively inefficientincandescent lamp. Its advantages were,however, outweighed by its inadequatecolour rendering properties, which meantthat it could only be used for simplelighting tasks.

There were two completely differentways of solving this problem. One possibilitywas to compensate for the missing spectral components in the mercury vapour discharge process by adding lumi-nous substances. The result was the flu-orescent lamp, which did produce goodcolour rendering and offered enhanced luminous efficacy due to the exploitationof the considerable ultra-violet emission.

The other idea was to increase thepressure by which the mercury vapourwas discharged. The result was moderatecolour rendering, but a considerable in-crease in luminous efficacy. Moreover, thismeant that higher light intensities could be achieved, which made the high-pressure mercury lamp a competitor to thearc lamp.

1.1.5 Quantitative lighting design

A good hundred years after scientific re-search into new light sources began all the standard lamps that we know todayhad been created, at least in their basicform. Up to this point in time, sufficientlight had only been available during daylight hours. From now on, artificiallight changed dramatically. It was no longera temporary expedient but a form of lighting to be taken seriously, rankingwith natural light.

Illuminance levels similar to those ofdaylight could technically now be pro-duced in interior living and working spacesor in exterior spaces, e.g. for the lightingof streets and public spaces, or for the floodlighting of buildings. Especially inthe case of street lighting, the temptationto turn night into day and to do awaywith darkness altogether was great. In theUnited States a number of projects wererealised in which entire towns were lit byan array of light towers. Floodlighting on this scale soon proved to have more dis-advantages than advantages due to glareproblems and harsh shadows. The days of this extreme form of exterior lightingwere therefore numbered.

Both the attempt to provide comprehen-sive street lighting and the failure ofthese attempts was yet another phase inthe application of artificial light. Whereas

inadequate light sources had been themain problem to date, lighting specialistswere then faced with the challenge of purposefully controlling excessiveamounts of light. Specialist engineersstarted to think about how much light was to be required in which situationsand what forms of lighting were to be applied.

Task lighting in particular was examinedin detail to establish how great an influence illuminance and the kind oflighting applied had on productivity. The result of these perceptual physiologicalinvestigations was a comprehensive work of reference that contained the illuminance levels required for certain visual tasks plus minimum colour renderingqualities and glare limitation require-ments.

Although this catalogue of standardswas designed predominantly as an aid for the planning of lighting for workplaces,it soon became a guideline for lighting in general, and even today determineslighting design in practice. As a planningaid it is almost exclusively quantity-oriented and should, therefore, not be regarded as a comprehensive planning aidfor all possible lighting tasks. The aim of standards is to manage the amount oflight available in an economic sense, based on the physiological research thathad been done on human visual require-ments.

The fact that the perception of an object is more than a mere visual task andthat, in addition to a physiological process,vision is also a psychological process, was disregarded. Quantitative lighting design is content with providing uniformambient lighting that will meet the re-quirements of the most difficult visualtask to be performed in the given space,while at the same time adhering to thestandards with regard to glare limitationand colour distortion. How we see archi-tecture, for instance, under a given light,whether its structure is clearly legible andits aesthetic quality has been enhanced by the lighting, goes beyond the realm ofa set of rules.

1.1.6 Beginnings of a new kind oflighting design

It was, therefore, not surprising thatalongside quantative lighting technologyand planning a new approach to designingwith light was developed, an approachthat was related far more intensely to architectural lighting and its inherentrequirements.

This developed in part within the framework of lighting engineering as itwas known. Joachim Teichmüller, founderof the Institute for Lighting Technologyin Karlsruhe, is a name that should be men-tioned here. Teichmüller defined the term “Lichtarchitektur” as architecture that

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American light tower(San José 1885).

1.1 History1.1.6 Beginnings of new lighting design

conceives light as a building material andincorporates it purposefully into the over-all architectural design. He also pointedout – and he was the first to do so – that,with regard to architectural lighting, artificial light can surpass daylight, if it isapplied purposefully and in a differentiatedway.

Lighting engineers still tended topractise a quantative lighting philiosophy.It was the architects who were now beginning to develop new concepts for architectural lighting. From time imme-morial, daylight had been the definingagent. The significance of light and shadowand the way light can structure a building is something every architect is familiar with. With the development ofmore efficient artificial light sources, the knowledge that has been gained of day-light technology was now joined by the scope offered by artificial light. Lightno longer only had an effect coming fromoutside into the building. It could light interior spaces, and now even light frominside outwards. When Le Corbusier described architecture as the “correct andmagnificent play of masses brought together in light”, this no longer only applied to sunlight, but also included theartificially lit interior space.

This new understanding of light hadspecial significance for extensively glazedfacades, which were not only openings to let daylight into the building, but gavethe architecture a new appearance atnight through artificial light. A Germanstyle of architecture known as “GläserneKette” in particular interpreted the buildingas a crystalline, self-luminous creation.Utopian ideas of glass architecture, luminous cities dotted with light towersand magnificent glazed structures, à laPaul Scheerbart, were reflected in a numberof equally visionary designs of spar-kling crystals and shining domes. A littlelater, in the 1920s, a number of glass architecture concepts were created; largebuildings such as industrial plants or department stores took on the appearanceof self-illuminating structures after dark, their facades divided up via the inter-change of dark wall sections and lightglazed areas. In these cases, lighting design clearly went far beyond the merecreation of recommended illuminances. It addressed the structures of the lit architecture. And yet even this approachdid not go far enough, because it regardedthe building as a single entity, to be viewed from outside at night, and dis-regarded users of the building and their visual needs.

Buildings created up to the beginningof the second world war were thereforecharacterised by what is, in part, highlydifferentiated exterior lighting. All this, however, made little difference to thetrend towards quantitative, unimaginativeinterior lighting, involving in the mainstandard louvred fittings.

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Joachim Teichmüller.

Wassili Luckhardt(1889–1972): Crystalon the sphere. Cultbuilding. Second ver-sion. Crayon, around1920.

J. Brinkmann, L. C. van derVlugt and Mart Stam:Van Nelle tobacco factory, Rotterdam 1926–30.

1.1 History1.1.6 Beginnings of new lighting design

In order to develop more far-reachingarchitectural lighting concepts, man had to become the third factor alongsidearchitecture and light. Perceptual psycho-logy provided the key. In contrast to physiological research, it was not simply aquestion of the quantitative limiting va-lues for the perception of abstract “visualtasks”. Man as a perceiving being was the focus of the research, the question ofhow reality perceived is reconstructed inthe process of seeing. These investigationssoon led to evidence that perception was not purely a process of reproducingimages, not a photographing of our environ-ment. Innumerable optical phenomenaproved that perception involves a complexinterpretation of surrounding stimuli, that eye and brain constructed rather thanreproduced an image of the world aroundus.

In view of these findings lighting acquired a totally new meaning. Light wasno longer just a physical quantity thatprovided sufficient illumination; it becamea decisive factor in human perception. Lighting was not only there to renderthings and spaces around us visible, it determined the priority and the way individual objects in our visual environmentwere seen.

1.1.6.1 The influence of stage lighting

Lighting technology focussing on man as aperceptive being acquired a number of essential impulses from stage lighting. In thetheatre, the question of illuminance levelsand uniform lighting is of minor impor-tance. The aim of stage lighting is not to render the stage or any of the technicalequipment it comprises visible; what the audience has to perceive is changing scenes and moods – light alone can beapplied on the same set to create the im-pression of different times of day, changesin the weather, frightening or romanticatmospheres.

Stage lighting goes much further in its intentions than architectural lightingdoes – it strives to create illusions, where-as architectural lighting is concerned with rendering real structures visible. Never-theless stage lighting serves as an examplefor architectural lighting. It identifies methods of producing differentiatedlighting effects and the instruments re-quired to create these particular effects –both areas from which architecturallighting can benefit. It is therefore notsurprising that stage lighting began toplay a significant role in the developmentof lighting design and that a large numberof well-known lighting designers have theirroots in theatre lighting.

1.1.6.2 Qualitative lighting design

A new lighting philosophy that no longerconfined itself exclusively to quantitative

aspects began to develop in the USA after the second world war. One of thepioneers in the field is without doubtRichard Kelly, who integrated existing ideasfrom the field of perceptual psychologyand stage lighting to create one uniformconcept.

Kelly broke away from the idea of uniform illuminance as the paramountcriterion of lighting design. He substitutedthe issue of quantity with the issue of different qualities of light, of a series offunctions that lighting had to meet toserve the needs of the perceiver. Kelly dif-ferentiated between three basic func-tions: ambient light , focal glow and playof brilliance.

Ambient light corresponded to whathad up to then been termed quantitativelighting. General lighting was providedthat was sufficient for the perception ofthe given visual tasks; these might include the perception of objects andbuilding structures, orientation within anenvironment or orientation while in motion.

Focal glow went beyond this generallighting and allowed for the needs of manas a perceptive being in the respective environment. Focal glow picked out relevantvisual information against a backgroundof ambient light; significant areas wereaccentuated and less relevant visual information took second place. In contrastto uniform lighting, the visual environ-ment was structured and could be perceivedquickly and easily. Moreover, the viewer’sattention could be drawn towards individual objects, with the result that focal glow not only contributed towardsorientation, but could also be used for the presentation of goods and aestheticobjects.

Play of brilliance took into accountthe fact that light does not only illuminateobjects and express visual information,but that it could become an object of contemplation, a source of information,in itself. In this third function light could also enhance an environment in an aesthetic sense – play of brilliance froma simple candle flame to a chandeliercould lend a prestigious space life andatmosphere.

These three basic lighting categoriesprovided a simple, but effective andclearly structured range of possibilitiesthat allowed lighting to address the architecture and the objects within an environment as well as the perceptual needsof the users of the space. Starting in the USA, lighting design began to changegradually from a purely technical disci-pline to an equally important and indis-pensible discipline in the architectural design process – the competent lightingdesigner became a recognised partner in the design team, at least in the case oflarge-scale, prestigious projects.

24

Ambient light.

1.1 History1.1.6 Beginnings of new lighting design

1.1.6.3 Lighting engineering and lightingdesign

The growing demand for quality lightingdesign was accompanied by the demand for quality lighting equipment. Differen-tiated lighting required specialisedluminaires designed to cope with specificlighting tasks. You need completely diffe-rent luminaires to achieve uniform wash-light over a wall area, for example, than you do for accentuating one individualobject, or different ones again for the permanent lighting in a theatre foyerthan for the variable lighting required ina multi-purpose hall or exhibition space.

The development of technical possibi-lities and lighting application led to a productive correlation: industry had tomeet the designers’ demands for new luminaires, and further developments inthe field of lamp technology and luminairedesign were promoted to suit particularapplications required by the lighting designers.

New lighting developments served toallow spatial differentiation and more flexible lighting. Exposed incandescent andfluorescent lamps were replaced by a variety of specialised reflector luminaires,providing the first opportunity to directlight purposefully into certain areas or onto objects – from the uniform lightingof extensive surfaces using wall or ceilingwashers to the accentuation of a preciselydefined area by means of reflector spot-lights. The development of track lightingopened up further scope for lighting design, because it allowed enormous flexibi-lity. Lighting installations could be adap-ted to meet the respective requirementsof the space.

Products that allowed spatial differen-tiation were followed by new developmentsthat offered time-related differentiation:lighting control systems. With the useof compact control systems it has becomepossible to plan lighting installations that not only offer one fixed application,but are able to define a range of lightscenes. Each scene can be adjusted to suitthe requirements of a particular situation.This might be the different lighting conditions required for a podiumdiscussion or for a slide show, but it mightalso be a matter of adapting to changeswithin a specific environment: the changingintensity of daylight or the time of day.Lighting control systems are therefore alogical consequenceof spatial differentiation,allowing a lighting installation to be utilised to the full – a seamless transitionbetween individual scenes, which is simplynot feasible via manual switching.

There is currently considerable researchand development being undertaken in the field of compact light sources: amongthe incandescents the halogen lamp,whose sparkling, concentrated light provides new concepts for display lighting.Similar qualities are achieved in the field

of discharge lamps with metal halidesources. Concentrated light can be appliedeffectively over larger distances. The third new development is the compactfluorescent lamp, which combines the advantages of the linear fluorescent withsmaller volume, thereby achieving improved optical control, ideally suited toenergy-efficient fluorescent downlights,for example.

All this means that lighting designershave a further range of tools at their disposal for the creation of differentiatedlighting to meet the requirements of the specific situation and the perceptualneeds of the people using the space. It can be expected in future that progressin the field of lighting design will dependon the continuing further development of light sources and luminaires, but aboveall on the consistent application of this‘hardware’ in the interest of qualitativelighting design. Exotic solutions – usingequipment such as laser lighting orlighting using huge reflector systems –will remain isolated cases and will not become part of general lighting practice.

25

Play of brilliance

Focal glow.

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5.0 AppendixAcknowledgements

AcknowledgementsGraphic material

Archiv für Kunst und Geschichte17 Shop window lighting using gas light

CAT Software GmbH165 Illuminance distribution165 Luminance distribution

Daidalos 27. Lichtarchitektur. March 198823 Wassili Luckhardt: Crystal on the

sphere23 Van Nelle tobacco factory, Rotterdam

Deutsches Museum, Munich20 Goebel lamps

ERCO24 Ambient light25 Focal glow25 Play of brilliance

Institut für Landes- und Stadtentwick-lungsforschung des Landes Nordrhein-Westfalen ILS (Hrsg.): Licht im Hoch- undStädtebau. Band 3.021. S. 17. Dortmund198013 The influence of light on northern and

southern architectural forms

Addison Kelly116 Richard Kelly

William M. C. Lam: Sunlighting asFormgiver for Architecture. New York(Van Nostrand Reinhold) 1986117 William Lam

Osram photo archives20 Heinrich Goebel

Correspondence Course Lighting Applica-tion. Vol. 2. History of Light and Lighting.Eindhoven 198413 Brass oil lamp15 Christiaan Huygens15 Isaac Newton17 Carl Auer v. Welsbach18 Jablochkoff arc lamps20 Joseph Wilson Swan20 Thomas Alva Edison21 Theatre foyer lit by Moore lamps23 Joachim Teichmüller

Henry Plummer: Poetics of Light.In: Architecture and Urbanism. 12. 198712 Sunlight architecture

Michael Raeburn (Hrsg.): Baukunst desAbendlandes. Eine kulturhistorische Doku-mentation über 2500 Jahre Architektur.Stuttgart 198212 Daylight architecture

Ernst Rebske: Lampen, Laternen, Leuchten.Eine Historie der Beleuchtung. Stuttgart(Franck) 196216 Lighthouse lighting using Fresnel

lenses and Argand burners17 Drummond’s limelight19 Siemens arc lamp, 186820 Swan lamp

Wolfgang Schivelbusch: Lichtblicke.Zur Geschichte der künstlichen Helligkeitim 19. Jhdt. München (Hanser) 198318 Arc lighting at the Place de la Concorde22 American lighthouse

Trilux: Lichter und Leuchter. Entwicklungs-geschichte eines alten Kulturgutes. Arns-berg 198714 Lamps and burners developed in the

2. half of the 19. century15 Paraffin lamp with Argand burner16 Fresnel lenses and Argand burner17 Incandescent mantle as invented by

Auer v. Welsbach18 Hugo Bremer’s arc lamp20 Edison lamps21 Low-pressure mercuy vapour lamp

developed Cooper-Hewitt

Ullstein Bilderdienst16 Augustin Jean Fresnel

Sigrid Wechssler-Kümmel: Schöne Lam-pen, Leuchter und Laternen. Heidelberg,München 196213 Greek oil lamp

286