Radio Communication

Assignment 01

AMILA SRIMAAL GAMAGEMT/EL/03/39FACULTY OF ENGINEERINGICBT MOUNT CAMPUSSRI LANKA

Research 01 (P2.1, M1, D1)

1.1 Introduction to Electromagnetic

First I would like explain what a wave is. Wave is a disturbance or oscillation that

travels through space time, accompanied by a transfer of energy. Wave motion

transfers energy from one point to another, often with no permanent displacement of

the particles of the medium. Basically waves can be divided into two categories.

Longitudinal and transverse categories behave in two different ways in moving and

oscillating. Longitudinal waves oscillating parallel way with its energy travel; slinky

is an example for longitudinal waves. But transverse waves are oscillated

perpendicular to its energy flowing direction; water ripples is an example for this

type. Mechanical and Electromagnetic are two main types of waves. Mechanical

Wave needs a medium to be travelled and Electromagnetic Waves do not want any

medium to travel. Mechanical wave may be longitudinal or transverse while

Electromagnetic wave is just transverse.

Electromagnetic wave is a creation of mixing, binding electrical field and a magnetic

field together. In 1873, Scottish scientist James Clerk Maxwell unified the theories of

electricity and magnetism, and eloquently represented their relations through a set of

profound equations best known as “Maxwell’s equations”. Maxwell said, if electricity

flows through a conductor, magnetic field is generated around that conductor

perpendicular to direction of electricity flows. To find the direction of magnetic field

Fleming’s right hand law can be utilized. So, Electrical field and magnetic field is

always perpendicular each other in electromagnetic waves to the direction of flowing.

Electromagnetic wave has some properties such as polarity and electromagnetic

energy. Polarization is a measurement of the electromagnetic field alignment. There

are three main properties of electromagnetic waves as frequency, wavelength and

velocity.

Current direction

(Towards the paper)

Magnetic field (clockwise direction)

Figure 01: Fleming’s right hand law indicating.

This diagram shows that electrical field is always perpendicular to magnetic field.

Electromagnetic waves have different wave lengths.

Figure 02 : electromagnetic wave directions [1]

Figure 03: wave length of a wave.[2]

Wave length is 360 degree (one cycle) change of wave (in phase). Wave length is one

parameter to measure a considered wave. Another parameter was found by Heinrich

Hertz, a German physicist as cycles per one second. Electromagnetic waves have

different wave lengths and frequencies. Because of that, Electromagnetic spectrum

was introduced.

Figure 04: Electromagnetic spectrum with its sizes.[3]

Electromagnetic spectrum consist different waves with different wave lengths and

frequencies. Radio, micro, infrared (I.R), Visible light, U.V, X rays and Gamma are

represent areas of this spectrum. These entire wave has speed of light (3×108m / s¿ in

free space approximately and that means no need of media to flow. Additionally,

power level (amplitude) of electromagnetic wave is also considered. It needs high

amplitude to transmit far distance. Furthermore considering, phase angle, gain,

attenuation can be taken as properties of an electromagnetic wave. According to

properties, different kind of electromagnetic waves are included in electromagnetic

spectrum.

1.1.1 Radio Waves

According to definition of Radio frequency in a Wireless LAN, High Frequencies

(300 kHz – 300 GHz) electromagnetic waveforms that are passed along a copper

conductor and then radiated into the air via an antenna Radio wave is the first area of

electromagnetic spectrum. Radio waves have lowest frequency and highest

wavelength. Radio wave area can be divided again into certain frequency levels.

Below chart indicates those different areas frequencies, wavelengths and their

applications. According to graph of

Frequency Band Wave length Applications

3- 30 KHz VLF 100 – 10 Km Sonar, fax, Navigation

30 – 300 KHz LF 10 – 1 Km Navigation

0.3 – 3 MHz MF 1 – 0.1 Km AM Broadcasting

3 – 30 MHz HF 100 – 10 m T. phones, fax, CB

30 – 300 MHz VHF 10 -1 m TV, FM Broadcasting

0.3 – 3 GHz UHF 1 – 0.1 m TV, mobile , radar

3 – 30 GHz SHF 100 – 10 mm Radar, satellite, microwave links

30 – 300 GHz EHF 10 – 1 mm Radar, wireless communication

0.3 – 3 THz THF 1 – 0.1 mm THZ imaging

Figure 5: EM spectrum and applications

1.1.2 Microwave

Microwave is the next class of electromagnetic spectrum. This class has higher

frequencies and lower bandwidths compared to radio waves. There is an interference

region in both radio and microwave classes. Above mentioned SHF (Super High

Frequency) and EHF (Extremely High Frequency) in that region. Because of higher

frequency, attenuation is higher there. So can’t travel over large distances without

broadcasting/ distributing centers in near distances compared to radio broadcasting

centers (mobile phone towers). Microwave waves carry higher energy (eV) compared

to radio waves. Microwaves are utilized for mobile communication, Radar

communication. In mobile communication, microwaves are very important. Because

of low wavelength very small antennas are needed. As well as this wave is used at

microwave ovens because of higher energy of these waves.

1.1.3 Infrared

Infrared class has better frequency than microwaves. IR is the abbreviation for

Infrared. Terahertz region is between microwave and infrared classes. Most times,

Infrared waves transfer energy as Heat. Infrared is divided into three parts.

Far infrared: 300GHz – 30 THz (1mm – 10um).

Mid infrared: 30THz – 120 THz (10um – 2.5um).

Near infrared: 120THz – 400THz (10um - 750 nm).

Infrared is used at remote controllers, night vision cameras, weather forecasting.

Night vision cameras are mostly used in military operations, because it indicates

temperature differences by different colors even in dark. Night mode options of usual

cameras are operated by Infrared technology. Usually Infrared is considered as it is

flowing heat. In night vision cameras, infrared is indicating live things from others,

because temperature of blood is identified by infrared.

Figure 06 : Photo of a IR camera [4]

1.1.4 Light

This is the most important class, which associated with human eyes. Some other

animal can see other classes such as IR, UV also. Although, Human been only can see

in this light region. Electromagnetic radiation with a wavelength between 380 nm and

760 nm (790–400 terahertz) is detected by the human eye and perceived as visible

light. Our main Light source, sun sends various kinds of waves although visible light

can see us. Visible light can be produced by using Laser, which is used in compact

disks, DVD,CD players and some printers. Visible light is a mixture of some wave

frequencies. Different colors have different frequencies and wavelengths.

1.1.5 Ultraviolet

Ultraviolet is the next class of electromagnetic spectrum. UV is the abbreviation for

ultraviolet. Upper region of UV is more close to light properties. Sun provide UV

rays. UV use to destroy microbes. UV used to clean surgery devices also. UV lamp is

a one made of UV, which do two duties. Provide purple color and attract insects are

them. UV rays are not good for our skin specially, eyes.

X – Rays

X rays have giant energy. Stars emit X rays. upper ranges of UV are also ionized.

Because of very short wavelength and higher energy X rays can go through many

particles. Because of that X rays mainly utilized at medical science to view inside

body. Detecting to X rays long time cause cancers. As well as X rays are used in

security also. Airport bag and passenger checker is one example.

Gamma Rays

Gamma rays discovered by Paul Villard in 1900. These conduct protons with giant

energy. Gamma rays have very small wavelength and can go through many items.

Gamma rays given off by stars and radioactive substances. Gamma rays are utilized to

destroy unwanted cancer cells, which called as radiotherapy. Gamma rays are also

used for the irradiation of food and seed for sterilization.

1.2 Definition for Antenna

An antenna is a device, which is involved in signal broadcasting. According to

Webster’s dictionary, Antenna is defined as “a usually metallic device (as a rod or

wire) for radiating or receiving radio waves.” According to the IEEE standard the

antenna or Arial as” a means for radiating or receiving radio waves.” In other words,

the antenna is a transitional structure between free space and a guiding device.

Usually, Antenna is an isolated device. It associates with Source/ receiver,

Transmission line also. According to Yi Huang, Kevin Boyle (2008), Antenna is a

device which can radiate and receive electromagnetic energy in an efficient and

desired manner. If antenna is transmitting antenna, it consist a source (voltage).

Receiver is replaced source if that is a receiving antenna. Antenna use voltage and

current and produce electromagnetic wave in transmission antenna. In receiving side

opposite tsk is happened. [3]

1.2.1 History of antenna

According to historical reviews, first incident associates with antennas is belongs to

Michel Faraday. He had sent a key to sky by using a kite working as an antenna.

However, the history of antennas dates back to James Clerk Maxwell who unified the

theories of electricity and magnetism and their relationships. In 1873, he proved that

light is electromagnetic and both light and electromagnetic waves travel by wave

disturbances of the same speed. In 1886, Professor Heinrich Rudolph Hertz

demonstrated the first wireless electromagnetic system. He utilized a variable voltage

source, two conducting balls and a dipole ( piece if wire) to check sparks occurring at

both transmitter side and receiver side.He was able to produce in his laboratory at a

wavelength of 4m a spark in the gap of transmitting half of wavelength ( λ /2¿ dipole

which, was then detected as a spark in the gap of a nearby loop. That was the first

practical implementation of broadcasting. In 1901, Guglielmo Marconi was able to

send signal over long area from Poldhu in Cornwall to St. John’s Newfoundland in

Canada. That transmitting antenna consisted of fifty vertical wires in the form of a fan

connected to ground through a spark transmitter. By 1940, radio frequency

transmission was further developed UHF (Ultra high frequency). A contributing

factor to this new era was the invention of microwave sources with 1 GHz and above

frequencies. In this time most of antenna elements were wire made such as long wires,

dipoles, rhombuses, fans, helices etc.. And they were used either as single elements or

in arrays. Later, some new concepts were invented to develop and increase radiation

of antenna as whole antennas (open ended wave guides, slots, horns, lenses,

reflectors) .These antennas were used in advanced utilizations like radar, deep space

projects, and remote sensing projects by using microwaves region. Infinite bandwidth

antennas did a great revolution in antenna history. These were called as “frequency

independent”. These antennas were primarily used in the 10- 10,000 MHz region in a

variety of applications including television, point to point communication, lenses

etc….

1.3 Basics of an Antenna

Antennas basically can be divided into two main categories. Those are Transmitting

antenna and Receiving antenna. As I mentioned before antenna is not an isolated

device.

Figure 07: Antenna as a transition node. [5]

If consider about architecture of antenna it’s easy to demonstrate that using thevenin

equivalent circuit as below.

Figure 08: Thevenin equivalent for an antenna system

Here voltage source is replaced by an ideal generator and the transmission line is

represented by a line with characteristic impedance (ZC ¿while antenna is represented

by a load ZA when, ZA=(RL+R r )+ j X A. The load resistance RL is representing the

conduction and dielectric losses associated with the antenna system. Rr is called as

radiation resistance which, is used to demonstrate radiation occur by antenna. X A Is

the reactance part which, is utilized to represent the imaginary part of the impedance

associated with the radiation by antenna. If antenna is ideal, magnitude of RL must be

zero. That means the energy generated by source should be totally converted to Rr

(for radiation).ZA Consist with both real and imaginary parts such as a complex

number. This reveals us that electromagnetic waves behave in two planes.

The losses due to the line, antenna and the standing waves are badly affect on

transmission process. These losses can be reduced by low loss lines (by minimize RL

). The standing waves can be reduced and the energy storage of the line could be

minimized by matching load impedance of the antenna to the characteristic

impedance of the line.

1.4 Radiation mechanism of an antenna

If consider about radiation mechanism, antenna responsible for distributing waves or

collecting waves. Let us consider how this is happening. In transmitting antennas, for

pull the wave from antenna, high frequency with high power is needed. For this

purpose, higher frequencies with high power supply to the transmitting antenna. In

transmitting antenna, current is converted into Electromagnetic field. This is discussed

above with Maxwell’s law. When current is travelling through conductor, magnetic

field is induced around that conductor. Magnetic field is varying according to rate of

change of charge (electrons) flowing. For obtain higher frequency, modulation

concept is utilized. Voltage is obtained by electrical field and current is obtained by

magnetic field. When magnetic field is varying current is induced in that circuit

according to Faraday’s law Process of transmitting antenna system is shown in figure

06. In simply saying, Transmitting antenna convert current and voltage into radio

waves (electromagnetic), while receiving antennas gather electromagnetic waves.

1.5 Transmission Line

As mentioned above, antenna is not an isolated node. Transmission line is also there

to connect signal generator or receiver with the antenna. In an antenna

communication, transmission line must be suitable. If not phase distortions, energy

losses, fading waves might be occurred. Even by transmission line type, purpose of

antenna is varied. There are some types of transmission lines as,

Double wire (two wires).

Microstrip.

Coaxial.

Stripline.

Coplanar Waveguide.

These types of antennas varied with their bandwidth, loss characteristic, characteristic

impedance, radiation, etc.

1.5.1 Two wire

Below you can see a cross sectional view of two wire transmission line. Current are

flowing opposite directions in these two wires.

Figure 09: cross sectional view of two wire transmission line [6]

This is the most common transmission line type usually. Here, two separate wires are

covered with another medium(electrical insulator). According to above diagram, each

wire has diameter if d and length between two wires is D. If that cover has

permittivity of ε , Inductance (L) and capacitance(C) for unity length is given by,

L= επ

lnD+√D 2−d2

dH

C= επ

lnD+√D2−d2

d

C

Usually the characteristic impedance (ZO¿ Value is being varied in 270 to 310 Ωs.

Main application is television antennas ( rabbit ear antennas).When current flowing in

two directions in these two wires dielectric field is occurred around this transmission

line and Radiation is occurred here at higher frequencies. Because of that these

transmission lines have less efficiency when frequency is greater than 300MHz.

The characteristic impedance of this transmission line is given by,

Z0=LC

¿√ μπ2 ε

lnD+√D2−d2

d

1.5.2 Microstrip

Figure no 10 : named cross sectional of Microstrip transmission line.[7]

Microstip transmission line procedure is very familiar with two – wire system. Instead

of two wires, there are two plates called as microstrip and ground plates are separated

by dielectric (electrical insulator) plate (substrate according to above figure). By that

radiation resistance can be reduced as well. Mainly, utilized in microwave

components. If consider about electromagnetic distribution, majority of both electrical

and magnetic field are flowing in the transverse plane. This might be hazardous

sometimes if there is big current. Characteristic impedance of microstrip line is given

by,

Zo=√ LC= 1vC

=εℜ

cC

When,

v=velocity= cεℜ

εℜ=relative permittivity=εr+1

2+

εr−1

2√12d /W

d= thickness of substrate.

W = width of strip.

Conductor loss and dielectric substance loss are common errors / losses occurs in

microstrip transmission lines.

1.5.3 Coaxial

Figure no 11: named cross sectional of coaxial cable.[8]

Coaxial cable is the most common transmission line in domain and household. This

consist of tubal conductor is covered by another tubal conductor. These two

conductors are separated by electrical insulator. This entire package is covered by

another dielectric cover. Data is transmitted through the center wire, while the outer

braided layer serves as a line to ground. Both of these conductors are parallel and

share the same axis. As all electrical components, coaxial cables have characteristic

impedance. This impedance depends on the dielectric material also. That is given by,

Zo=√ LC=√ με2π

lnRr

When,

R = Diameter of outer conductor.

r = Diameter of inner conductor (main conductor).

Data transmission velocity of main conductor (v) is c

√εr when; c is the speed of light.

1.5.4 Stripline

Figure no 12 : cross sectional of stipline with dimensions.[9]

This configuration is usually called as single stripline. Dual stripline configuration is

the other configuration available. Stripline has bit differences compared to microstrip

configuration. In microstrip, there are one conductor and one ground plate separated

by dielectric plate. Here, there are two ground plates and one conductor separated

each other with dielectric medium. Stripline filters and couplers always offer better

bandwidth than their counterparts in a microstrip. Another advantage of the stripline

is that fantastic isolation between adjacent traces can be achieved. Because of extra

ground plate, stripline is harder and expensive than microstrip. As well Because of the

second ground plane, the strip width is much narrower for given impedance and the

board is thicker than that for a microstrip. Usually, characteristic impedance of

stripline transmission line is being varied 50 to 75 ohms. That is given by,

Zo=30π

√εr[ Wd−t

+A ]

W = width of the conductor.

t = thick of the conductor.

d = length between two ground plates.

A = [2B ln (B+1 )−(B−1 ) ln (B2−1)¿/ π¿

B = 1

√1−t /D

1.5.5 Coplanar waveguide

Figure 13(a) : coplanar waveguide without ground cross sectional.[10]

Figure 13(b) : coplanar waveguide with ground cross sectional. [10]

Coplanar waveguide is very efficiency transmission line, which uses a ground

conductor that is coplanar with the signal conductor. This structure is very similar to

stripline configuration. In here conductor is always separated. So, it can keep constant

impedance. This configuration can be used for high frequencies and has higher

bandwidth also. There are two basic configurations as with ground and without

ground.

1.6 Types of antennas

By today, antennas are used in various fields in various ways. At there, different types

of antennas are being used for different purposes. There are many types of antennas.

Some of them are,

1.6.1 Wire antennas

These type antennas are the most common antennas in everywhere such as

automobiles, buildings, ships, aircrafts, spacecraft and many other places. There are

various shapes of wire antennas such as dipole, loop, and helix.

1.6.1.1 Dipole

Dipole is an antenna which is made of two conductors connected together. Half wave

dipole, quarter wave dipole and folded dipoles are categories of dipole antennas.

According to Yi Huang ,Kevin Boyle (2008), Dipoles are one of the simplest but most

widely used types of antenna. This is also called as Hertz’s antenna, because hertz

used dipole for his inventions. In half wave dipole consist of two conductors which

have quarter of wavelength in each conductor. Total length of antenna is half of wave

length. Current is flowing in these conductors with association of voltage to radiate

electromagnetic wave. Let us consider how that radiation happens.

λ4

λ4

Current

Voltage

Figure 14: half wave dipole basic moment

Here in this basic moment, current is maximum and voltage is minimum at the

middle point. Because of low voltage and higher current, a low impedance point is

created in middle point and gets the ability to detect electromagnetic waves as well

because other two corners hard to detect electromagnetic waves. In odd harmonics

can see same incident. Because of that these dipoles can detect even two or three

harmonics of based frequency as well.

1.6.1.2Yagi- Uda antenna

This is another famous wire type antenna, which used in VHF and UHF

communication. This is same as dipole, but there are more elements to change

directivity, radiation pattern and phase angle. These elements are called as reflector,

director. According to Ian Poole (2003), “The basic antenna consists of a central

boom with the elements mounted to it at right angles as shown. The antenna consists

of the main driven element to which the feeder is connected, and parasitic elements

either side. These parasitic elements are not directly connected to the feeder but

operate by picking up and re-radiating power in such a phase that the directional

properties of the antenna are altered. This is achieved having the phase of the current

in the parasitic element or elements in such a phase that it reinforces the signal in a

particular direction, or cancels it out. There are two main types of parasitic element:

reflectors that reflect power back towards the driven element, and directors that

increase the power levels in the direction of the directors. The properties of a parasitic

element are determined by their spacing and their electrical length.”

Figure 15 : Yagi Uda antenna elements.[11]

1.6.2 Aperture Antennas

Aperture antenna is mainly used for projects at higher frequencies. There are some

antennas, such as pyramid, conical or rectangular shape. According to Yi Huang and

Kevin Boyle (2008) is another group of antennas that are not made of metal wires but

plates to form certain.

Configurations that radiate/receive EM energy in an efficient and desired manner,.

These antennas are very useful in the aeronautics and space applications, because they

can be very easily built on the skin of the object. In addition, these antennas are

coated with a dielectric material to protect them from the harmful effects on the

environment. Horn antenna is usually used as an antenna to the opening. Horn

antenna is the easiest to work with microwave transmission. This is widely used as a

feeding element for large parabolic antenna radio astronomy and communication are

installed worldwide. Besides its usefulness as a feed reflectors and lenses, is a

common element of the phased array and serve as a universal standard for measuring

the calibration and other high-gain. Usually there are four types of electromagnetic

horns in E plane and H-plane pyramid cornial.

Figure 13 : E plane, H plane and pyramid configuration horn antenna.[12]

Figure 14 : Conical horn configuration antenna [13]

1.6.3 Microstrip Antennas

Microstrip antennas consist of a metallic patch or patches on grounded substratum.

The metallic patch may have one of several configurations. Among them circular and

rectangular configurations are widely used, because of ease of analysis and fabrication

and good radiation characteristics such as low cross polarization radiation and also

very versatile in terms of resonant frequency, pattern, impedance and polarization.

These antennas can be placed in many applications and places such as airplanes,

satellites, vehicles, mobile phones, missiles and many other applications because of

inexpensive, high performance, easy to handle, easy to place.

1.6.4 Array antennas

Array antennas depend on arrays. Specific radiation pattern requirements cannot be

obtained or fulfilled by single antenna element, because single elements usually have

relativity wide radiation patterns and low values of directivity. These reasons occur

low efficiency of an antenna and have to use numbers of antennas to achieve

considered results. To design antennas with large directivity electrical dimensions of

the antenna must be higher. But, that’s not practically success, because, high cost,

high power, mechanical problems, disabilities and space problems. An alternative

way to achieve large directivities, without increasing the size of the individual

elements, is to use multiple single elements to form an array. Array is a sampled

version of a very large single element. In an array, the mechanical problems are

overcome.

Arrays are most versatile antenna type because of higher efficiency. These antennas

are being used in many applications such as aerospace, earthbound and many others.

Yagi- Uda array, aperture array, Microstrip arry and slotted-waveguide array are some

array configurations available.

Figure 15 : A Phased Array Antenna with Microstrip Radiating Elements.[14]

Figure 16 : Basic geometry of a slotted waveguide antenna.[15]

1.6.5 Lens Antennas

Main reason of using lens antennas in focus divergent energy/ waves to appropriate

direction to reduce spreading in undesirable directions. By properly shaping the

geometrical configuration and choosing the appropriate material of the lenses and can

transform various forms of divergent energy into plane waves. These antennas can be

used in most of the applications related to higher frequencies. In telecommunication,

Television broadcasting and even in satellite communication these kind of antennas

are utilized.

Figure 17 : Schematic representation of a phased antenna array beam shaping

system[16]

1.6.6 Reflector Antennas

Reflector antennas are mainly used in long way transmission tasks. Sometimes, called

as “Dish” antennas because of its shape. That distance might be outer space to earth or

large geographical area. These antennas are made for spread EM waves to large area

in considered target. Parabolic reflector and corner reflector are two types of reflector

antennas. Dipole or Horn antenna is used as the feed or radiating element. Very large

gain can be achieved by reflector antennas. But placement of the antenna must be

correct, because these antennas beam width is compared low. According to Ian Poole

(2003), Initially these antennas were only used for professional applications,

especially radio astronomy or satellite communications. However, with the advent of

satellite television these antennas are often seen on the sides of houses for reception of

these broadcasts. The gain mainly depend on dimensions of the reflector.

Feed

Figure 18(a) : Parabolic reflector with front feed

Figure 18(b) : parabolic reflector with cassegrain feed.

Figure 18(c) : A corner reflector.

1.7 Antenna parameters

Above we discussed various kinds of antennas. Performances of those antennas

depend on some of parameters. These parameters need to specify for complete

description of the antenna performance. Some of those Antenna parameters are,

Antenna Gain.

Radiation pattern.

Beam-width.

Bandwidth.

Polarization.

Directivity.

Efficiency.

1.7.1 Radiation Pattern

Radiation pattern is also called as antenna pattern. Radiation pattern is variation of

power, which radiated by the antenna as a functional representation. According to

C.A. Balanis (2005), This is defined as “ a mathematical function or a graphical

representation of the radiation properties of the antenna as a function of space

coordinates”. This is represented as a function of the directional coordinates.

Radiation properties include power flux density, radiation density, field strength,

directivity, polarization or phase. The radiation property of most concern is the two or

three dimensional spatial distribution of radiated energy as a function of observer’s

position along a path or surface of constant radius. In an antenna radiation pattern is

shown by three dimensions (3D) . Those are,

Field pattern (in linear scale) represent a plot of the magnitude of the electric

or magnetic field as a function of the angular space.

Power Pattern (in linear scale) represents a plot of the square of the magnitude

of electric or magnetic field as a function of angular space.

Power Pattern (in decibels) represents the magnitude of the electric or

magnetic field in decibels as a function of angular space.

Figure 19 : coordinate system for antenna analysis [17]

1.7.2 Radiation power density

The quantity used to describe the power associated with an electromagnetic wave is the instantaneous poynting vector defined by

w=∈ x

w : instantaneous poynting vector (W /m2)

∈: instantaneous electric field intensity (V /m)

x : instantaneousmagnetic fi eld intensity (A /m)

1.7.3 Radiation Intensity

Radiation intensity in a given direction is defined as “the power radiated from an

antenna per unit solid angle.” The radiation intensity is a far field parameter and it can

be obtained by simply multiplying the radiation density by the square of the distance.

This is given as,

U=r2.W rad

U : Radiation intensity.

r : Radius.

W rad : Radiation density.

The radiation intensity always related to the far zone electric field of an antenna.

1.7.4 BeamWidth

The beamwidth of pattern is defined as the angular separation between two identical

points on opposite side of the pattern maximum. In an antenna pattern, there are

number of beamwidths. Half power beamwidth (HPBW) is the most common

beamwidth type. According to Steve Winder, Joe Carr (2002, page no: 52), Beam

width is mentioned as, “the total width, in degrees, of the main radiation lobe at the

angle where radiated power has been fallen by 3dB below that on the Centre line of

the lobe.” That is defined as “In a plane containing the direction of the maximum of a

beam, the angle between two directions in which the radiation intensity of one half

value of the beam.” The beamwidth of an antenna is a very important factor of merit

and often is used as a tradeoff between it and the side lobe level; that is, as the

beamwidth decreases, the side lobe increases and vice versa. In addition, the

beamwidth of the antenna is also used to describe the resolution capabilities of an

antenna to distinguish between two adjacent radiating sources or radar targets.

1.7.5 Directivity

Directivity is defined as “the ratio of the radiation intensity in a given direction from

the antenna to the radiation intensity averaged over all directions. This shows how

much efficiency has in a considered direction. The average radiation intensity is equal

to the total power radiated by the antenna divided by 4π . If the direction is not

specified, the direction of maximum radiation intensity is implied.” It can be stated as

follows.

D= UU 0

=4 πUPrad

When, the direction is mentioned, it implies the direction of maximum radiation

intensity is expressed as,

Dmax=Umax

U 0

=4 π Umax

Prad

When,

D = directivity

D max = Maximum directivity

U = Radiation intensity.

U max = Maximum radiation intensity.

U0 = Radiation intensity of isotropic source.

P rad = Total radiated power.

1.7.6 Antenna Efficiency

The total antenna efficiency e0 is used to take into account losses at the input terminal

and within the structure of antennas. Such losses may be occur due to below reasons.

Mismatching of impedances in transmission line and Antenna. Reflections and

side waves occur due to this incident.

Conduction and dielectric losses (i2r). This r is radiation impedance, which

discussed in Basics in antennas.

This total antenna efficiency can be formed as,

e0=er . ec . ed

e0=Total efficiency

er=Reflection (mismatc h ) efficiency=(1−|Γ|2)

ed=dielectric efficiency.

ec=Conduction effiency

Γ=voltage reflectioncoefficient at the input of antenna

Voltage standing wave ratio = 1+|Γ|1−|Γ|

1.7.7 Antenna Gain

Antenna gain is always related to directivity and it’s a measure that takes with

efficiency of the antenna as well as its directional capabilities. Antenna gain is defined

as “the ratio of the intensity, in a given direction, to the radiation intensity, that would

be obtained if the power accepted by the antenna were radiated isotropic. According

to Kennedy & Davis (1993,p.263), by comparing the output power of an antenna in a

one direction and of an isotropic antenna. It can be determine the antenna power gain.

Furthermore they states that, ‘the antenna gain is a power ratio comparison between

an omnidirectional (reference) and unidirectional radiator The radiation intensity

corresponding to the isotropic radiated power is equal to the power input by the

antenna divided by 4π . Gain is expressed as,

G=Gain=Radiation intensityTotal input power

1.7.8 Bandwidth

The bandwidth of an antenna is defined as “the range of frequencies within which the

performance of the antenna, with respect to some characteristic, conforms to an

specified standard.” If consider a dipole, bandwidth is the range which can be

detected by corner to corner of dipole. According to Kraus (1988, p.767) the

bandwidth is generally depends on the pattern and impedance characteristics. We

know, electromagnetic wave has speed of light according to invention of Scottish

scientist James Clerk Maxwell. So, we can assume detecting frequency by calculating

length of entire dipole. For broadband antennas, the bandwidth is usually express as

the ratio of the upper to lower frequencies of acceptable operation. Bandwidth ratio

reveals the upper and lower frequencies of an antenna. As an example, 10: 1

bandwidth indicates that, the upper frequency is 10 times greater than lower

frequency. This technique is differing at narrowband antennas. For narrowband

antennas, the bandwidth is expressed as a percentage of the frequency difference over

the center frequency of the bandwidth. Bandwidth of an antenna is depending on other

parameters (gain, input impedance, pattern, polarization) as well. Bandwidth is

controlled at center of many antennas. By today bandwidth of antennas have been

increased giant. 40: 1 is an example for that type antenna.

1.7.9 Polarization

Antenna is designed sometimes to transmit or receive signals to or from only one or

two considered directions. Because of that even polarization is differ from direction to

direction. Polarization of an antenna in a given direction is defined as “the

polarization of the wave radiated by the antenna.” When the direction is not stated, the

polarization is taken to be the polarization in the direction, which has maximum gain.

The polarization of a wave is defined using wave radiated by the antenna in

considered direction. Polarization is categorized as linear, circular or elliptical. If the

vector that describes the electrical field at a point in space as a function of time

always directed along the line, that is linear polarized field. According to shape of

electric field traces can identify category of polarization. The figure of the electric

field is traced in a clockwise or counterclockwise sense. Clockwise rotation of the

electric field vector is also designated as right hand polarization. While,

counterclockwise is left hand polarization.

In practical world, the axis of antenna’s main beam must be directed along the polar

axis of the radiation sphere. The polarization of the wave radiated by the antenna can

also be represented on Poincare sphere. [18]

1.8 Conclusion

Waves are divided into two categories by considering their pathway. Electromagnetic

wave are a transverse waves, where energy flowing perpendicular to wave flowing

direction. Electromagnetic wave is a mixture of electrical wave and magnetic field.

When, alternating current is flowing in a conductor, magnetic field is induced

perpendicular to current field. When the frequency of this operation exceeds 20 kHz,

the energy will radiates to the free space and starts to propagate away from the

conductor. Electromagnetic wave has speed of light in vacuum. This process is called

as electromagnetic radiation. Antenna is the device, which use in electromagnetic

radiation process. On the way, these electromagnetic waves or signals may be

affected by different kind of phenomena and attenuation can be occurred. Because of

that, in antenna designing, considering about antenna parameters such as, gain,

bandwidth, radiation pattern, directivity, polarization, beam width, etc.

Different antennas are used in different type of communication systems, applications.

Antennas are differing from each other on antenna parameters. Shape, size and other

physical parameters also differ in various antennas.

Antennas are used in many fields such as, navigation, broadcasting, aviation, satellite,

mobile communication and numbers of other fields.

References/ Bibliography

[1] http://www.geo.mtu.edu/rs/back/spectrum/.

[2] http://science.hq.nasa.gov/kids/imagers/ems/waves3.html

[3] http://www.google.lk/imgres?imgurl=http://denmasbroto.com/files/antenna-as-a-transition-device.PNG&imgrefurl=http://denmasbroto.com/cetak-13-antenna-basic-theory.html&usg=__XzFWWQi-SXiFbe5FwVEHB64muJw=&h=529&w=454&sz=62&hl=en&start=1&zoom=1&tbnid=lU3TLvs5v8QDnM:&tbnh=132&tbnw=113&ei=l7EBUJmrKIa2hQe_xpDyBw&prev=/search%3Fq%3Dantenna%2Bas%2Ba%2Btransitional%2Bdevice%26um%3D1%26hl%3Den%26safe%3Doff%26sa%3DN%26biw%3D1360%26bih%3D667%26tbm%3Disch&um=1&itbs=1

[4] http://www.x20.org/thermal/

[6]http://www.rfcafe.com/references/electrical/transmission-lines.htm

[5] IEEE transactions on antennas and propagation, vols. AP-17, No.3, May 1969; AP-22, No. 1, January 1974 and AP-31, No.6, Part ii, November 1983.

[7] http://www.photond.com/products/fimmwave/fimmwave_applications_09.htm

[8] http://www.phy.davidson.edu/stuhome/phstewart/IL/speed/cableinfo.html

[9] http://www.wallace.se/hemsida/impedance_calculator.asp

[10] http://www.radio-electronics.com/info/antennas/waveguide/waveguide-impedance-matching-iris-post.php

[11]http://www.google.lk/imgres?imgurl=http://img.directindustry.com/images_di/photo-g/high-gain-feed-horn-antenna-764325.jpg&imgrefurl=http://www.directindustry.com/prod/ets-lindgren/high-gain-feed-horn-antennas-35072-764325.html&usg=__LjnhuZIyvjGv8DcGeFt3O-udeT0=&h=572&w=647&sz=29&hl=en&start=58&zoom=1&tbnid=Od8u-6USyYJ6tM:&tbnh=121&tbnw=137&ei=808CUPSYCMenhAfyvYH4Bw&prev=/search%3Fq%3Dconical%2Bhorn%2Bantenna%26start%3D40%26hl%3Den%26safe%3Doff%26sa%3DN%26biw%3D1360%26bih%3D667%26tbm%3Disch&itbs=1

[12] http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Communication_Systems/Antennas

[13] http://www.google.lk/imgres?imgurl=http://www.radio-electronics.com/info/antennas/waveguide/waveguide-e-h-horn-antenna.gif&imgrefurl=http://www.radio-electronics.com/info/antennas/waveguide/waveguide-impedance-matching-iris-post.php&usg=__mstNd_jliVd41R0B-uclNfluvI0=&h=307&w=250&sz=3&hl=en&start=2&zoom=1&tbnid=-OqdybTwTc-dHM:&tbnh=117&tbnw=95&ei=5k4CUNP5H4i3hAfknvSXCA&prev=/search%3Fq%3De%2Bplane%2Bhorn%2Bantenna%26hl%3Den%26safe%3Doff%26biw%3D1360%26bih%3D667%26tbm%3Disch&itbs=1

[14]http://www.google.lk/imgres?imgurl=http://www.wtec.org/loyola/satcom/fh2_26.gif&imgrefurl=http://www.wtec.org/loyola/satcom/c2_s1b.htm&usg=__3uif0JppUpa2j_09nUsL99YwK0k=&h=550&w=733&sz=29&hl=en&start=20&zoom=1&tbnid=kLt_wt5W5a3VgM:&tbnh=106&tbnw=141&ei=YFI

CUPOEEai80QXU0421Bw&prev=/search%3Fq%3Darray%2Bantenna%26hl%3Den%26safe%3Doff%26biw%3D1360%26bih%3D667%26tbm%3Disch&itbs=1

[15] http://www.antenna-theory.com/antennas/aperture/slottedWaveguide.php

[16]http://www.google.lk/imgres?imgurl=http://www.aanda.org/articles/aa/full/2004/46/aa1435/img60.gif&imgrefurl=http://www.aanda.org/articles/aa/full/2004/46/aa1435/aa1435.fig.html&usg=__E-PzQOeZTM0zmNR65xCf_-Q_1ss=&h=425&w=461&sz=18&hl=en&start=12&zoom=1&tbnid=KkEh8L7zQuH2oM:&tbnh=118&tbnw=128&ei=zocCUNLvK4yBhQfmyaH-Bw&prev=/search%3Fq%3Dcoordinate%2Bsystem%2Bfor%2Bantenna%2Bplotting%26hl%3Den%26safe%3Doff%26biw%3D1360%26bih%3D667%26tbm%3Disch&itbs=1

[17] http://www.aanda.org/index.php?option=com_article&access=standard&Itemid=129&url=/articles/aa/full/2004/46/aa1435/aa1435.fig.html

[18] C.A Balanis (1989), Advanced Engineering Electromagnetics, John Wiley & sons, New York.

Steve Winder, Joe Carr (2002), Newnes RF and radio engineering pocket book, page no: 1 - 4, Newness publishers

Ian Poole (2003), Newnes guide to radio communication and technology, page no. 5 - 26 , Newnes publishers

C.A. Balanis( 2005), Antenna theory analysis and design, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., Hoboken, New Jersey page no: 2 – 87.

Ginger Butcher (2011), Anatomy of an Electromagnetic Wave, NASA. Gov. , http://missionscience.nasa.gov/ems/02_anatomy.html, 21/07/2012

Research 02 (P2.2, M3)

2.1 Introduction

Electromagnetic wave is a combination of Electrical field and Magnetic field

according to Maxwell’s law. Electromagnetic wave is a transverse wave. In transverse

waves, Energy transmitting direction is perpendicular to wave oscillating direction.

One characteristic of transverse wave is no need of medium to transmit. Even in

vacuum it can be transmitted. Any Electromagnetic wave has same transmitting speed

of speed of light (3×108m / s¿. There are Electromagnetic wave having different

Wave lengths and frequencies.

At the beginning Light was the only one thing, which found in electromagnetic

spectrum. 1n 1800, William Herschel found infrared light. He could find out the

temperature of different colors by moving a thermometer through light split by a

prism. In 1801 Johann Ritter invented that there are chemical rays as visible violet

rays. This is called as Ultra violet rays. Light was named as an electromagnetic wave

after 1845. In 1845, Michel Faraday invented that, light is a one type of

electromagnetic. In 1895, Wilhelm Rontgen invented X rays, which can go through

even human body.

V=f . λ

V = Velocity of transmitting wave.

f=frequency of thewave.

λ = Wave length (2π ¿.

Figure 01 : Electromagnetic spectrum [1]

In electromagnetic waves as mentioned above, velocity is a constant value. So,

frequency is inversely proportional to wave length. By considering above

characteristics Electromagnetic wave spectrum has been created.

Electromagnetic spectrum is classified into classes as,

Radio wave.

Microwave.

Infared.

Visible light.

Ultraviolet.

X – Ray.

Gamma.

Figure 02 : Electromagnetic waves classes and wave lengths of them [2]

2.2 Radio Wave

Radio frequency defined as frequencies between 3kHz and 300GHz. This class has

the lowest frequency in electromagnetic spectrum. This is the most useful class in

communication field. Radio waves are divided into many classes according to their

frequency and wave length.

Frequency Band Wave length Applications

3- 30 KHz VLF 100 – 10 Km Sonar, fax, Navigation

30 – 300 KHz LF 10 – 1 Km Navigation

0.3 – 3 MHz MF 1 – 0.1 Km AM Broadcasting

3 – 30 MHz HF 100 – 10 m T. phones, fax, CB

30 – 300 MHz VHF 10 -1 m TV, FM Broadcasting

0.3 – 3 GHz UHF 1 – 0.1 m TV, mobile , radar

3 – 30 GHz SHF 100 – 10 mm Radar, satellite, microwave links

30 – 300 GHz EHF 10 – 1 mm Radar, wireless communication

Figure 03: EM spectrum (Radio waves) and applications.

Let’s consider about these frequency ranges separately.

2.2.1 Very Low Frequency (VLF)

Very low frequencies range is called for radio frequencies in 3 – 30 kHz which has

wave length of 10 – 100 km. High bit range data cannot be transmitted such as voice

because of low bandwidth. These waves can go through salt water till 40 meters.

Because of high wave length these waves cannot be blocked easily. Because of above

reasons this range is used in military operations often.

If consider about antennas for VLF, it’s hard, impossible to establish dipoles or

quarter poles because of high wave length of VLF. Antennas, which used for VLF,

relatively giant and be placed in vertically. Because of inability to establish giant

antennas, efficiency of radiating is laying 10% to 20% like very low.

2.2.2 Low frequency (LF)

Low frequency refers to radio frequencies in the range of 30 300 kHz. This is used

for AM broadcasting in long waves. Additionally, navigation systems, air balloons,

military tasks are some other applications of LF. Ground wave can cover an area with

a radius of 2000 km about the transmitting antenna. By using these ground waves

Radio clock concept has been introduced.

In the frequency range 40 kHz–80 kHz, there are several standard time and frequency stations, such as

JJY in Japan (40 kHz and 60 kHz)

MSF in Anthorn, England (60 kHz)

WWVB in Fort Collins, Colorado, US (60 kHz)

DCF77 in Mainflingen near Frankfurt am Main, Germany (77.5 kHz)

2.2.3 Medium Frequency (MF)

Electromagnetic waves from 300 kHz to 3MHz series belong to medium frequency

series. This frequency range is mainly utilized for AM broadcasting. Propagation

occurs as ground waves. Ground wave propagation at these frequencies follows the

curvature of the Earth over conductive surfaces such as the sea and damp earth. At

sea, MF communications can typically be heard over several hundred miles.

Furthermore, Maritime, codeless phones are some applications in medium

frequencies.

Figure 04: Medium frequency generator for plasma operation [3]

2.2.4 High frequency (HF)

Electromagnetic waves from 3MHz to 30MHz series belong to high frequency band.

Wave length is between 100 to 10 meters. Not like previous bands, this band wave

propagation way is different. Previous waves transmitted as ground waves. These

waves propagate as sky waves. Sky wave is propagation of radio waves bent back to

earth surface by ionosphere. Ionosphere is upper part of atmosphere from about 85 km

to 600 km altitude. Ionosphere is divided into 4 layers. Because of ion molecules,

dust, water and other particles waves are reflected back to earth. This wave band is

utilized at codeless phones, land phones, fax machines, CB radios and some aviation

activities.

2.2.5 Very High Frequency (VHF)

VHF band is valid from 30MHz to 300MHz frequency and wavelength of 10 meter to

1 meter. This is ideal for short distance communication. Some VHF waves are

reflected by ionosphere, where some frequencies are not reflected. FM broadcasting,

Television broadcasting, air navigation systems are some applications of VHFs.

Usually line of sight transmission is used at VHF. This is also less affected by

atmospheric noise and interference from electrical equipment than lower frequencies.

2.2.6 Ultra High Frequency (UHF)

UHF band is laid frequency range from 300MHz to3GHz. Wave length is between 1m

to 10cm. Sky wave propagation method is used for UHF also. UHF TV signals are not

carried along the ionosphere but can be reflected off of the charged particles down at

another point on Earth in order to reach farther than the typical line of

sight transmission distances. UHF produces short waves with higher frequencies.

Because of that, no need to use bigger antennas to transmitting and receiving. Because

of short waves line of sight is occurred at here. TV broadcasting, FM broadcasting,

mobile communication and Radar communication are some applications of UHF.

Figure 05 : A UHF antenna (MX – 075) [4]

2.2.7 Super High Frequency (SHF)

Radio frequencies in between 3GHz and 30GHz are called as SHF. Wave length of

this band is between 10cm to 1cm. This is not ideal for AM or FM broadcasting

because it hasn’t enough wave length for propagation. This band is referred to

microwave band. By today, mobile communication uses this band for Wireless local

area network, wireless USB and military tasks. Main utilizations of SHF are radar

communication and microwave devices.

Figure 06 : A Radar Antenna [5]

2.2.8 Extremely High Frequency (EHF)

Radio frequencies in between 30GHz and 300GHz are called as SHF. Wave length of

this band is between 10mm to 1mm.This cannot be used for radio broadcasting

because of very short wavelength. Because of short wave length atmospheric

attenuation percentage is a higher value at here. Only used in short distance

communication. Usually this Band used in radio astronomy and remote sensing.

Compared to other bands, small antennas are required for this band waves. Medical

treatments, military tasks, security screening, weapon systems, telecommunication,

scientific researchers are some typical applications of EHF.

Figure 07 : Hand EHF therapy and ear EHF therapy.[6]

2.3 Conclusion

Radio wave is one region of electromagnetic spectrum, which has lowest frequency

and highest wavelength. In communication, this is the most utilized region. Radio

waves again categorized according to wave properties. Very low frequencies (VLF),

low frequency (LF), medium frequency (MF) are used in long way communications

such as sonar, navigation and inter-continental AM broadcasting. Efficiency is very

less there, because these waves are propagated as ground waves due their higher wave

length and absorption by troposphere. High frequency wave (HF) is utilized at fax,

land phones. Since high frequency band waves ape propagated as sky waves. Then,

very high frequency (VHF) and Ultra high frequency (UHF) bands are the most

familiar bands with civilians in day today life utilizations such as radio, TV

broadcasting and mobile communication. Super high frequency (SHF) is also use for

wireless communication and Extreme High frequency (EHF) bands are belong to

smooth low distance tasks in medical, military, scientific fields. When frequency get

higher its compulsory to implement in short distance applications or need to establish

communication towers to make a network. With the utilization of various bands is

used for different tasks in day today life and new inventions.

References

[1] http://www.colourtherapyhealing.com/colour/electromagnetic_spectrum.php

[2] http://lasp.colorado.edu/cassini/education/Electromagnetic%20Spectrum.htm

[3] http://www.redline-technologies.de/index.php?File=E0ProductsHvGenerator

[4] http://www.cabletech.com.hk/index.php?

product=UHF_Antenna&c=12&pp=1&p=1164968&ph=l

[5] http://www.fas.org/spp/military/program/com/an-gsc-52.htm

[6] http://www.fas.org/spp/military/program/com/an-gsc-52.htm

Research 03 (P2.3, M2)

3.1 Introduction

As we know, Radio waves are one part of Electromagnetic waves. These waves are

transmitted through atmosphere. On the way these waves are facing to different

phenomena such as reflection, refraction, diffraction. Because of above phenomena

the way of radio wave and light also is changed. This could be advantage or

disadvantage or both. In Radio wave propagation both advantages and disadvantages

are occurred. Let us consider these phenomena separately.

3.1.1 Reflection

Reflection can be defined as the angle of incidence is the angle of incidence is equal

to the angle of reflection for a conducting surface. According to reflection surface

reflection is going to be differing. If that surface is pure flat above incident is

happened. If not wave is scattered due to unbalance of surface.

Figure 01: A Pure reflection without refraction. [1]

3.1.2 Refraction

But in real life we can’t expect this kind of incident. While reflection, portion of wave

is refracted also. refractive index is different according to mediums. According to

Snell’s law,

Figure 2 : refraction and reflection.

According to above graph and Snell’s law,

μ1 sin θ1=μ2 sin θ2

3.1.3 Diffraction

Diffraction is a phenomenon, which reduce the strength of the signal. This is differing

from reflection bit. This is occurs due to objectives in surround.

In communication, radio waves and other waves are transmitted with above

phenomena. Usually waves are transmitted in atmosphere above earth. Usually

atmosphere is divided into four parts

Figure 3: Four layers of Atmosphere with dimensions.

3.2 Troposphere

The closest region is called as troposphere. This is overspread about 11 km in middle

latitudes, 12 km in tropical regions, and 7km at the poles.

. All mountains, Buildings and all particles we can see are in this region. Additionally,

water and dust molecules are in this region also. Waves less than 30MHz frequency

such as LF, MF, and VLF can be partly reflected of refracted in this region.

Troposphere is compared warm other regions. This phenomenon is occurred because

of heat reflection of Earth. 75% to 80% of mass of atmosphere is consisted in this

region and Majority of water molecules dust molecules also in this region. In the

troposphere air temperature on average decreases with height at an overall

positive lapse rate of about 6.5°C per kilometer, until the tropopause, the boundary

between the troposphere and stratosphere is reached.

3.3 Ionosphere

This is the most important region with related to wave propagation. Ionization is

occurred in between thermosphere and mesosphere. This ionization area is called as

Ionosphere. This consists of about 0.1% of total mass of Earth atmosphere.

Ionosphere is a shell of electrons and electrically charged atoms and molecules’

stretching from about 50km to 1000km. Ionosphere is created because of ionized

particles. Because of Sun (ultraviolet rays mainly) particles in this region are ionized

as both (+) and (-). So, free electrons and holes are in this region and because of that

radio waves are attenuated of reflected of refracted.

X rays, UV rays and some other short length waves are ionized in this region.

Basically all these radiations, ionizations depend on behavior of the Sun. Because of

that at day time and night times behavior of ionosphere is different.

Ionosphere consists of three basic layers called, D layer, E layer and F layer.

3.3.1 D layer

D layer is the closest layer in ionosphere towards the Earth. This is above 50km to

90kms from Earth surface. In D layer, Recombination is higher and radiation and free

electron density is lower. High frequency and other waves below 10MHz are blocked

by the D layer. The effect of D layer is maximum at day time and lowest at night time.

The layer is chiefly generated by the action of a form of radiation known as Lyman

radiation which has a wavelength of 1215 Angstroms and ionises nitric oxide gas

present in the atmosphere.

3.3.2 E layer

This is the second and middle layer of ionosphere. About 90 km to 120 km above the

surface of the Earth. Also called as, Kennelly – Heaviside layer. E layer is ionized

because of X rays and UV rays both. Waves from 10MHz to 50MHz frequencies are

reflected by this layer. The vertical structure of the E layer is primarily determined by

the competing effects of ionization and recombination. The effect of E layer is

maximum at daytime and minimum at night. Broadly the radiation that produces

ionisation in this region has wavelengths between about 10 and 100 Angstroms.

3.3.3 F layer

F layer is outer layer of ionosphere. This is called as Appleton layer also. Extends

from about 110km to 500km from earth surface. Extreme UV radiation is absorbed in

this layer. This is acting as two layers at day time and one layer at night time as F1 and

F2. They are found at altitudes of around 300 and 400 km in summer, and then during

the winter they may fall to around 200 and 300 km. At night the two layers generally

combine to form a single layer and this is generally around an altitude of 250 to 300

km.. This is the most important layer HF wave propagation. The F layer acts as a

"reflector" of signals in the HF portion of the radio spectrum enabling worldwide

radio communications to be established. It is the main region associated with HF

signal propagation.

Figure 4 : Radio wave is reflected by ionosphere

The behavior of Ionosphere is varying with the heat/ temperature of surround.

Because of that wave propagation is always depends on effect of Sun as the main

Light and heat source of Earth. Atoms and molecules to split into free electrons and

positive ions. When a negative electron meets a positive ion, the fact that dissimilar

charges attract means that they will be pulled towards one another and they may

combine. This means that two opposite effects of splitting and recombination are

taking place. This is known as a state of dynamic equilibrium. Accordingly the level

of ionization is dependent upon the rate of ionization and recombination. This has a

significant effect on radio communications. As same as ionosphere protect Earth from

hazardous rays such as X rays and high radiated UV rays.

As I mentioned above, performances of layers is highest at day time. Below image

gives a clear idea how these layers behave.

Figure 5 : Behavior of ionosphere layers in day time and night time.

http://www.radio-electronics.com/info/propagation/ionospheric/sun-hf-radio-

propagation.php

According to above graph D layer is active in daytime and it’s disappeared in night

time. If consider about E layer, as same as D layer in day time. In nighttime it

becomes very weak. That can be neglected the effect of E layer at night time. F layer

is departed into two different layers as F1 and F2 in day time. Although, Those two

layers recombine as one layer at night time. Because of this behavior of ionosphere,

(low absorption of waves) we can hear many sounds clearly than day time in

practically.

Sky wave propagation can be varied according to season also. There are four seasons

on Earth affected on some countries. As an example, in summer, effect of sun is

higher and radiation and ionization is higher of ionosphere. So, even low frequencies

are absorbed of reflected back to Earth. As an example there is less absorption and

wide area communication in winter compared to summer. Behavior of sun is changed

in every 27 days, because of rotation and every 11 years, because of sun spots. The

overall effect on HF communications is that there will be higher critical frequencies

occur for every 11 years.

3.4 Conclusion

A wave can be described as a disturbance that travels through a medium from one

location to another location under effect of wave phenomena. Radio waves in

electromagnetic spectrum mainly transmitted through the atmosphere as ground wave

propagation, line of sight propagation or sky wave propagation. Ionosphere of Earth is

divided into four layers as troposphere, Stratosphere, Mesosphere and Thermosphere.

Ionosphere is made because of ionized particles in between Stratosphere and

Mesosphere regions. In particular the ionosphere is widely known for affecting

signals on the short wave radio bands where it "reflects" signals enabling these radio

communications signals to be heard over vast distances. This is again divided into

three layers as D, E & F. radio frequency phenomena occur due to these layers in HF,

VHF bands mainly. The behavior of these layers mainly depend on Sun. Radiation of

sun, atoms are ionized as electrons or holes and make barriers. Because of that

behavior of those layers are changed according to daily, seasonal, long term variations

and that affects on radio wave communication as broadcasting efficiency, power level

(quality), transmitting distance and magnitude coverage area.

Research 04 (P2.4, D3)

4.1 Introduction

In above researches we considered about different wave types of radio waves and

those waves are differ according to their properties such as frequency, wave length,

etc. Usually radio waves are travelling through atmosphere from transmitter to

receiver. According to properties of radio waves, method of propagation is varied.

There are few main methods of propagation such as ground wave, sky wave, space

wave and line of sight propagation.

4.2 Ground Wave Propagation

Long and medium bands of radio waves such as VLF, LF, and MF have higher

wavelength and frequency below 2MHz. Ground wave radio propagation is used to

provide relatively long radio communications coverage and used in long way

communication such as AM Radio broadcasting and military operations. According to

Steve Winder and Joe Carr (2002), “Waves in the bands from very low frequencies

(VLF, 3–30 kHz), low frequencies (LF, 30–300 kHz) and medium frequencies (MF,

300–3000 kHz) travel close to the earth’s surface: the ground wave Transmissions

using the ground wave must be vertically polarized to avoid the conductivity of the

earth short-circuiting the electric field.” As mentioned in Ian Poole (2003), “The

ground wave is only signals below about 2MHz. it is found that as a frequency

increases the attenuation of the whole signal increases and the coverage is

considerably reduced. Obviously the exact range will be depending on many factors.

Typically a high power medium wave station may be heard over distances 150km and

more. There are also many low power stations running 100W or so. These might have

a coverage area extending to 15 or 20 miles.” Ground waves are useful at day time,

because medium frequencies can be absorbed by the D region of ionosphere. Ground

waves travel very close to earth. These waves propagate from transmitter to receiver.

Usually these waves’ propagating is affected on troposphere objects such as natural

and syntactic objects and even surface properties of the Earth. There is another type of

ground wave, which follow the curvature of Earth. These waves called as surface

wave. Antennas, which use for ground wave transmit and receive are relatively

bigger. Even in other way broadcasting, ground wave propagation might be occurred

as a side effect. Polarization of antenna is also affect on propagating efficiency.

Vertical polarized antenna has better efficiency than horizontal polarized antenna,

because horizontally polarized ground wave would be shorted out by the conductivity

of the ground.

Figure 6 : Surface wave propagation. http://www.ustudy.in/node/5139

4.3 Sky Wave Propagation

Sky wave propagation can be defined as, the propagation of radio waves refracted to

towards the Earth by the ionosphere. High frequency (3MHz to 30MHz) broadcasting

is occurred due to sky wave propagation. According to Steve Winder and Joe Carr

(2002), “Radio signals travelling away from the earth’s surface are called as sky

waves and they reach the layers of ionosphere.” Especially, High frequency waves are

reflected by ionization of atmosphere. Sky wave propagation can be varying

according to time of the day or season. As mentioned in previous research, because of

rays of sun (radiation), ions in atmosphere (especially in ionosphere) are ionized.

Because of that radio waves are impact with those ions and refracted towards the

Earth. Refraction efficiency directly depends on behavior of the sun and quality of

wave.

Figure 7: Sky wave propagation and its properties

http://electriciantraining.tpub.com/14182/css/14182_84.htm

As mentioned in Ian Poole (2003), “To explain how the effects change with frequency

take the example of a low frequency signal transmitting in the medium wave band at a

frequency of f1. The signal spreads out in all directions along the earth’s surface as a

ground wave that is picked up over the service area. Some radiation also travels up to

the ionosphere. However, because of the frequency in use the D layer absorbs the

signal. At night the D layer disappears and the signals can then pass on being reflected

by the higher.” Sun spots also do a great affect on sky wave propagation.

4.4 Line Of sight propagation

Line of sight propagation used for in short distance communication. Addition of radio

horizons of two towers are less than transmitting distance. Ground wave propagation

is used in satellite communication and ground wave communication. In satellite

communication, satellite waves, whose frequency is above 30MHz cannot be reflected

by ionosphere. Because of that, transmission is done by establishing towers in near

distances. Even in ground waves, sometimes those waves cannot be travelled much

distance (beyond radio horizon) because of phenomena of waves such as diffraction,

reflection, absorption. Line of sight propagation helps in this kind of incidents.

Figure 8: Ways of Line of sight propagation occurring

http://www.ustudy.in/node/5140

4.5 Space wave propagation

Space wave propagation is very similar to line of sight propagation. Usually, space

waves are high frequencies and travelled directly from transmitter to receiver.

Typically, used in television and radar communication. Unlike, lines of sight

propagation, these waves are travelled without any reflection. In space wave

propagation, transmitting distance also depend on atmosphere effects such as bending.

Because of that transmitting distance is getting higher indirectly. In space waves,

power is radiated in horizontal way. Because of that Antennas, which used for space

wave propagation must be horizontally polarized. To increase transmitting distance

can be done by increasing the height of antenna towers and increasing power level of

signal.

Besides these propagation modes, there are more propagation ways affected by

phenomena of waves such as reflection, refraction, absorption, etc. Because of above

phenomena there are some kinds of limitations, definitions also.

4.6 Skip Distance

In wave propagation, ground wave propagation occurs in a little percentage in sky

wave propagation process.

Figure 9 : Skip zone, sky wave skip distance and ground wave coverage.

Skip distance is the distance between the maximum ground wave distance and the

minimum sky wave distance. People or devices in this distance area, can’t get signal

in either way. Because of that, this area/ zone also called as “Dead Zone.” The size of

the skip distance depends on the extent of the ground wave coverage and the skip

distance. When the ground wave coverage is great enough or the skip distance is short

enough, skip distance getting zero. As mentioned in Steve Winder and Joe Carr

(2002), “The minimum distance from the transmitter, along the surface of the earth, at

which a wave above the critical frequency will be returned to earth. Depending on the

frequency, the ground wave will exist at a short distance from the transmitter.

4.7 Critical Frequency

Critical frequency is the maximum frequency, which will be reflected back towards

the Earth by the ionosphere, when signal is sent vertically to ionosphere (vertical

incidence). According to Ian Poole (2003), “For vertical incidence there is a

maximum frequency for which the signals will be returned to earth. This frequency is

known as the critical frequency. Any frequencies higher than this will penetrate the

layer and pass right through it on to the next layer or into outer space.”

f

figure 10 : effect of critical frequency

Ionosphere Critical frequency wave

4.8 Maximum Usable Frequency (USF)

Maximum usable frequency method is similar to critical frequency method, Although

Instead of vertical incidence, there is an angle incidence. If consider about definition,

maximum usable frequency, the maximum frequency which will be reflected back

towards the Earth by the ionosphere, when signal is sent with an angle to ionosphere

(angle incidence). There is a relationship between critical frequency and maximum

usable frequency. If, wave is make angle of θ with ionosphere,

Maximum usable frequency = Critical frequency

cosθ

4.9 Scattering

Scattering is a phenomenon of waves such as radio waves, light waves. Scattering is

affected on radio wave communication. There are many types of scattering modes

such as tropospheric scattering, back scatter, side scatter, forward scatter, multiple

scattering, meteor scattering, etc. In scattering, it changes the direction of transmitted

wave into many directions. If discuss about tropospheric scattering, that is happened

because of particles, molecules in tropospheric region. Tropospheric scattering is

making advantages in VHF and UHF communication. This causes a small amount of

the energy to be scattered in a forward direction and returned to Earth at distances

beyond the horizon. Because of that signal wave can be transmitted better distance

than expect. The scatter area used for tropospheric scatter is known as the scatter

volume. The angle at which the receiving antenna must be aimed to capture the

scattered energy is called as scatter angle. This scattering also called as forward

scattering, because it increasing transmitting distance at receiving side. According to

Steve Winder and Joe Carr (2002), “The tropospheric, or forward, scatter effect

provides reliable, over the horizon, communication between fixed points at bands of

ultra and super high frequencies. Usable bands are around 900, 2000 and 5000MHz

and path lengths of 300 to 500 km are typical.” Back scattering is the same

phenomena, although it reduces the skip zone at transmitting side. Multiple scattering

is happened because of clouds and fading is occurs there. Because of these scattering

echoes, fading are occur.

4.10 Ducting

Figure 11: Duct effect caused by temperature inversion

http://www.tpub.com/neets/book10/40j.htm

Ducting is an effect occurs in because of troposphere. When something special

particles which has higher refractive index such as water molecules are stored in

lower side of troposphere (close side to Earth), it avert wave coming back to Earth.

Waves are reflected again and again in that special area and work as a waveguide.

Because of ducting transmitting distance is getting higher. That refracting are is

named as Duct. Duct is occurs because of temperature differences in near fields.

Especially Ducting is occurring on water and water resources such as seas, rivers, etc.

Ducting provides giant advantages in VHF and UHF broadcasting Ducting can

provide contacts of 950 miles or more over lands and up to 2500 miles over oceans.

As mentioned in Steve Winder and Joe Carr (2002), “Ducting allows long distance

communications from lower VHF through microwave frequencies; with 50MHz being

a lower practical limit, and 10 GHz being an ill-defined upper limit. Airborne

operators of radio, radar, and other electronic equipment can sometimes note ducting

at even higher microwave frequencies”.

4.11 Radio Horizon

Figure 12: Optical (visual ) horizon and real radio horizon http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Communication_Systems/Wave_Propagation

Radio path horizon is defined as the longest distance, that radio wave travel directly

from the transmitter. As mentioned in Yasith N. Kotelawala (2012), RF propagation

part 2, ICBT mount Campus,” Radio path horizon is the farthest point to which radio

waves will travel directly.” But there is a difference between real one and visual one.

Because of the effect of atmosphere (troposphere) waves are bend towards the earth

and follow the curve of Earth. So, the real horizon is about 15 percent far away from

visual radio horizon.

Figure 13 : Radio horizon and antenna height parameters.

In designing antennas, have to consider about radio horizon effect. Especially, in

space wave propagation, maximum distance of communicating by two stations

depend on magnitude (height) of towers and its distance to radio horizon. According

to above diagram, D1 and D2 are the radio horizons of communication towers, that

have h1 and h2 heights. Usually there is an for this purpose.

D=1.415 √h

When,

D = Distance of radio horizon in miles.

h = height of the tower in feet.

By adding those D1 and D2 lengths can calculate the maximum distance of space

wave propagating.

4.12 Multiple Hop

As mentioned above in sky wave propagation and some other propagation, waves are

transmitted through atmosphere and reflected back to the Earth by atmosphere effects.

However one path is considered as one hop. If signal power is enough to reflect back

to ionosphere again after impact with Earth, multiple hop phenomena is occurred.

Usually, the longest hop on high frequency propagation is about 2500 miles. Multiple

hops help to propagate over long distance. But, path losses, fading and absorptions

may be occurring at there.

4.13 Multipath Propagation

In signal propagating, that is expected to transmit given signal / wave from the

transmitter to receiver. That propagation may be happened in many ways due to

refraction, reflection, ducting, diffraction and some other phenomena of wave. At the

receiver, receiver get portion of those waves in different times with different phases.

Multipath propagation occurs because of all kind of propagation methods and wave

properties. The multipath propagation resulting from the variety of signal paths that

may exist between the transmitter and receiver can give rise to interference in a

variety of ways including distortion of the signal, loss of data and multipath fading.

According to Steve Winder and Joe Carr (2002), “As conditions in the path between

transmitter and receiver change so does the strength and path length of reflected

signals. This means that a receiver may be subjected to signal variations of almost

twice the mean level and practically zero, giving rise to severe fading. This type of

fading is frequency selective and occurs on tropo-scatter systems and in the mobile

environment where it is more severe at higher frequencies. A mobile receiver

travelling through an urban area can receive rapid signal fluctuations caused by

additions and cancellations of the direct and reflected signals at half-wavelength

intervals. Fading due to the multi-path environment is often referred to as Rayleigh

fading, which can cause short signal dropouts, imposes severe restraints on mobile

data transmission”.

4.14 Conclusion

In Radio communication signal are transmitted as waves in atmosphere usually. While

transmitting, waves have to face lot of influences of atmosphere, wave phenomena,

particles, molecules. Different types of waves use different propagation methods

because of above reason. Low frequencies up to 2MHz use ground wave propagation.

Ground waves propagate very close to Earth and increase the transmitting distance

because it follows the curve of Earth. Ground wave propagation are used for long way

transmitting with low power. HF (3 to 30MHz) waves are propagated by sky wave

propagation. Ionosphere in atmosphere controls this propagation. Sky wave

propagation is directly depends on behavior of the sun. “Multiple hop” phenomena

(signal travelling by using number of hops) may be occur here at long distance signal

propagating. In sky wave propagation, maximum usable frequency and critical

frequency values are concerned. Critical frequency is the maximum frequency, which

will be reflected back towards the Earth by the ionosphere, when signal is vertical

incidence and maximum usable frequency is when signal is angle incidence. Skip

zone/ dead zone is another measurement in this propagation method. Skip distance is

the distance between the maximum ground wave distance and the minimum sky wave

distance. Nobody can receive signal who, in this zone. Scattering is another

phenomenon of waves and both advantages and disadvantages occur here. As

advantages, scattering reduce the magnitude of dead zone and fading, echoes and

signal distortions can be mentioned as disadvantages. Line of sight is another

propagation mode which, is utilized in satellite and ground communications. Both of

antennas must be in radio horizon when, Radio horizon is the longest distance, that

radio wave travel directly from the transmitter. Line of sight propagation is done by

both direct waves and reflected waves. When, there are no reflected waves involve to

propagation, which is called as space wave propagation. Space waves having higher

frequency and doesn’t reflect by ionosphere because of that. UHF, VHF wave

propagate as space waves. Ducting phenomena is doing a great job at line of sight

propagation and space propagations. Ducting occurs because of storage od high

reflective index molecules (water molecules) lower side of troposphere. Water

surfaces, such as oceans ideal for ducting and signal can be propagated longer

distance. Multipath propagation is propagation of signals under many phenomena and

propagation methods. Phase differences, echoes, signal distortions are occurred

because of multipath propagation. In Radio broadcasting Engineering it consider how

to utilize natural resources, phenomenon as advantages as helpers and to reduce

barriers in communication.

Research 05 (P1.1, D2)

5.1 Introduction to modulation

In day today life, all the audio signals we can hear is between 20 – 20 KHz. As I

mentioned in above researches to broadcast a voice signal, it must has giant frequency

according to different radio frequency regions. Actual voice frequency cannot be

broadcast because of some reasons. Those are,

5.1.1 Required Antenna size

Radio wave frequency range is typically at 3KHz to 300GHz region in

electromagnetic spectrum. If signal is 30Hz, according to V=fλ equation, wave length

of the signal will be 10,000km. If use quarter wavelength dipole, antenna size is going

to be 2500km.

5.1.2 Mixing of signals

If there are many broadcasting centers, when receiving signals from a particular

center, which may be confused, because all the signal frequencies, broadcasting by

different centers are common value.

5.1.3 Effect of noise and distortions

When, signal is travelling, noise effect might be occurred due to travelling path.

The solution for above problems is Modulating. Modulating is Variation of a high

frequency signal according to a quality or property of message signal. As mentioned

in McGraw Hill dictionary of aviation, “The variation in the value of some parameter

characterizing a periodic oscillation. Specifically, the variation of some characteristic

of a radio wave, called the carrier wave, in accordance with instantaneous values of

another wave, called the modulating wave. Variation of the amplitude is amplitude

modulation, variation of the frequency is frequency modulation, and variation of the

phase is phase modulation. The formation of very short bursts of a carrier wave,

separated by relatively long periods during which no carrier wave is transmitted,

is pulse modulation. It is the process by which the characteristics of a signal wave

carrying intelligence are impressed upon another wave the carrier wave.

Modulation process can be divided into two main parts analogue modulation and

digital modulation. Analogue modulation is again divided into two parts as amplitude

modulation and angle modulation.

5.2 Amplitude modulation

Amplitude modulation is varying the amplitude of the carrier wave according to instantaneous amplitude of message signal (modulating signal).

Figure 01 : modulating wave vs. amplitude modulated wave in the envelop. [1]

The first utilization of amplitude modulation is the origin point of broadcasting, which

done by Reginald Fessenden in 1901. If consider about advantages of amplitude

modulation, Amplitude modulation is very simplicity to create and fewer components

are required. As disadvantages, less efficiency of power usage and bandwidth and

higher noise effect can be mentioned.

According to above figure, the outer layer is called as, the envelop. Usually, in

oscilloscope we can see only the envelop part in high frequencies.

In mathematically, the carrier wave is define as,

V=V csin(ωc+ϕ )

Modulating wave is defined as,

V=V msin (ωmt )

Amplitude of the modulated signal = V c+V m sinωm t

Instantaneous voltage of modulated wave= V = [V c+V m sinωm t]sin(ωc t)

By using Sin A. Sin B = ½ Cos (A - B) - ½ Cos (A + B) formula,

V = V c sin(ωc t)+V m

2¿

f c=carrier frequency=ωc

2π

f m=modulating frequency=ωm

2π

Lower side frequency = f c−f m

Upper side frequency = f c+ f m

Carrier frequency = f c

Because of that, Bandwidth can be obtained as,

= Upper side frequency – lower side frequency

= ( f c+ f m )−( f c−f m)

= 2f m

If, instead of just one modulating frequency, there is a modulating frequency range (f 1−f 2¿, it creates upper side band (USB) and lower side band (LSB).

Modulation factor (m)

Modulation factor (modulation index) is define as, the ratio of change of amplitude of

carrier wave to the amplitude of normal carrier wave.

Modulationindex= RMS value of modulating signalRMSvalue of unmodulated signal

The value of modulation factor depends upon the amplitudes of carrier and signal.

Modulation depth is modulation index as a percentage.

Modulation factor determines the strength and quality of the transmitted signal. In an

AM wave, the signal is contained in the variation of the carrier amplitude. When

modulation index is less value, the amount of the carrier amplitude variation is small.

Amplitude (V)

AngularFrequency

c c + mc - m

Lowerside

frequency

Carrier Upperside

frequency

Bandwidth= 2 * m

Spectrum ofaudio signal

Carrier

UpperSideband

Erect

LowerSidebandInverted

fcf1 f2 fc+ f1 fc+ f2fc- f2 fc- f1

Consequently, the audio signal being transmitted will not be very strong. If the

modulation index is higher, the stronger and clearer will be the audio signal. If the

carrier is over-modulated (m >1), distortion will occur during reception. That means

m = 1 moment is the maximum value for modulation index for better modulation.

Below image indicate modulated signal when M =0.5,1 and 1.5 moments.

Figure 02: Quantity of modulation depth [2]

5.3 Power of AM wave

Suppose, AM wave is dissipated R resistance. The total power is sum of each every

component of the modulated signal. Power in the carrier can be mentioned as,

Pc=V c

2

RW

Power in each frequency can be define as,

Ps=

mV c

2

2

R=m2

4PcW

Total power = Pt=Pc+2P s ;( double side band)

= Pc (1+m2

2)W

Power in the carrier = Pc

Pt =

1

1+m2

2

In usual modulation highest value for m is 1. When, substitute that value, about 67%

of power in carrier. That means, in double side band only 33% of power in bands.

Because of that, double sideband amplitude modulation wastes power and spectrum.

Two-thirds of the power is in the carrier which conveys no information and one

sideband is discarded in the receiver. Also, the modulation must be accomplished

either in the final power amplifier of the transmitter necessitating a high power

modulator and it required big bandwidth. This takes huge space for less data

transmission.

Figure 03: Side bands for 100MHz carrier, 300Hz to 3KHz modulating wave band

5.4 Double side band suppressed carrier (DSBSC)

Double side band is the usual band type in AM as defined above.

Figure 04: Double side band

Figure 05: Double side band suppressed carrier

As illustrated above, removing carrier part is reduces the width of the entire band

(bandwidth). But this bandwidth is greater than single side band suppressed carrier.

Low bandwidth can travel easily in space. So can expect less power loss.

5.5 Single Side band (SSB) and SSB suppressed carrier (SSBSC)

As we considered above, usually there are two side bands in AM spectrum as upper

side band (USB) and lower side band (LSB). Both of two sides have same magnitude.

They are just as mirror image of other. By removing one side band, there will not be

any effect on data (information), because both side bands carry the same information.

This is done by balanced modulator usually. In this process bandwidth is also

reduced. So power efficiency is getting higher. Removing carrier enhance the power

saving, because it reduce bandwidth furthermore according to above figure. Single

side band after removing carrier part is called as Single side band suppressed carrier

(SSBSC). Compared to double side band

5.6 Conclusion

In broadcasting, “Modulating” concept is utilized to transmit waves to destination.

Modulating is varying a carrier frequency according to quality of signal wave.

Modulation can be analogue or digital. Analogue modulation is mainly divided into

two parts as amplitude modulation and angle modulation.

Amplitude modulation is varying the amplitude of carrier according to instantaneous

amplitude of modulating wave. Amplitude modulation is relatively cheap compared to

other modulating ways. Bandwidth of amplitude modulated wave is equal to two

times maximum frequency of modulating wave. At there, there are two side bands

with the same magnitude. Amplitude modulation has lesser efficiency, because it

carries less information with wide bandwidth. Only about 16% of power is in bands

(33% in two bands). So, removing carrier part is done for reduce bandwidth and save

power. That is called as double side band suppressed carrier.

Because of both two bands carrying the same information, one side band is well

enough for transmitting. After removing either one side it’s called as single side band

(SSB). Removing carrier part enhance the power saving by reduce bandwidth. This is

named as single side band suppressed carrier (SSBSC).

References

[1] Ian Poole (2003), Newnes guide to radio communication and technology, page no. 54 figure 3.3, Newnes publishers

[2] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amplitude_modulation

[3] Steve Winder, Joe Carr (2002),Newnes RF and radio engineering pocket book, ,page 114, Newness publishers.

Steve Winder, Joe Carr (2002), Newnes RF and radio engineering pocket book, page no: 112-116, Newness publishers

] Ian Poole (2003), Newnes guide to radio communication and technology, page no. 53 - 58 , Newnes publishers

Yashith N. Kotelawala (2012), RF modulation part 2 (amplitude modulation), ICBT mount campus.