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Radhanite 1
Radhanite
Map of Eurasia showing the trade network of the Radhanites (in
blue), c. 870, as reported
in the account of ibn Khordadbeh in the Book of Roads and
Kingdoms. Other trade routes
of the period shown in purple
The Radhanites (also Radanites,
Hebrew sing. Radhani, pl.
Radhanim; Arabic
ar-Raaniyya) were medieval Jewish
merchants. Whether the term, which is
used by only a limited number of
primary sources, refers to a specific
guild, or a clan, or is a generic term for
Jewish merchants in the trans-Eurasian
trade network is unclear. Jewish
merchants were involved in trade
between the Christian and Islamic
worlds during the early Middle Ages
(approx. 5001000). Many trade routes
previously established under the Roman Empire continued to
function during that period largely through their
efforts. Their trade network covered much of Europe, North
Africa, the Middle East, Central Asia and parts of India
and China.
Etymology
Several etymologies have been suggested for the word
"Radhanite". Many scholars, including Barbier de Meynard
and Moshe Gil, believe it refers to a district in Mesopotamia
called "the land of Radhan" in Arabic and Hebrew texts
of the period.[1] Others maintain that their center was the city
of Ray (Rhages) in northern Persia.[2] Cecil Roth and
Claude Cahen, among others, make the same claim about the Rhne
River valley in France, which is Rhodanus in
Latin. The latter claim that the center of Radhanite activity
was probably in France as all of their trade routes began
there.[3] Still others maintain that the name derives from the
Persian terms rah "way, path" and dn "one who
knows", meaning "one who knows the way".[4] English-language (or
Western) sources added the suffix -ite to the
term, as is done with ethnonyms or names derived from place
names.
Activities
The activities of the Radhanites are documented by Abu'l Qasim
Ubaid'Allah ibn Khordadbeh, the Director of Posts
and Police (spymaster and postman) for the province of Jibal
under the Abbasid Caliph al-Mu'tamid (ruled
869885), when he wroteKitab al-Masalik wal-Mamalik(Book of Roads
and Kingdoms), probably around 870. IbnKhordadbeh described the
Radhanites as sophisticated and multilingual. He outlined four main
trade routes utilized
by the Radhanites in their journeys; all four began in the Rhne
Valley in southern France and terminated on the east
coast of China. Radhanites primarily carried commodities that
combined small bulk and high demand, including
spices, perfumes, jewelry, and silk. They are also described as
transporting oils, incense, steel weapons, furs, and
slaves (in particular, the Slavic Saqliba).
http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Saqalibahttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Slavic_peopleshttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Slaveryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Furhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Steelhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Incensehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Oilhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Silkhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Jewelryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Perfumehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Spicehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Chinahttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Francehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Rh%C3%B4nehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Book_of_Roads_and_Kingdoms_%28ibn_Khordadbeh%29http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Al-Mu%27tamidhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Caliphhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Abbasidhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Jibalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ibn_Khordadbehhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ethnonymhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radhanite#endnote_gil2http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Persian_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radhanite#endnote_Francehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Latinhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Francehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Rh%C3%B4nehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Claude_Cahenhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Cecil_Rothhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radhanite#endnote_rhageshttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Persiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ray%2C_Iranhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radhanite#endnote_gil1http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Hebrew_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Arabic_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mesopotamiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Moshe_Gilhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Barbier_de_Meynardhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Chinahttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Indiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Central_Asiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Middle_Easthttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=North_Africahttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Europehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Roman_Empirehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Early_Middle_Ageshttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Islamic_worldhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Islamic_worldhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Christendomhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Tradehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Eurasiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Clanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Guildhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Merchanthttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Judaismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Medievalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Arabic_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Hebrew_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File%3ARadhanites2.pnghttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Book_of_Roads_and_Kingdoms_%28ibn_Khordadbeh%29http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ibn_Khordadbehhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Eurasia
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Radhanite 2
Text of Ibn Khordadbeh's account
These merchants speak Arabic, Persian, Roman,[5] the Frank,[6]
Spanish, and Slav languages. They journey
from West to East, from East to West, partly on land, partly by
sea. They transport from the West eunuchs,
female slaves, boys, brocade, castor, marten and other furs, and
swords. They take ship from Firanja
(France[3]), on the Western Sea, and make for Farama (Pelusium).
There they load their goods on camel-back
and go by land to al-Kolzum (Suez), a distance of
twenty-fivefarsakhs(parasangs). They embark in the EastSea and sail
from al-Kolzum to al-Jar (port of Medina) and al-Jeddah, then they
go to Sind, India, and China.
On their return from China they carry back musk, aloes, camphor,
cinnamon, and other products ofthe Eastern
countries to al-Kolzum and bring them back to Farama, where they
again embark on the Western Sea. Some
make sail for Constantinople to sell their goods to the Romans;
others go to the palace of the King of the
Franks to place their goods. Sometimes these Jew merchants, when
embarking from the land of the Franks, on
the Western Sea, make for Antioch (at the head of the Orontes
River); thence by land to al-Jabia (al-Hanaya
on the bank of the Euphrates), where they arrive after three
days march. There they embark on the Euphrates
and reach Baghdad, whence they sail down the Tigris, to
al-Obolla. From al-Obolla they sail for Oman, Sindh,
Hind, and China ...
These different journeys can also be made by land. The merchants
that start from Spain or France go to Susal-Aksa (in Morocco) and
then to Tangier, whence they walk to Kairouan and the capital of
Egypt. Thence
they go to ar-Ramla, visit Damascus, al-Kufa, Baghdad, and
al-Basra, cross Ahwaz, Fars, Kirman, Sind, Hind,
and arrive in China.
Sometimes, also, they take the route behind Rome and, passing
through the country of the Slavs, arrive at
Khamlidj, the capital of the Khazars. They embark on the Jorjan
Sea, arrive at Balkh, betake themselves from
there across the Oxus, and continue their journey toward Yurt,
Toghuzghuz, and from there to China.[7]
Historical significance
A caravan of dromedaries in Algeria. Much of the
Radhanites' overland trade between Tangier andMesopotamia was by
camel.
During the Early Middle Ages the Islamic polities of the Middle
East
and North Africa and the Christian kingdoms of Europe often
banned
each other's merchants from entering their ports.[8] Corsairs of
both
sides raided the shipping of their adversaries at will. The
Radhanites
functioned as neutral go-betweens, keeping open the lines of
communication and trade between the lands of the old Roman
Empire
and the Far East. As a result of the revenue they brought,
Jewish
merchants enjoyed significant privileges under the early
Carolingians
in France and throughout the Muslim world, a fact that
sometimes
vexed local Church authorities.
While most trade between Europe and East Asia had historically
been
conducted via Persian and Central Asian intermediaries, the
Radhanites
were among the first to establish a trade network that stretched
from Western Europe to Eastern Asia.[9] More
remarkable still, they engaged in this trade regularly and over
an extended period of time, centuries before Marco
Polo and ibn Battuta brought their tales of travel in the Orient
to the Christians and the Muslims, respectively.
Indeed, ibn Battuta is believed to have traveled with the Muslim
traders who traveled to the Orient on routes similar
to those used by the Radhanites.
While traditionally many historians believed that the art of
Chinese paper-making had been transmitted to Europe via
Arab merchants who got the secret from prisoners of war taken at
the Battle of Talas, some believe that Jewish
merchants such as the Radhanites were instrumental in bringing
paper-making west.[10] Joseph of Spain, possibly a
Radhanite, is credited by some sources with introducing the
so-called Hindu-Arabic numerals from India to
http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Marco_Polohttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ibn_Battutahttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Orienthttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Paperhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Prisoner_of_warhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Battle_of_Talashttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radhanite#endnote_paperhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Joseph_of_Spainhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Hindu-Arabic_numeralshttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Hindu-Arabic_numeralshttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Joseph_of_Spainhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radhanite#endnote_paperhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Battle_of_Talashttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Prisoner_of_warhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Paperhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Orienthttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ibn_Battutahttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Marco_Polohttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Marco_Polohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radhanite#endnote_networkhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Central_Asiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Carolingianshttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Far_Easthttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Roman_Empirehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Privateerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radhanite#endnote_banhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Europehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=North_Africahttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Middle_Easthttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Islamhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Early_Middle_Ageshttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File%3AMenare.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Algeriahttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Dromedarieshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radhanite#endnote_Khordadbehhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Uyghur_peoplehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Yurthttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Oxus_Riverhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Balkhhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Caspian_Seahttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Khazarshttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Khamlijhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Slavic_peopleshttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Romehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Kirmanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Fars_Provincehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ahwazhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Basrahttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Kufahttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Damascushttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ramlahttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=List_of_Egyptian_capitalshttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Kairouanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Tangierhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Moroccohttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sus_al-Aksahttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sus_al-Aksahttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Republic_of_Indiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sindhhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Omanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Al-Obollahttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Tigris_Riverhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Baghdadhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Euphrates_Riverhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Al-Hanayahttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Orontes_Riverhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Antiochhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Frankshttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Kings_of_the_Frankshttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Kings_of_the_Frankshttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Byzantine_Empirehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Constantinoplehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Cinnamonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Camphorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Aloehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Muskhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Chinahttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Indiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sindhhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Jeddahhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Medinahttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Red_Seahttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Red_Seahttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Parasanghttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Suezhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Camel_trainhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Camelhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pelusiumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mediterranean_Seahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radhanite#endnote_Francehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Swordhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Martenhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Beaverhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Silkhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Eunuchhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Slavic_languageshttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Spanish_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radhanite#endnote_Frankishhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Old_Frenchhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radhanite#endnote_Romanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Byzantine_Greek_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Persian_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Arabic_language
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Radhanite 3
Europe.[11] Historically, Jewish communities used letters of
credit to transport large quantities of money without the
risk of theft from at least classical times.[12] This system was
developed and put into force on an unprecedented
scale by medieval Jewish merchants such as the Radhanites; if
so, they may be counted among the precursors to the
banks that arose during the late Middle Ages and early modern
period.[13]
Some scholars believe that the Radhanites may have played a role
in the conversion of the Khazars to Judaism.[14]
In addition, they may have helped establish Jewish communities
at various points along their trade routes, and wereprobably
involved in the early Jewish settlement of Eastern Europe, Central
Asia, China and India.
Much of the Radhanites' Indian Ocean trade was
via coastal cargo ships such as this dhow.
Besides ibn Khordadbeh, the Radhanites are mentioned by name
only
by a handful of sources. Ibn al-Faqih's early 10th century
Kitab
al-Buldan ("Book of the Countries") mentions them, but much of
ibn
al-Faqih's information was derived from ibn Khordadbeh's work.
Sefer
ha-Dinim, a Hebrew account of the travels of Yehuda ben Meir
of
Mainz, named Przemyl and Kiev as trading sites along the
Radhanite
route. In the early 12th century, a French-Jewish trader named
Yitzhak
Dorbelo wrote that he traveled with Radhanite merchants to
Poland.[15]
End of the Radhanite age
The fall of the Tang Dynasty of China in 908 and the destruction
of the Khazar Khaganate some sixty years later
(circa 968-969 AD) led to widespread chaos in Inner Eurasia, the
Caucasus and China. Trade routes became unstable
and unsafe, a situation exacerbated by Turkic invasions of
Persia and the Middle East, and the Silk Road largely
collapsed for centuries. This period saw the rise of the
mercantile Italian city-states, especially Genoa, Venice, Pisa,
and Amalfi, who viewed the Radhanites as unwanted
competitors.
The economy of Europe was profoundly affected by the
disappearance of the Radhanites. For example, documentary
evidence indicates that many spices in regular use during the
early Middle Ages completely disappeared from
European tables in the 10th century. Jews had previously, in
large parts of Western Europe, enjoyed a virtual
monopoly on the spice trade.[16]
Some have speculated that a collection of 11th century Jewish
scrolls discovered in a cave in Afghanistan s
Samangan province in 2011 may be a leftover of the Rhadanites,
who had mostly disappeared by the 11th
century.[17]
Notes
1. ^ Gil 299328.
2. ^Enc. of World Trade, "Radhanites" 7634
3. ^ Bareket 558560.
4. ^ Gil 299310.
5. ^ That is, the language of the Byzantine Empire, Greek.
6. ^ It is unclear to what specific language Ibn Khordadbeh
refers. The word "Firanj"can be used to mean "Frank"
and thus most likely the language referred to is either the
Vulgar Latin dialect that ultimately evolved into French
or the Germanic language originally spoken by the Franks, called
Old Frankish by linguists. However, in the
Middle AgesFiranj was a generic term used by Arabs (and Eastern
Christians) for Western Europeans generally.
It is possible that Ibn Khordadbeh uses "Frank" as a
counterpoint to "Roman" (Byzantine Greek), indicating that
the Radhanites spoke the languages of both Eastern and Western
Christians.
7. ^ Though some, such as Moshe Gil, maintain that "Firanja" as
used in this context refers to the
Frankish-occupied areas of Italy, and not to France proper. Gil
299310.
http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Italyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Italyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Byzantine_Greek_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Old_Frankish_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Germanic_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=French_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Vulgar_Latinhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Frankshttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Byzantine_Greek_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Byzantine_Empirehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radhanite#endnote_centuryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radhanite#endnote_spicehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Spice_tradehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Amalfihttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pisahttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Venicehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Genoahttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=City-stateshttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Italyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mercantilehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Silk_Roadhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Middle_Easthttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Turkic_peopleshttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Caucasushttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Eurasiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Khaganhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Khazarshttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Chinahttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Tang_Dynastyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radhanite#endnote_latehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Polandhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Yitzhak_Dorbelohttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Yitzhak_Dorbelohttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Kievhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Przemy%C5%9Blhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mainzhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Yehuda_ben_Meirhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Kitab_al-Buldan_%28disambiguation%29http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Kitab_al-Buldan_%28disambiguation%29http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ibn_al-Faqihhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File%3ADhow.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Dhowhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Indian_Oceanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Eastern_Europehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radhanite#endnote_Khazhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Khazarshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radhanite#endnote_credithttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Early_modern_periodhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Late_Middle_Ageshttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Bankhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radhanite#endnote_Josephushttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Letters_of_credithttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radhanite#endnote_Joseph
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8. ^ Adler 23; for alternative translations see, e.g., De Goeje
114; Rabinowitz 910; Among the minor differences
between the accounts is Rabinowitz's rendering of "Khamlif" in
place of "Khamlidj" and his reference to the
"Yourts of the Toghozghuz" as opposed to Yurt and Toghuzghuz as
separate entities. Rabinowitz's version,
translated, means "Tents of the Uyghurs". See also Dunlop 138,
209, 230.
9. ^ Bendiner 99104.
10. ^See, e.g.,Enc. of World Trade, "China".
11. ^e.g.,Enc. of World Trade, "Radanites" 764.
12. ^ Adler x.; Weissenbron 7478; see alsoEncyclopedia of World
Trade From Ancient Times to the Present,
"Radanites" 764.
13. ^Antiquities 18.6.3
14. ^ Rabinowitz 91.
15. ^e.g.,Enc. of World Trade, "Radanites" 764; see also Pritsak
265.
16. ^ Brook 77; Schipper 116.
17. ^ Rabinowitz 150212.
18. ^ Shefler, Gil "Scrolls raise questions as to Afghan Jewish
history" [18], 'The Jerusalem Post, Jerusalem, 2
January 2012.
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Dover Publications, 1987
Bendiner, Elmer. The Rise and Fall of Paradise. New York: Putnam
Books, 1983.
Bareket, Elinoar. "Rdhnites".Jewish Civilization: An
Encyclopedia. Norman Roth, ed. Routledge, 2002. pp
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Brook, Kevin. The Jews of Khazaria. 2nd ed. Rowman &
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De Goeje, Michael.Bibliotheca Geographorum Arabicorum. Leiden,
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Dunlop, Douglas. The History of the Jewish Khazars, Princeton,
NJ: Princeton University Press, 1954.
Fossier, Robert, ed. The Cambridge Illustrated History of the
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Gottheil, Richard, et al. "Commerce". [19]Jewish Encyclopedia.
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Gil, Moshe. "The Radhanite Merchants and the Land of
Radhan."Journal of the Economic and Social History of
the Orient17:3 (1976). 299328.
Gregory of Tours.De Gloria Martyrorum.
Josephus.Antiquities of the Jews.
Rabinowitz, Louis.Jewish Merchant Adventurers: a study of the
Radanites. London: Edward Goldston, 1948.
"Radanites".Encyclopedia of World Trade: From Ancient Times to
the Present, vol. 3, ed. Cynthia Clark
Northrup, p. 763764. Armonk, NY: M. E. Sharpe, 2005.
Pritsak, Omeljan. "The Khazar Kingdom's Conversion to
Judaism."Harvard Ukrainian Studies 3:2 (Sept. 1978).
Schipper, Itzhak. "Dzieje Gospodarcze ydw Korony i Litwy w
Czasach Przedrozbiorowych."ydzi w Polsce
Odrodzonej, ed. A. Hafftka et al. Warsaw, 1936.
Weissenborn, HermannZur Geschichte der Einfhrung der jetzigen
Ziffern in Europa durch Gerbert: eine Studie,
Berlin: Mayer & Mller, 1892.
http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Itzhak_Schipperhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Omeljan_Pritsakhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Encyclopedia_of_World_Tradehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Louis_Rabinowitzhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Josephushttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Gregory_of_Tourshttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Moshe_Gilhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Jewish_Encyclopediahttp://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/view.jsp?artid=693&letter=C#2276http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Douglas_Morton_Dunlophttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=De_Goeje%2C_Michaelhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Kevin_Alan_Brookhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Elinoar_Barekethttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Elmer_Bendinerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Elkan_Adlerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=The_Jerusalem_Posthttp://www.jpost.com/JewishWorld/JewishNews/Article.aspx?id=251913http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=De_Goeje
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Radhanite 5
References
[1] http:/ /en. wikipedia. org/wiki/Radhanite#endnote_gil1
[2] http:/ /en. wikipedia. org/wiki/Radhanite#endnote_rhages
[3] http:/ /en. wikipedia. org/wiki/Radhanite#endnote_France
[4] http:/ /en. wikipedia. org/wiki/Radhanite#endnote_gil2
[5] http:/ /en. wikipedia. org/wiki/Radhanite#endnote_Roman
[6] http:/
/
en.
wikipedia.
org/
wiki/
Radhanite#endnote_Frankish[7] http:/ /en. wikipedia.
org/wiki/Radhanite#endnote_Khordadbeh
[8] http:/ /en. wikipedia. org/wiki/Radhanite#endnote_ban
[9] http:/ /en. wikipedia.
org/wiki/Radhanite#endnote_network
[10] http://en. wikipedia.org/wiki/Radhanite#endnote_paper
[11] http://en. wikipedia.org/wiki/Radhanite#endnote_Joseph
[12] http://en.
wikipedia.org/wiki/Radhanite#endnote_Josephus
[13] http://en. wikipedia.org/wiki/Radhanite#endnote_credit
[14] http://en. wikipedia.org/wiki/Radhanite#endnote_Khaz
[15] http://en. wikipedia.org/wiki/Radhanite#endnote_late
[16] http://en. wikipedia.org/wiki/Radhanite#endnote_spice
[17] http://en. wikipedia.org/wiki/Radhanite#endnote_century
[18]
http://www.jpost.com/JewishWorld/JewishNews/Article.aspx?id=251913
[19] http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/view.jsp?artid=693&
letter=C#2276
http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/view.jsp?artid=693&letter=C#2276http://www.jpost.com/JewishWorld/JewishNews/Article.aspx?id=251913http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radhanite#endnote_centuryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radhanite#endnote_spicehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radhanite#endnote_latehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radhanite#endnote_Khazhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radhanite#endnote_credithttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radhanite#endnote_Josephushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radhanite#endnote_Josephhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radhanite#endnote_paperhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radhanite#endnote_networkhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radhanite#endnote_banhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radhanite#endnote_Khordadbehhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radhanite#endnote_Frankishhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radhanite#endnote_Romanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radhanite#endnote_gil2http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radhanite#endnote_Francehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radhanite#endnote_rhageshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radhanite#endnote_gil1
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Article Sources and Contributors 6
Article Sources and ContributorsRadhanite Source:
http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=543948930 Contributors:
AK456, AdamWeeden, Andrew Levine, Arthena, Audaciter,
BallisticBurrito, Barticus88, Bd2260, Beit
Or, Bhadani, Bobblewik, Boneheadmx, Brandmeister (old),
Brane.Blokar, Briangotts, CALR, CanisRufus, Cce, Charles Matthews,
Cuchullain, Cyde, DanMS, Daniel Case, Darlene4, Daykart,
Deeptrivia, Don't fear the reaper, Download, Downwards, Dpr,
EagleFan, Edwy, EhavEliyahu, EvKnight13, Evil saltine, FeanorStar7,
Felix Folio Secundus, Ferkelparade, Geagea, Ghepeu,
Ghirlandajo, Gimboid13, Goustien, Grenavitar, Gunslinger1812,
Hall Monitor, Hanchi, Hdstubbs, Historiographer, Hmains, Humus
sapiens, IZAK, IceKarma, Irishpunktom, Islamisgr88,
Jaraalbe, Jayjg, Jnothman, Joshdboz, Justin Bacon, KI, Keenan
Pepper, Kungfuadam, Leandrod, Leithp, Lightmouse, Llywrch,
Mgiganteus1, MisfitToys, Mjk2357, Mrdallaway, Mukadderat,
Nakon, Nikai, Ogress, Op2, P. S. Burton, Pat Payne, PiMaster3,
Poppy, Pronamel, R'n'B, RedMC, Reinyday, RexNL, Rholton, RobertG,
RussBlau, S710, Sabri76, SandyGeorgia, Search4Lancer,
ShelfSkewed, Sheynhertz-Unbayg, SlothropShuffle,
Someoneinmyheadbutit'snotme, Stbalbach, Teleutomyrmex, TimBentley,
Tsavage, Vanished user, Wetman, Wiglaf, Yamamoto Ichiro,
82anonymous edits
Image Sources, Licenses and ContributorsImage:Radhanites2.png
Source:
http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Radhanites2.png
License: Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported
Contributors: Briangotts
Image:Menare.jpg Source:
http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Menare.jpg License:
Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported Contributors:
Florence Devouard
(User:Anthere)
Image:Dhow.jpg Source:
http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Dhow.jpg License:
Public Domain Contributors: Ibn Battuta, Patricio.lorente, Stevenj,
1 anonymous edits
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