RACE, ETHNICITY,CLASS, AND GENDER

Race has been recognized as being scientificallynonexistent, yet socially real. Some have arguedthat genetic evidence (e.g., DNA) indicates that mostphysical variation occurs within so-called groups.Hence, there is more recognized within racial groupvariation than between racial group variation. Contem-porary scholars argue the term race was invented inthe 18th century to refer to the populations broughttogether in colonial America. The term was origi-nally tied to the theorem of the Great Chain of Being(Armelagos & Goodman, 1998). The “scientific”research and the popular culture of the time supported,justified, and expanded fictitious beliefs about the var-ious populations. These ideas became deeply embed-ded in American thought and eventually spread toother areas of the world. The early emphasis placed onrace and the supposed related meanings gave way toracism. It has been said that if race is not a sufficientcause of racism, it is a necessary cause. Consequently,it has also been argued that the concept of race is aprime example of how politics can be embedded inscience (Armelagos & Goodman, 1998).

Race enters into psychotherapy in ways that paral-lel its operation in society. Therefore, biases held byeither the client or therapist can affect the assessmentand treatment of those seeking psychological counsel-ing. Many concepts of psychological assessment workfrom a European (or Western)-based system of under-standing and treatment of problems. A major departurefrom what can be called European psychology is Black

psychology, which focuses on understanding and treat-ing clients from an African perspective that may alsobe more helpful to those who commonly employ anAfrican/African American worldview (Wilson, 1993).An ability to relate to individuals who may processinformation differently can lead to better interventionand counseling by preventing misattribution caused byunfamiliarity with a person’s worldview.

In many situations, the term race has been synony-mous with ethnicity. Ethnicity can be seen as a subsetof race in some instances. For example, throughoutthe African continent there are numerous ethnicgroups (sometimes called tribes) such as the Ashanti,the Igbo (or Ibo), the Zulu, and the Yoruba, just toname a few. All of the ethnic groups would be in thesame racial category—Black—but have more or lessdiffering worldviews, customs, rituals, and practices.Thus, ethnicity can be contained within the race cate-gorization and also be synonymous with race as adescriptor (e.g., African American).

One common theme in the ethnic discourse is thenotion of culture, or shared history of a given people. Itis this shared history, with common rituals, worldviews,philosophies, speech/language, mode of dress, and/ormusic, that bind individuals to a particular group. It canbe said that the more one has in common and identifiesin these various areas, the more one is part of this group.

Issues of race and ethnicity have been addressed inthe field of education. The growth in multicultural ini-tiatives is evidence of the push for including historicalrepresentation of ethnic minorities in the curriculum.Some have argued that academic success among eth-nic minority students in the United States has beenunder-realized because in some instances students

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have resisted a school culture that attempts to makeeveryone fit mainstream American values (Fordham,1988). Others have argued that many of the problemsassociated with ethnic minorities have come as a resultof being inadequately educated, or educated away fromone’s own self-interest for the benefit of the statusquo. As a result of the inadequate education, manyproblem behaviors have developed in these communi-ties and they persist (Akbar, 1998).

It is not the race of the client, therapist, student, orteacher that should be of most concern. It should, how-ever, be acknowledged, addressed, and resolved thatrace and ethnicity, as real and unreal as they may be,often have definite implications and outcomes. In addi-tion, one’s culture should be taken into account to ade-quately teach and treat those in need (Wilson, 1993).

Class structure in a capitalist society such as theUnited States refers to the social ranking of individu-als, families, and other groups according to theireconomic status. For example, the terms underclass,working class, middle class, and upper class denote astratification of society that is based on income andsocial standing in a particular community (Bottomore,1991). During the latter half of the 20th century, crit-ics of class structure pointed to a number of radicalsocial movements that resisted the notion of limitsbeing placed on a person’s mobility because of classor any number of other identity markers (e.g., gender,race, ethnicity, sexual orientation). However, with therise of newer communication technologies and globalcapitalism has come a new class divide—one that sep-arates people into two groups: a group that has accessto these newer technologies and the jobs they create,and a group that has little or no such access.

An examination of some of the assumptionsunderlying class structure reveals a society’s influenceon young people’s self-perceptions and identityformations. For example, individuals who perceivethemselves (and are perceived by others) as beinglow-achieving students often end up the recipients ofwhat Finn (1999) calls a “domesticating” education—that is, an education that stresses “functional literacy,literacy that makes a person productive and depend-able, but not troublesome” (pp. ix-x). It is a second-rate kind of educational arrangement that typicallyleads to lower expectations and to social and eco-nomic inequalities. This cycle of inequalities contin-ues as part of a pattern in which young people learn toidentify with others in their culture who may be workingclass or poor like themselves. Because these identities

form early in life, it is important for educators toattempt to understand young people’s history andbackground and avoid generalizing about “whatworks” for one class of people as opposed to another.Interventions that challenge traditional notions oflearning within developmental psychology must alsolook for richer and more diverse assessments of youngpeople’s learning than are available in the currentclimate of high-stakes testing, with its emphasis onfactual rather than higher-order thinking.

Gender denotes the attributes that are culturallyascribed to men and women. It is not a synonym forone’s biological sex status (male or female). Scholarsof late argue that gender is culturally and socially con-structed through language (Payne, 1996). That is, thevery things that seem to draw attention to one’s male-ness or femaleness are, in effect, not innate, but ratheracquired through the cultural and social contexts inwhich we learn to speak, read, write, act, dress, and soon. The point of arguing for a culturally constructednotion of gender is that it is thought to facilitate a dis-ruption of the traditional view of men and women inwhich the male is dominant and the female is subor-dinate—a condition that historically has led to socialinjustices and economic inequities. By disrupting thetraditional view, feminists seek to make people moreaware of how language has played a role in constitut-ing male privilege throughout the centuries.

Issues of gender bias and prejudice in schoolsaffect group dynamics within instructional contexts.For example, the research literature on student-led dis-cussion groups in grades 6 through 12 demonstratesthat peers, acting as “more knowledgeable others” (e.g.,more academically capable students tutoring peers whoare struggling to read), can facilitate meaningful inter-pretation of texts. However, what is less well under-stood is how the potential for stereotyping on the basisof gender can create situations in which some students’voices are valued over others. For example, studiesconducted on girls’ loss of voice, resiliency, and self-esteem as they approach adolescence suggest that manyyoung women go through a process in which they beginto see themselves as the stereotypical female thatsociety seemingly defines for them. In some instances,preadolescent females may begin to voice their opin-ions less in class discussions because a strong femalevoice is deemed unfeminine. Interventions aimed atchanging this process point to the need for instructionalstrategies that better position young women to join inpeer-led discussion groups with confidence and ease.

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In summary, race, ethnicity, class, and gender areanything but “neutral” concepts. Each is socially, his-torically, and culturally embedded in a wide array ofpatterned behaviors, beliefs, and attitudes that givethese concepts their meanings. More than simply the-oretical constructs, race, ethnicity, class, and genderare capable of producing material effects that can havereal consequences on people’s everyday lives, whetherin school or in clinical settings.

—Donna E. Alvermann and Preston Hughes, IV

See also Ability Grouping; Americans with Disabilities Act;Bias (Testing); Friendships; Intelligence; MulticulturalEducation; Resilience and Protective Factors

REFERENCES AND FURTHER READING

Akbar, N. (1998). Know thy self. Tallahassee, FL: MindProductions.

Armelagos, G. J., & Goodman, A. H. (1998). Race, racism,and anthropology. In A. H. Goodman & T. L. Leatherman(Eds.), Building a new biocultural synthesis: Political-economic perspectives on human biology. Ann Arbor, MI:University of Michigan Press.

Bottomore, T. (Ed.). (1991). A dictionary of Marxist thought(2nd ed.). Cambridge, MA: Blackwell.

Davies, B. (1994). Poststructuralist theory and classroompractice. Geelong, Australia: Deakin University Press.

Finn, P. J. (1999). Literacy with an attitude: Educating work-ing-class children in their own self-interest. Albany, NY:State University of New York Press.

Fordham, S. (1988). Racelessness as a factor in black student’sschool success: Pragmatic strategy or pyrrhic victory?Harvard Educational Review, 58(1), 54–84.

Payne, M. (Ed.). (1996). A dictionary of cultural and criticaltheory. Malden, MA: Blackwell.

Wilson, A. (1993). The falsification of African consciousness:Eurocentric history, psychiatry, and the politics of whitesupremacy. New York: African World Infosystems.

RADIO/MUSIC. See COMPUTER

TECHNOLOGY; MEDIA AND CHILDREN

REACTIVE ATTACHMENTDISORDER OF INFANCYAND EARLY CHILDHOOD

The essential feature of a reactive attachment disor-der (RAD) is a marked disturbance in social relatedness

that begins before age five years (in most contexts)and is associated with gross pathological care, whichis presumed to be the cause of the disturbed socialrelatedness (Diagnostic and Statistical Manual ofMental Disorders, Fourth Edition [DSM-IV], AmericanPsychiatric Association, 1994). Gross pathologicalcare includes a persistent disregard for the child’s basicemotional and/or physical needs—a condition associ-ated with child maltreatment. It can also include a lackof opportunity for the child to form a stable attachmentwith a primary caregiver, a circumstance that is associ-ated with orphanages and multiple moves in the fostercare system. However, gross pathological care doesnot always result in the development of RAD.

The DSM-IV delineates two subtypes of RAD: aninhibited type in which the child “shows a pattern ofexcessively inhibited, hypervigilant, or highly ambiva-lent responses” to the caregiver; and a disinhibited typein which the child “exhibits indiscriminate sociabilityor a lack of selectivity in the choice of attachmentfigures” (p. 116). Children with the inhibited type tendto be withdrawn and constricted in their behavior,whereas children with the disinhibited type show nofear of strangers and will often treat new acquaintancesin an inappropriately friendly and intimate manner.RAD is distinct from children with mental retarda-tion or autism in that children with mental retardationdevelop appropriate attachments, and in autism, thereis typically no gross pathological care. Autism andother pervasive developmental disorders also involve aqualitative impairment in communication and stereo-typed patters of behavior. Contemporary studies ofattachment disorders in Romanian orphans (O’Connor& Rutter, 2000; Zeanah, 2000) provide some preva-lence data. In a Canadian study (Zeanah, 2000) of 56children ages three to five years who were adoptedfrom Romania, secure attachment was initially foundin only 30% of the children, while insecure, control-ling attachment was observed in 42% of the children.Parent-reported attachment security increased signifi-cantly as the children became older (11 to 39 months),but there was no change in the level of indiscriminantfriendliness toward nonfamily members. In a Britishstudy (O’Connor & Rutter, 2000) of 165 children agesfour to six years adopted from Romania (144 werefrom institutions), the investigators found that onlyseven of the children exhibited marked/pervasive signsof attachment disorder. Duration of deprivation waslinearly related to the number of signs of attachmentdisorder;, however, more than 80% of the children

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adopted from Romanian institutions exhibited nomarked/severe signs of attachment disorder at eitherage four or six years. The fundamental assumptionunderlying the development of RAD is that a child’sattachment to a primary caregiver is biologically basedand that only in extreme circumstances will the childnot develop an attachment to his or her primary care-giver (Bowlby, 1969, 1982). The developmental courseof RAD varies depending upon the age of the infantwhen he or she experienced gross pathological care, theamount and frequency of disruptions in the attachmentrelationship, the duration and severity of deprivation,the quality of the parent-infant relationship before andafter the deprivation, and the implementation of anyinterventions. Many children who receive consistent,sensitive, and responsive caregiving following a periodof gross pathological care will attain normal develop-ment, whereas those who do not will continue to exhibitsymptoms of RAD (Howe, 1998).

The majority of treatment approaches have focu-sed on early infancy, with interventions designed toimprove the infant-parent relationship. The inter-ventions center on addressing the child’s emotionaland behavioral difficulties and improving the parents’ability to understand and respond appropriately totheir child’s underlying needs for security and safety.Some interventions have included parent education ondevelopmental issues relevant to the child’s problemsand direct “coaching” of the parent while the parentis interacting with the child in contrived situations.These interventions have been implemented in orderto directly modify both the parents’ and child’s behav-ior and to improve parent-child communication, nego-tiation, and interaction (Greenberg & colleagues, 1997).This approach has also been modified and used withschool-age children in the school setting.

Educational outcomes for children with RAD varydepending upon the nature and severity of the neglectthat the child has experienced. These children mayhave physical problems associated with neglect suchas poor dental hygiene, poor nutrition, and retardedgrowth. They may experience academic difficultiesbecause of understimulation and/or nonattendance inschool, and impaired peer relationships because ofwithdrawn behavior or indiscriminate friendliness(Crosson-Tower, 2002).

—Linda Webster

See also Autism Spectrum Disorders; DSM-IV; InfantAssessment; Mental Retardation; Preschoolers

REFERENCES AND FURTHER READING

American Psychiatric Association. (1994). Diagnostic andstatistical manual for mental disorders (4th ed.). Washington,DC: Author.

Bowlby, J. (1969, 1982). Attachment and loss. (Vol. 1).New York: Basic Books.

Crosson-Tower, C. (2002). Child abuse and neglect. Boston,MA: Allyn & Bacon.

Greenberg, M. T., DeKlyen, M., Speltz, M., & Endriga, M. C.(1997). The role of attachment processes in externalizingpsychopathology in young children. In L. Atkinson &K. J. Zucker (Eds.), Attachment and psychopathology(pp. 196–222). New York: Guilford.

Howe, D. (1998). Patterns of adoption. Oxford, England:Blackwell Science.

O’Connor, T. G., & Rutter, M. (2000). Attachment disorderbehavior following early severe deprivation: Extension andlongitudinal follow-up. Journal of American Academy ofChild & Adolescent Psychiatry, 39, 703–712.

Zeanah, C. H. (2000). Disturbances of attachment in youngchildren adopted from institutions. Developmental andBehavioral Pediatrics, 21, 230–236.

READING INTERVENTIONSAND STRATEGIES

Children experience difficulties in learning to readfor a variety of reasons, including cognitive factorssuch as decoding (ability to pronounce written words)problems, psychological reasons such as lack of inter-est and motivation, and environmental differencessuch as inadequate facilities at home as well as in theclassroom. The school psychologist must consider allthese potential sources of impediment to acquiringreading skills and then develop a plan to addressthe cause(s). The existing policy—diagnosing poorreaders who have a learning disability (LD) and poorreaders who do not have a learning disability byadministering an intelligence test and a readingachievement test—is not helpful in identifying thesource of the reading problem, nor does it help indevising appropriate remedial procedures (Aaron,1997). A more serious problem is that, so far, there isno convincing evidence that labeling children as LDand placing them in special education resource roomsproduces any improvement in their reading achieve-ment (Bentum & Aaron, 2003).

An uncomplicated way to understand the nature ofthe reading deficit is to organize the potential sourcesof reading difficulties into a coherent model and then

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proceed with the diagnosis by following the model.On the basis of the theories of reading and research ofexperts as well as our own, we (Aaron & Kotva, 1999;Joshi & Aaron, 2000) have developed a model of read-ing acquisition called the Component Model.

THE COMPONENT MODEL OF READING

A component, as applied to psychological pheno-mena, is a mental process that is independent of otherpsychological processes. The failure of any one of theprocesses in the Component Model of reading canresult in reading difficulties. For example, decoding(the ability to pronounce the written word) is one suchoperation; linguistic comprehension is an example ofanother operation. A child may not be able to decodewritten text but can listen and comprehend spoken lan-guage much better. He or she will, nevertheless, be apoor reader because the weak decoding process canaffect reading independent of the comprehensionprocess. Conversely, an individual who can decodewritten words fairly well but has weak linguistic com-prehension skills will also be a poor reader. These twooperations, decoding and comprehension, are part of theCognitive Module of the reading Component Model.The Component Model of reading contains three mod-ules that are relatively independent of each other. Eachmodule, in turn, contains several operations. Table 1gives the three modules and their operations.

THE COGNITIVE MODULE:ITS CONSTITUENTS

The Cognitive Module of the reading Compo-nent Model has five operations, which are classifiedunder two major constituents: word recognition andcomprehension.

Word Recognition

The ability to recognize the written word is a pre-requisite for reading. Word recognition subsumes tworelated skills, decoding and sight-word reading.

Decoding. The basic speech sound, which can alterthe meaning of a word, is a phoneme. A letter of thealphabet or a group of letters that represent a singlephoneme is called a grapheme. Initial stages in readinginvolve transforming graphemes into phonemes and isalso referred to as decoding.

What is the advantage of grapheme–phonemeconversion and decoding the print? The sound formatof words is the best way to keep words in short-termmemory. Thus, decoding is an essential skill for sen-tence comprehension. After the reading experience oftwo or three years, children become proficient decodersand subsequently become sight-word readers.

Sight-Word Reading. Contrary to what one may think,sight-word reading does not involve processing theword as a single unit, or a single picture. During sight-word reading, individual letters in the written wordare processed, but they are processed all at once, inparallel. Eye movement studies provide the best sup-port for the view that when we read, we process all theletters in a word (Just & Carpenter, 1987). Recognizinga written word by sight is very much like facial recog-nition. It is quick, simultaneous, and automatic; it isalso not attention demanding.

Since sight-word reading involves processing theletters in the words, it is essential that the beginningreader posses letter knowledge. Without such knowl-edge, the child cannot decode the words smoothly. Itfollows then, that decoding skills are a prerequisite forsight-word reading.

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Table 1 The Constituents of the Component Modelof Reading

Cognitivemodule:

Word Decoding, Sight-Recognition: word reading

Comprehension: Vocabulary, Sentencecomprehension and Passagecomprehension

Psychological Motivation & interestmodule: Locus of control

Learned helplessnessLearning stylesTeacher expectationGender differences

Ecological Home environmentmodule: Culture & parental involvement

Classroom environment Peer influenceDialectEnglish as second language

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Comprehension

Because language is expressed mainly in twoforms, spoken and written, the term comprehensionrefers to an understanding of both spoken and writtenlanguage. Beyond the modality difference, the samebrain mechanisms are involved in comprehendingspoken and written language. This is supported byresearch studies, which show that the correlationbetween listening comprehension and reading compre-hension can be as high as .80. Comprehension of writtentext requires three elements:

1. Knowledge of words (vocabulary)

2. Understanding sentences

3. Understanding passages

Knowledge of Words. Vocabulary knowledge and read-ing comprehension are highly related to each other, thecorrelation being as high as .80. In general, people whoread more have a high level of vocabulary. Childrenwho have a rich vocabulary tend to read more becausethey enjoy reading; this leads to greater vocabularyknowledge. Children who have limited vocabulary avoidreading as much as they can, and their vocabularyknowledge stagnates. This results in an ever-wideninggap between good readers and poor readers. Eventually,this results in the so-called Matthew Effect, taken fromthe Bible and applied to the reading–vocabulary sym-biosis: “For everyone who has, more will be given; hewill have abundance; but from him who does not have,even what he has will be taken away” (The Gospelaccording to St. Matthew, Chapter 25, verse 29).

Understanding Sentences. Having a large vocabularyitself does not guarantee the comprehension of sen-tences and connected texts. To understand sentences,the reader should, first of all, be able to interpretthe sentence correctly. Some of the sentences childrenencounter in upper grades do not state the meaningexplicitly. The child has to infer the information thatis not given. A knowledge of syntax (grammar) is alsoessential for understanding sentences, because writtensentences are complex in the sense they have manyembedded clauses in them.

Understanding Passages. Just as sentences are morethan a collection of words, text is not a mere aggrega-tion of sentences. Linguists describe connected textsas having their own grammar. That is, they have a

beginning, a message, and an end. This is referred toas the grammar of the story. Understanding the gram-mar of the story facilitates comprehension.

THE PSYCHOLOGICALMODULE: ITS CONSTITUENTS

Psychological aspects related to learning are alsoimportant for the acquisition of reading skills. If achild is not interested in learning to read, no amountof instruction can make him or her a good reader.

Motivation and Interest

Motivation is defined as the process of initiating,sustaining, and directing one’s own activity. Moti-vation leads children to read. Reading becomes analluring activity when children find it interesting.Psychologists classify motivation broadly as extrinsicand intrinsic. External factors that motivate childrento read are simple rewards such as gold stars, candy,and verbal praise by the teacher. Intrinsic motivationis a desire to read that comes from within the child.

Locus of Control

Julian Rotter, who introduced the concept of locusof control into the psychological literature, classifiedit into two discrete categories, external and internal.When a person feels that life’s events are the result ofchance, luck, fate, or control by others, he or she feelsthe location of control is external; when a person feelsthat the outcomes of events are the consequences ofhis or her own actions, the locus is said to be internal.This variable is said to have significant influence onchildren’s learning.

Learned Helplessness

After repeated failure, a child will not try to learn;he or she will just give up. In other words, the childhas learned to be helpless. Behaviorally, this can leadto a lack of interest and effort on the part of the child.In the long term, the child expects to fail and fulfillsthis prophecy by failing.

Learning Styles

Learning styles are described as reasonably stablepatterns of behavior that indicate learning preferences.According to Marie Carbo (1983), who is the leading

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proponent of learning styles, the concept of learningstyles has four dimensions:

1. Cognitive: Includes factors such as modalitypreferences (auditory vs. visual)

2. Affective: Includes personality characteristicssuch as anxiety level, expectancy, and level ofmotivation

3. Physiological: Includes gender differences,daily rhythms (morning vs. afternoon person),and “left-brain” or “right-brain” proclivity

4. Psychological: Includes factors such as self-concept, locus of control, and sociability (lonervs. group person)

The instructional implication is that matching themethod of instruction with the learning style of thechild should reduce learning difficulties.

There are several problems associated with theconcept of learning styles. For one thing, we have noreliable instruments to assess the learning styles ofchildren. For instance, it is not an easy matter to decidewho is left-brained and who is right brained. Nor is iteasy to determine if a child is an auditory learner or avisual learner. It is also well-known that optimal learn-ing occurs when the child can see, hear, and touchwhat he or she has to learn. In spite of the many claims,the findings of research on the effectiveness of match-ing teaching with learning styles is equivocal.

Teacher Expectation

The concept of teacher (or parent) expectationrefers to inferences that teachers make about thefuture behavior and achievement of a child, basedon what the teacher knows about the child now. Theseexpectations affect learning outcomes becauseteachers, either consciously or unconsciously, tend tobehave in conformity with their expectations andchildren respond accordingly and fulfill these expec-tations. Teachers themselves may not be consciousof their expectations and actions and, for the mostpart, are unaware of their own behavior. The schoolpsychologist can be of much help here.

Gender Differences

As early as 1919, Hinshelwood, a British physi-cian, reported that more boys than girls have reading

difficulties. Since then, a gender difference has beenobserved by many other investigators. Although thehigher incidence of reading disability in boys isfrequently encountered, the reason for the observedgender difference is disputed. Two explanations theo-rized are constitutional and environmental. The consti-tutional explanation of a gender difference in readingability is linked to cerebral hemispheric differences inthe brains of the two sexes.

The environmental explanation is equally viable.The explanation goes something like this: in Americanculture, there seems to be an ethos that reading, writ-ing, and other literacy pursuits are “girlish” things;math and athletics are “boyish” thing. It is also pointedout that boys, being aggressive and restless, are likelyto attract the attention of teachers more often thangirls. The net result is that more boys are referred fordiagnostic evaluation.

THE ECOLOGICALMODULE: ITS CONSTITUENTS

The importance of home in the acquisition ofliteracy skills by children is succinctly expressedby statements such as “home is the first school” and“family is the nation’s smallest school.” Needless to say,several environmental factors associated with home,school, and culture affect the acquisition of readingand writing skills.

Home Environment,Culture, and Parental Involvement

Describing the family as the nation’s smallestschool, Paul Burton estimated that 90% of the differ-ences in academic achievement seen among studentsand their schools could be explained by five factors:

1. The presence of two parents in the home

2. Quantity and quality of reading materials in thehome

3. Number of hours spent watching TV

4. Number of days absent from school

5. Number of pages read for homework

Activities such as joint storybook reading, playingword games, and visiting libraries promote readingskills. Children tend to do what they see, particularly

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what they see their parents do. Another factor is apotential difference between the school culture andthe home culture. For example, the teacher expects thechild to do well at school, but doing well in school isnot at the top of the list of parental expectations forthe child. Remedial strategies and interventions can-not be planned without taking the home environmentinto account. The school psychologist can play animportant role in bridging the gap between home andschool.

Classroom Environment

Young children are quite active; they become rest-less and lose concentration if they are required to sitin one place for more than a few minutes. For this rea-son, the classroom has to be arranged in such a waythat it provides plenty of opportunities for movement,action, and interaction with peers and the teacher.

A classroom environment that is rich in literacymaterials is an important factor in promoting literacylearning among children. Researchers report thatspace allocation and arrangement, and accessibility ofmaterials and learning tools have a positive influenceon children’s literacy learning.

For optimal learning–teaching outcomes, seatingof the children can be arranged in a semicircle so thatthe distance between the teacher and the child is thesame for all children. The result is that no child sitsalways in the front part of the classroom and no childis cast away to the rear of the classroom. Wild depar-tures from these ideal environmental conditions canresult in reading difficulties.

Peer Influence

The influence of peers on children’s behavior iswell recognized in psychological literature. It is apowerful factor. Peer influence can operate bothpositively and negatively on a child. Positive peer influ-ences can be exploited by setting up many learningexperiences for the children through organizing theminto small groups in which learning occurs.

Dialect

Dialect is a regionally or socially distinctive varia-tion of language characterized by a particular accent,set of words, and even grammar. Even though it isrelatively easy to distinguish between a dialect and a

language, the difference is largely a matter of degree.People are said to speak different languages whenthey do not understand each other; they are said tospeak dialects if they can understand each other, eventhough not perfectly. A single dialect, usually spokenby a majority of people, comes to predominate as theofficial or standard form of the language. Thus, theEnglish spoken by a majority of people (and not becauseit possesses some singular linguistic feature that setsit apart from other dialects) becomes StandardEnglish (SE).

In the United States, many dialects are spoken,including Black English (BE), which is also known asVernacular Black English or Ebonics. Many AfricanAmerican children and students can speak both BEand SE and can switch the two as the situationdemands. BE can vary from SE in phonology andgrammar.

English as a Second Language

Bilingualism exists in degrees. A child maycome from a home where only a language other thanEnglish is spoken or from a home where both Englishand another language are used. It is understandablethat reading and writing pose special difficulties for achild from a home where English [is used] as a secondlanguage (ESL). Learning to read and write in a sec-ond language is especially difficult for an ESL childwith reading difficulties.

ASSESSMENT OF THE COGNITIVE,PSYCHOLOGICAL, AND ECOLOGICALELEMENTS OF READING

Assessment of Decoding Skills

Almost all standardized tests of reading achieve-ment have a subtest for assessing decoding skills.Also known as “word attack” tests, these tests containa list of nonwords (such as daik and birk). Because thechild has not encountered such nonwords before,word familiarity is controlled.

It has to be pointed out that not all nonwords arealike. A nonword such as dake is said to be “friendly”because it has many neighbors (e.g., make, bake, rake,etc.). A child can successfully read dake simply bysubstituting the first letter in the word and read it byanalogy. In contrast, words such as daik, do not havemany neighbors and, therefore, cannot be read by

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analogy. A list of such “unfriendly” nonwords, is,therefore, a better test than the ones used by manystandardized tests.

Another problem with standardized word attacktests is that many of them are not timed. Experienceshows that some poor decoders, given sufficienttime, can decode many nonwords. The results obtainedfrom such untimed tests can be misleading. In theclassroom, the teacher (or the school psychologist)can construct his or her own list of nonwords. If careis taken to include only “unfriendly” nonwords andadministration of the list as a timed test, an objectivemeasure of decoding skills can be obtained.

Assessment ofSight-Word Reading Skills

Sight-word reading is an automatic process resultingin the very fast naming of a word. We’ve known formore than 100 years that skilled readers can name awritten word as fast as they can name a written letter.This is possible because all the letters in a word areprocessed simultaneously and in parallel. Therefore,when a child names a written word as fast as he or shecan name a written letter, we know the child has readthat word by sight. To assess sight-word reading skills,the teacher can make a list of 20 common wordsalready taught in the classroom and ask the child toname them and note the time. Subsequently, the teachercan also record how much time it takes the child toname a list of 20 letters of the alphabet. When letter-naming time and word-naming time are close to eachother, the child can be considered to have read thosewords by sight.

Assessment of Vocabulary Knowledge

There are two ways of assessing vocabularyknowledge. One is informal and the other is formal.It should be understood that children know morewords than they use in their day-to-day conversation.Therefore, mere sampling of speech will not providea reliable measure of a child’s vocabulary knowl-edge. The informal way of assessing vocabulary is toconstruct a vocabulary inventory by selecting wordsfrom the textbook the child uses in the classroom.Curriculum-based assessment uses this approach.The child can then be asked “what does that wordmean?” or to embed the word in a sentence to makeit meaningful.

Formal assessment of vocabulary relies on standard-ized tests. The most frequently used test is the PeabodyPicture Vocabulary Test. In this test, four pictures ofobjects, animals, or actions are presented. The child isgiven one word and is asked to point to the one picturethat matches the target word. An advantage of this test isthat no verbal response is required; it also can be admin-istered to very young children as well as to adults.

Assessment of Comprehensionof Sentences and Written Passages

As it is in the case of vocabulary, assessment ofcomprehension can be carried out in two ways: infor-mal and formal. Informally, the child can be asked toread a passage from his or her textbook and thenanswer some questions. In addition to the number ofquestions answered correctly, the behavior of the childduring oral reading can also provide important cluesabout the child’s reading skills. When the child makesan oral error and goes back and corrects the mistake,it shows that the child is monitoring his or her owncomprehension and takes corrective action. Childrenwhose comprehension is not up to the mark are likelyto rush through the text without correcting their ownreading mistakes.

All standardized tests of achievement have asubtest of reading comprehension. However, these testshave adopted different strategies to assess comprehen-sion. The Woodcock Language Proficiency Battery-Revised subtests are in the cloze format in which aword is deleted from the sentence and the reader hasto supply the word. The Stanford Diagnostic ReadingTest (SDRT) and the Gates-McGinitie tests require thechild to read a paragraph and answer multiple-choicequestions. The Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test pre-sents a choice of four pictures from which the readerchooses the one that fits the written sentence.

It is apparent that tests differ in the ways they assesscomprehension and are, therefore, not likely to yieldidentical results. The Woodcock Language ProficiencyBattery, made up mostly of sentences, does not putmuch stress on memory. The Stanford DiagnosticReading Test, which uses a paragraph format, is closerto real-life reading, and, therefore, ecologically morevalid. The Peabody Individual Achievement Testinvolves much reasoning and has many features of atest of reasoning and intelligence. It is important thatthe school psychologist pays attention to which testwas used for assessing reading comprehension.

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Assessment of Spelling Skills

It is a widely held belief that spelling is a visualmemorization task. However, developmental studiesof spelling indicate that it is more closely relatedto phonological skills than to rote visual memory(Treiman, 1993). As a result, spelling errors commit-ted by children often reflect their efforts to “phoneti-cize” English words (e.g., “girl” spelled as gal and“light” spelled as lite).

Standardized tests of spelling ability (e.g., the WideRange Achievement Test) use a list of words to assessspelling skills. It is possible that the list contains wordswith which the child is not familiar. The child will pho-netically spell many of these unfamiliar words, whichwill lead to errors. Under such circumstances, shouldwe conclude that the child has a spelling weakness orthat his or her vocabulary knowledge is limited? Thebest way to assess spelling performance is by usingwords with which the child is familiar.

There is another point to be made here. Considertwo third graders who were given a spelling test thatconsisted of words such as “horse,” “school,” “book,” and“leaf.” Child A spelled them as “house,” “scool,” “bok,”and “leef” whereas child B spelled these words as “ose,”“oolcs,” “koo,” and “lf.” Both children receive a zero onthe test. Such a quantitative evaluation places bothchildren on the same level and is of little instructionalvalue. Instead, qualitative analysis of spelling providesa more accurate view of the child’s spelling skills inaddition to giving hints for spelling instruction.

IDENTIFYING THE SOURCE OF A READINGPROBLEM (DIFFERENTIAL DIAGNOSIS)

The main purpose of the diagnostic procedure is toidentify the source of reading difficulty. With referenceto the Cognitive Module, this can be accomplished byadministering a standardized test of reading compre-hension and a test of listening comprehension.

Decoding Problems

If listening comprehension is within average rangebut reading comprehension is below average, thenweak word recognition skills are the source of readingdifficulty. This diagnosis can be further confirmed by alow word-attack score, poor spelling performance, andslow naming of written words. Remedial instructionwould then focus on improving word recognitionskills.

Comprehension Problems

In contrast, if the child performs at a below-averagelevel on both reading and listening comprehension,the remedial instruction will focus on improvingcomprehension skills. Word recognition skills of thesechildren should also be assessed. Standardized batter-ies such as Woodcock Language Proficiency Batteryand Wechsler Individual Achievement Test havesubtests of reading and listening comprehension.

Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder

The combination of a higher listening comprehen-sion score and a lower reading comprehension scoreis the most frequently encountered pattern seen inchildren with reading disability. Occasionally, theopposite pattern—higher reading comprehension scoreand lower listening comprehension score—is seen.This is often indicative of attentional problems (Aaron& colleagues, 2002; Aaron & colleagues, 2004).

Assessment of the constituents of the PsychologicalModule and the Ecological Module are carried outthrough observation and interview procedures.

INSTRUCTIONAL PROCEDURES

Remedial Approaches:The Cognitive Module

Instructional Procedures for ImprovingWord Recognition Skills: Decoding

In general, remedial methods attempt to deal withtwo main problem areas in reading, word recognitionskills and comprehension skills. Other areas of con-cern to teachers are vocabulary development, fluencydevelopment, and spelling development.

Awareness of units in spoken language develops asearly as nursery school. First, children are able to rec-ognize and repeat rhyming words. Subsequently, byage three or four years, they can identify syllables inmultisyllabic words. Finally, some (but not all) childrencan identify phonemes. Phonemes are not as easilyrecognizable as rhymes or syllables because in speech,phonemes overlap each other much like the shingleson a roof. In recent times, sensitivity to phonemeshas come to be described under the label of phonemeawareness. The ability to recognize rhymes and sylla-bles, along with phoneme awareness, is collectivelyreferred to as phonological awareness. A good deal ofresearch shows that sensitivity to phonemes and word

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recognition skills are closely related. Although it isuncertain whether phoneme awareness results inbetter word recognition skills or reading experienceresults in better phoneme awareness, it is well estab-lished that phoneme awareness training improvesreading skills, particularly that of poor readers. Thisphenomenon is true not only in English but also inlanguages such as Dutch, Italian, and Norwegian.Phoneme awareness training can be the starting pointfor children with word recognition difficulties.

A simple but interesting task that can be useful forcreating an awareness of sounds in the language ispicture sorting. In this task, children are asked to sortpictures with similar initial or final sounds in theirnames on the basis of some criterion set by theteacher. The same task can be presented orally.

In their book Phonemic Awareness in YoungChildren (1998), Adams and colleagues (1998) providestep-by-step instructions for creating phonologicalawareness in children, starting with rhyming activitiesand culminating in word identification.

In making a transition from oral language to writtenlanguage, from phoneme awareness to word recogni-tion, the following steps are used:

• Associating sounds with colored blocks or tiles• Replacing colored blocks or tiles with letters of

the alphabet• Blending constitutional sounds in simple words

and pronouncing the words• Copying words on to sheets of paper• Spelling the words from memory introduced in

the previous step

A knowledge of the structure of words and howthey are formed can be of much help in acquiringword recognition skills and in vocabulary develop-ment. Known as morphological awareness, thisincludes not only knowing words, but knowing aboutwords (i.e., the origin of words such as Latin, French,etc.) and roots of words (free morphemes).

Instructional Procedures forImproving Word Recognition Skills:Fluency and Sight-Word Reading

Sight-word reading skills develop slowly; but bythe time children are in the third grade, most of themare able to read many common words by sight. Itshould be remembered that even skilled adults have todecode the word in order to pronounce it. The first

step, therefore, would be to improve the decodingskills of a child who does not have well-developedsight-word reading skills. Beyond this step, familiar-ity with the printed word is an important factor thatpromotes sight-word reading skills. This can beaccomplished by reading, reading, and more reading.Such reading experience should involve meaningfulsentences, not isolated words. Repeated exposure towords brings these words into the child’s sight-wordrepertoire. Simply printing words on cards and expos-ing them to the child again and again will not make achild a good sight-word reader. The child may be ableto read a handful of words by sight, but, beyond that,memory limits further progress.

Not all educators favor a phonics instructionalapproach. Their argument is that the skill and drillapproach to reading instruction is meaningless anduninspiring for children who may lose interest in theentire enterprise of reading. On the other hand, if mean-ingful materials are used, they are likely to becomeavid readers. This philosophy of reading instruction isoften referred to as the whole language approach(Goodman, 1986). The disagreement between the skillsapproach and the meaning approach to reading instruc-tion has a history of more than 100 years behind it andis known as the reading war.

Instructional Strategiesfor Promoting Spelling Skills

Spelling has to be explicitly taught. In teachingspelling to children, the following principles arerecommended (Moats, 1995):

• Provide spelling exercises and tasks accordingto the child’s vocabulary level, not on the basisof the child’s chronological age.

• Provide phoneme awareness to the child, if nec-essary. There is evidence that this type of train-ing improves children’s spelling (Arra & Aaron,1999).

• Use as many modalities as possible for spellinginstruction.

• Embed spelling words in sentences. This makesthe words meaningful and, simultaneously buildsup vocabulary knowledge.

• Focus on letter patterns. Use a family of wordsbased on their onsets and rimes for instruction.

• Keep in mind the student’s spelling skills levelwhen preparing lists of spelling words. The listsize will have to be individualized.

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• Give four or five spelling words per day tochildren in primary grades and to children whohave difficulty with spelling.

• Have the students take a test on these words thefollowing day. Missed words are included in thenext day’s spelling list.

• Analyze spelling errors and direct the student tocompare the misspelled word(s) with the correctspelling. When possible, explain to the studentwhy he or she might have committed the spell-ing error(s) by using a phonological analysis ofthe errors.

It also has to be kept in mind that spelling is moreresistant to instructional efforts than decoding or reading.

Instructional Procedures forImproving Vocabulary Knowledge

Vocabulary instruction is not mere teaching of dic-tionary definitions of words. The most critical elementin vocabulary learning is meaning within a context.This is so because meaningful information is remem-bered well, whereas meaningless rote memorizationdoes not last long. Words can be made meaningfulby encountering them in a situation while reading orconstructing sentences using new words. Teachers canintroduce new words, embed them in sentences, andmake them meaningful.

Visualizing word families by constructing seman-tic maps is another way of improving vocabularyknowledge.

Reading to children or reading with children is asimple way of introducing new words. Reading tochildren should be made an interactive process. Theparent or the teacher stops, asks questions, and asksthe child to repeat what he or she has heard.

Games such as Scrabble are also a means of mak-ing children think about words. Children should knownot only the words, but they should also know aboutthe words.

Instructional Strategies forPromoting Reading Comprehension

The ultimate goal of reading is to comprehend thewritten material. It was noted earlier that both listen-ing comprehension and reading comprehension aremediated by the same cognitive mechanisms. For thisreason, training in listening comprehension is thestarting point with very young children or children

who have decoding deficits. The listening comprehen-sion training focuses mainly on teaching the child topay attention while listening to a story, to be able toidentify the main points, and to summarize the story atthe end.

After listening comprehension training, reading isintroduced. The children are asked to memorize anduse the following seven strategies as they read:

1. Determining the purpose of reading: The childshould ask, “What is the purpose of my readingthis?” Many children mistakenly think thatreading aloud without making mistakes andreading fast are the goals of reading.

2. Activating background information: The childshould pause after reading the title of the text,and think aloud what is the passage about.

3. Stopping and reflecting: After reading a para-graph, the child should pause and reflect whathe or she has read so far.

4. Seeking help: If questions arise, the child shouldask the teacher or refer to the dictionary.

5. Using pictures and maps: The child should oftenlook at pictures and maps in the text and usethem as visual aids.

6. Questioning self: The child should self-monitorhis or her own comprehension.

7. Summarizing: When the end of the story isreached, the child should be able to summarizethe contents in one or two sentences, withoutlooking at the text.

For children with word recognition problems,decodable books can be used. Stories in decodabletexts are constructed out of simple words, which areoften repeated.

Remedial Approaches:The Psychological Module

Motivation

There are some simple principles that can beimplemented by parents and teachers for promotingintrinsic motivation in children. First, children shouldbe made to know that behind the scribbles in the bookare hidden interesting stories that are to be discovered.This is accomplished by reading aloud interestingstories to children according to age level and ability.

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Educators recommend that reading-aloud time shouldmeet three conditions:

1. Children must see value in reading.

2. Children should see that reading brings enjoy-ment and satisfaction.

3. The book chosen should be such that the childwould feel confident and would want to read itfor himself or herself. It is important to set afixed time of around 20 minutes per day so thatchildren look with anticipation for the read-aloud moments.

An activity will be motivating if it is challeng-ing but not beyond the skill of the reader. Childrenshould be given some degree of autonomy in choos-ing the book to be read. Another important factto keep in mind is that reading to children shouldnot be a one way activity. The teacher/parent shouldactively involve the child during reading by stop-ping, pondering, and asking questions to the child.Additionally, if the child sees his parents in the act ofreading and enjoying it, he or she is likely to emulatetheir behavior.

Locus of Control

Reliance on factors such as chance, luck, and fatebring forth inconsistent outcome and often failure.Creating opportunities in which the child can succeedcan build confidence.

Learned Helplessness

The best thing parents can do is to create opportu-nities for their children to be successful as much aspossible. Success could be realized by adjusting tasksin which the child can succeed. This can be accom-plished by assigning reading material according toability level, cutting down on the number of pages tobe read, reducing the number of spelling words, andproviding additional time to complete reading andwriting exercises. Feedback should be constructive;judgmental statements are to be avoided.

Learning Styles

It has to be noted that learning style is not to beconfused with individual differences among children.Children do differ in their family background, in the

first language and dialects they use, in their interests,and in their ability level. Children also differ in theiranxiety level. Helping the anxious child to relax andmaking such a child feel comfortable are part of ateacher’s social skills. Young children also need lots ofhands-on activities and learn best when they can movearound freely. It is also known that some childrenbenefit from group work and peer instruction. Theseeducational practices, however, are not derived fromthe concept of learning style.

Teacher/Parent Expectations

• We all form expectations of others, often uncon-sciously, and this does influence our behavior.

• Teachers should keep expectations for the indi-vidual child current by paying close attention tohis or her progress.

• Teachers should be flexible enough to alterexpectations.

• Teachers should give more importance to cur-rent performance than to past performance.

• Teachers should set flexible goals for the child.• Teachers should stress the continuous progress

of the child and not how he or she compares toother children or to standardized norms.

• Teachers should emphasize constructive feed-back rather than judgments such as “good” and“poor” or “right” and “wrong.”

• Teachers should recognize and reward the child forhis or her real progress and not trivial attainments.

Gender Differences

Notions about gender differences can influenceparents’ expectations (boys will be boys) and thuscreate a mindset which, in turn, can affect instructionalpractice. The best way to avoid such gender-basedexpectations is to be aware that these studies deal withaverages and not individuals. That is, in any givenarea, there are boys who perform better than girls andthere are girls who perform better than boys.

Remedial Approaches:The Ecological Module

Home Environment

Parents are the primary models children tend toemulate. It is, therefore, important that parents presentthemselves as avid readers. During case conferences,

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this fact should be stressed and parents should bemade to realize the importance of their role in theirchildren’s education.

The school psychologist should realize that if thegap between the home culture and school culture iswide, children may perceive reading-related tasks asirrelevant. Parent-teacher-child conferences providean opportunity for reducing cultural differencesbetween school and home.

Classroom Environment

Dividing children into small groups can introducevariety in classroom instruction. Such a grouping neednot be based on ability, but rather it is better to havechildren of different ability levels in each group.

The seating arrangement of children and sufficientroom for children to move around are features that areessential elements of the classroom environment.

Dialect

Emphasizing the functional value of learning andusing the standard dialect may not be effective withmost minority children. For example, statements suchas “You will get a good job only if you speak like mostpeople do” and “you have to learn to speak and writethe way you are taught in the school” may sound veryunrealistic to minority children. Instead, enticing thechild to use SE because the majority of the people inthis country use SE is likely to be an agreeable propo-sition for many minority children.

It will be helpful for the teacher or the parent todraw the attention of the child to phonological andgrammatical differences between Standard Englishand Black English. In addition, special attention tospelling can make children sensitive to phonemes theytend to omit or substitute. Drawing the attention of thestudent to the influence of dialect on written languagecan be helpful in avoiding some grammar mistakes.This is so because many students tend to write the waythey speak.

English as a Second Language

While admittedly the acquisition of reading andwriting skills will be far more difficult for an ESLchild than it is for the child whose mother tongue isEnglish, written language can actually be of help inlearning SE because written language is formal,

whereas spoken language is colloquial. Phonologyand vocabulary can be introduced with much less dif-ficulty than grammar and morphology (word inflec-tions). Peers of the ESL child can be a good source foracquiring SE skills.

Instructional StrategiesDesigned for Teaching Children at Risk

It is said that 10% to 20% of school childrenexperience difficulty in learning to read for no appar-ent reason. This condition is recognized by differentlabels such as learning disability, specific reading dis-ability, and dyslexia. Since it was first recognized thatsome children with normal mental ability experiencean inordinate amount of difficulty in learning to read,specialized methods for teaching these children havebeen developed and promoted. Fernald and Keller in1921, Monroe in 1932, and Orton in the 1930s werethe pioneers who developed such methods. Thesemethods focused primarily on developing word recog-nition skills through phonics-based instruction.

The Orton-Gillingham Approach

The Orton-Gillingham approach was first pre-sented in 1960 by Anna Gillingham, a close associateof Samuel Orton, a physician who practiced medicinein Iowa in the 1920s and 1930s. During his practice,Orton gained extensive experience in dealing withchildren who had educational problems. Later, he andGillingham operated a clinic together in New York,and there they developed their instructional method.

The original publication was revised several times,with the seventh edition appearing in 1979 under thetitle, Remedial Training for Children With SpecificDisability in Reading, Spelling, and Penmanship(Gillingham & Stillman, 1979). Several phonics-basedversions of the Orton-Gillingham approach have beendeveloped in recent years by other authors.

The three important features of the Orton-Gillingham approach are:

1. It teaches phonics directly by introducing letternames and their sounds first, and blending skillssoon after.

2. It uses a multisensory approach by teachingletter-sound associations through auditory, visual,and kinesthetic modalities.

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3. It follows a systematic step-by-step approachproceeding from the simple to the complex.

Even though this method has been practiced exten-sively with dyslexic children and adolescents, veryfew research studies had been conducted and reportedto validate the effectiveness of the Orton-Gillinghamapproach. The primary reason for the paucity ofresearch is that this method is used primarily in clini-cal settings on a one-to-one basis, which does notgenerate extensive data that can be statistically ana-lyzed. Two studies, one by Kline and Kline (1978)and another by Joshi and colleagues (2002), reportedsuccessful outcomes.

Beth Slingerland (1977) developed a closely relatedguide for teaching children with specific reading dis-abilities that uses a multisensory approach. In manyrespects, the Slingerland procedures are very similar tothe Orton-Gillingham approach. In fact, Slingerlandspent some time with Anna Gillingham and BessieStillman, authors of the Orton-Gillingham method.

Spalding’s Writing Road to Reading

The Writing Road to Reading by Romalda Spaldingwas first published in 1957. Spalding acknowledgesher indebtedness to Samuel Orton, under whom shepracticed her remedial methods for three years. Duringthe span of nearly four decades, it has been widelytested with good results. A fifth revised edition of theprogram was published in 2003. It is a structuredmethod of teaching phonics and is available in theform of a single book, which makes the implementa-tion of the procedures relatively easy. Even though thismethod is intended for use in the regular classroom, itis equally valuable to remedial teachers. The Spaldingprogram is also called the Unified Phonics Methodbecause it incorporates hearing, speaking, and writing,as well as reading comprehension.

Although much of the material in The WritingRoad to Reading is borrowed from the Orton-Gillingham approach, the Spalding method differsfrom it in two important respects: emphasis on lettersounds rather than letter names, and the emphasis onspelling through writing.

Reading Recovery Program

Reading Recovery (RR) is another widely knownprogram that does not follow a rigid sequential format

but has a meaning orientation. RR was developedby Marie Clay and became a nationwide program inNew Zealand in 1979 and was later introduced in theUnited States and Australia in 1984. Developed as aprogram designed to be preventive in nature, RR isimplemented soon after reading problems are recog-nized during the first year at school. Some of thesalient features of the RR program are:

• It is designed for at-risk readers in the firstgrade.

• Each program is individually designed, andthere is no standardized or scripted procedurefor instruction. The RR program uses story-books and does not use highly structured booksand worksheets. The RR teacher a spendsconsiderable amount of time in identifying thechild’s weaknesses and strengths. Children aretutored individually. However, some schoolsystems tutor children in small groups of two orthree. The instructional program is approxi-mately 30 minutes per day and is supplementaryto the regular classroom teaching. Classroomteachers and RR teachers work as a team.

• RR is temporary and lasts until the child hasreached a level of reading skill expected at hisor her grade level. Under normal circumstan-ces, this period is expected to be approximately12 weeks.

• Writing is given as much importance as reading.Every day, the child writes as much as he or shecan alone. The child is also asked to read whathe or she has written.

• RR teachers are required to undergo specialtraining, which may be a year in duration. Theyalso continue to participate in in-serviceprograms.

According to one report, at the end of first grade,more than 66% of the students who had completed theprogram were reading at or above the first grade level.

Some of the concerns about RR are that progress ismeasured by informal tests and not by standardizedtests. There is also a possibility that the effects maywear off after students reenter the regular classroom.Success rates reported may be based on children whohave improved and were discontinued from theprogram and not on the entire population of childrenparticipating in the RR program. Yet another concernis the extensive training teachers have to undergo and

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the nature of the one-to-one teaching format, both ofwhich may not be cost-effective.

—P. G. Aaron

See also Academic Achievement; Cooperative Learning;Grades; Homework; Learning; Learning Styles

REFERENCES AND FURTHER READING

Aaron, P. G. (1997). The impending demise of the discrepancyformula. Review of Educational Research, 67(4), 461–502.

Aaron, P. G., & Kotva, H. (1999). Component Model-basedremedial treatment of reading disabilities. In I. Lundberg,F. Tonnessen, & I. Austad (Eds.), Dyslexia: Advances intheory and practice. Boston: Kluwer Academic.

Aaron, P. G., Joshi, R. M., Hyyon, P., Smith, N., & Kirby, E.(2002). Separating genuine cases of reading disabilitiesfrom reading difficulties caused by attention deficits.Journal of Learning Disabilities, 35(5), 425–435.

Aaron, P. G., Joshi, R. M., & Phipps, J. (2004). A cognitivetool to diagnose predominantly inattentive ADHD behav-ior. Journal of Attention Disorders, 7, 125–135.

Adams, M. J., Foorman, B., Lundberg, I., & Beeler, T. (1998).Phonemic awareness in young children. Baltimore, MD:Paul H. Brookes.

Arra, C., & Aaron, P. G. (2001). Effects of psycholinguisticinstruction on spelling performance. Psychology in theSchools, 38, 357–363.

Bentum, K., & Aaron, P. G. (2003). Does reading instructionin learning disability resource rooms really work? A longi-tudinal study. Reading Psychology, 24, 361–381.

Carbo, M. (1983). Research in reading and learning style:Implications for exceptional children. ExceptionalChildren, 49, 486–493.

Clay, M. (1985). The early detection of reading difficulties(3rd ed.). Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann.

Clay, M. (1993). Reading recovery: A guidebook for teachersin training. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann.

Gillingham, A., & Orton, S. (1979). Remedial trainingfor children with specific disability in reading, spelling,and penmanship (7th ed.). Cambridge, MA: EducatorsPublishing Service.

Goodman, K. (1986). What’s whole in whole language?Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann.

Joshi, R. M., & Aaron, P. G. The Component model of read-ing: Simple view of reading made a little more complex.Reading Psychology, 21, 85–97.

Joshi, R. M., Dahlgren, M., & Boulware-Gooden, R. (2002).Teaching reading through multisensory approach in aninner city school. Annals of Dyslexia, 53, 235–251.

Just, M. A., & Carpenter, P. A. (1987). The psychology of read-ing and language comprehension. Boston, MA: Allyn &Bacon.

Kline, C., & Kline, C. (1978). Follow-up study of 216 dyslexicchildren. Bulletin of the Orton Society, 25, 127–144.

Moats, L. C. (1995). Spelling development, disabilities, andinstruction. Baltimore, MD: York.

Slingerland, B. (1977). A multi-sensory approach to langu-age arts for specific language disability in children.Cambridge, MA: Educators Publishing Service.

Spalding, R. B. (2003). The writing road to reading.New York: Harper Collins.

Treiman, R. (1993). Beginning to spell: A study of first gradechildren. New York: Oxford.

Woodcock, R. W. (1991). Woodcock Language ProficiencyBattery-Revised. Itasca, IL: Riverside.

RECIPROCAL DETERMINISM

Reciprocal determinism is a construct proposedby Albert Bandura within his social learning theory.Social learning theory focuses on behavior and learn-ing within social contexts, and it posits that an indi-vidual’s behavior changes after direct experience orafter observing a model’s behavior (otherwise knownas vicarious learning). The four processes involved invicarious learning are paying attention, retaining,reproducing, and having the motivation to emit amodel’s behavior.

Reciprocal determinism suggests that individualsfunction as a result of a dynamic and reciprocal inter-action among their behavior, environment, and personalcharacteristics (Bandura, 1997). As seen in Figure 1,personal characteristics include one’s thoughts, emotions,expectations, beliefs, goals, and so forth. Behavior isconceptualized as a person’s skills and actions. Lastly,environment is considered to be a person’s social andphysical surroundings. All three systems interact witheach other; therefore, a change in one will influencethe others as well. Reciprocal determinism indicatesthat people do have a say in their future, because ofreciprocal interactions.

Reciprocal determinism is relevant to schoollearning. A child’s behaviors may be the result of aninteraction between the environment and his or herpersonal characteristics. For instance, a child may befrustrated by a mismatch between his or her academicabilities and the instruction or curriculum. This frus-tration may lead to disruptive behaviors, which resultin the teacher becoming upset as well. Therefore,understanding reciprocal determinism may be veryhelpful in reducing disruptive or aggressive behaviorsand in altering negative and defeating cycles. Likewise,from an academic perspective, if a child is experiencing

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difficulties in a class, it is important to considerenvironmental issues (i.e., instruction, curriculum,home and social environment, etc.) that could beaffecting the child’s academic performance. Veryimportantly, when a school psychologist recognizesthat a change in one system will influence the others,his or her following decisions should be made in favorof interventions that will have the most positive impacton that system.

—Jennifer Lang

RELIABILITY

Reliability, which is the consistency of test scoresor ratings, is one of several ways to assess the qualityof a measure. Three major types of reliability, includ-ing brief descriptions, are:

1. Interrater reliability refers to the consistency ofthe ratings made by two or more observers onthe behavior (e.g., classroom behavior) of oneor more students.

2. Internal consistency reliability (e.g., split-halfreliability, parallel forms reliability, and coeffi-cient alpha) refers to the degree of uniformity ofthe item content of a measure. In other words,the degree to which the items on a measure aresimilar in content to each other. To evaluate theinternal consistency reliability, a single adminis-tration of the measure is given and then thedegree of homogeneity of the item content ofthe measure is examined.

3. Test-retest reliability involves repeated adminis-trations of the same measure, such as a readingachievement test, to the same individuals on twoor more occasions to determine whether the testscores obtained on the measure are similar orconsistent over time.

The reliability of test scores or ratings is importantto school psychologists and other professionals whoadminister tests or conduct classroom observationsin educational settings. Test scores or ratings mustbe reliable in order to have confidence in the resultsobtained from these measures or classroom observa-tion forms. Test scores and observer ratings help edu-cators and parents make decisions about educational

programs for students and to monitor student progressin these programs. Thus, test scores or ratings need tobe reliable.

—Patricia A. Lowe

See also Bias (Testing); Cross-Cultural Assessment; EthicalIssues in School Psychology; Norm-Referenced Assessment;Statewide Testing

REFLEX. See DEVELOPMENTAL MILESTONES;NEUROPSYCHOLOGICAL ASSESSMENT

REPORTS (PSYCHOLOGICAL)

Psychological reports are summary documentswritten by mental health professionals to help othersunderstand a person and the context in which theperson lives (Tallent, 1993). Reports often describe aspecific referral question and review the assessmentprocess used to derive the included interpretations andintervention recommendations. In school settings, it ismost commonly the school psychologist who createsa case study report aimed at helping both familymembers and school personnel gain a clear under-standing of the academic and/or social–emotionalneeds of a child and the rationale for any suggestedcategorizations (e.g., special education placement) orinterventions. Sometimes the school psychologist isone member of a larger multidisciplinary team thatworks conjointly to assess all aspects of a student’sindividual functioning and environment, and producesone comprehensive assessment report. Diagnostic andintervention decisions reflect the collective agreementof the team members (e.g., speech pathologists, occu-pational therapists, school social workers, schoolpsychologists, and teachers).

Psychological reports serve as a means of com-munication between school personnel (e.g., teachers,social workers, psychologists, and administrators),family members, and outside professionals (e.g., medicaldoctors and clinicians). Thus, the author of such doc-uments must recognize the need for “user friendly”reports that are jargon-free and contain interpretationseasily understood by all readers. Recommendationsshould be specific, realistic, and practical, and be writ-ten with the intent of creating positive change for thestudent.

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Although psychological reports may vary in styleand format based on the author’s professional role andpersonal style, a typical psychological report includesthe following subsections (Sattler, 2001; Wolber &Carne, 1993):

• Identifying information about the examiner andexaminee

• Reason for referral• Assessment instruments and evaluative procedures• Background information• Behavioral observations during the assessment• Assessment results (often divided into two

sections called intellectual/cognitive function-ing and personality functioning)

• Clinical impressions and recommendations• Summary

A useful psychological report includes only infor-mation relevant to the purpose of the report and inte-grates testing results, behavioral observations, andbackground information gathered from all necessarysources (i.e., parents, school records and personnel,medical charts, and previous psychological treatmentrecords). Psychologists should base interpretations onassessment findings rather than on speculation. It iscritical that school psychologists gather data from avariety of sources and settings in order to corroborateand/or elaborate on formal test results. All informa-tion should be reported in a clear, concise manner.Readers are more appreciative of a report that is wellorganized, not too complex, has practical recommen-dations, and has a more tentative tone than one thatis lengthy, contains too much theory or jargon, comesacross as authoritative, and suggests unrealistic inter-ventions (Tallent, 1993).

Once the school psychologist’s report is written, itbecomes part of the student’s official academic fileand is subject to the legal and ethical principals andstandards governing the profession. Specific ethicalprinciples and standards regarding confidentiality, theassessment process, and the maintenance of recordsserve as guidelines for how psychologists shouldprepare and disseminate such information. Separateethical principles and standards also address the use ofword processing or computerized report writing pro-grams. Parents and eligible students have a right toinspect and review a student’s academic record undera federal law commonly known as the FamilyEducational Rights and Privacy Act (FERPA).

The following is a psychological report for astudent named Sam. The report begins by describingthe referral problems or questions to be answeredthrough the psychological evaluation. It then describesthe background or context of the problems Sam isexperiencing in reading and math. This backgroundinformation provides the backdrop against which theassessment tools (tests or procedures) are selected tobe administered to Sam and other important adults inhis environment. The results from the tests or proce-dures administered are described and interpreted,and conclusions are drawn regarding the factors(uncovered through the assessment process) that arecontributing to Sam’s educational problems. Recom-mendations for interventions that might help Samimprove in reading and math, which have been linkedto findings, are provided at the end of most psycho-logical reports.

Psychological Report

Name: Sam DOB: 11/20/92

Address: Kansas Parents: Will & Cindy

School: Blue Bird Date of Evaluation:

Elementary (BBE) 10/6/00

Phone: (xxx) xxx-xxxx Grade: 2nd

Reason for Referral:

Sam was referred to the CARE team in September,1999, by his first grade teacher, K. J. The CARE teamis a group of general education teachers, special edu-cation teachers, and other professionals who meet toproblem solve strategies to help students experiencesuccess within the general education classroom. MissJ was concerned about Sam’s low achievement in theareas of math and reading. She reported that Sam wasfar below his peers in these areas. Despite numerousmodifications, Sam remained behind peers and theteam felt a comprehensive evaluation was necessary.This is an initial evaluation to determine whether Samis eligible to receive special education services.

Background Information:

School History

According to Sam’s educational file, Sam hasattended Blue Bird Elementary (BBE) since hisschool career started. He has never been held back;however, his kindergarten teacher did rate him as a

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fair candidate for retention. He has no history ofreceiving special education services, but has had amodified curriculum. In first grade, CARE team prob-lem-solving helped provide interventions and modifi-cations to assist Sam, but little progress was reported.

Information obtained from Sam’s educational filerevealed that Sam’s grades throughout his schoolhistory have been mostly S’s (Satisfactory). In kinder-garten, Sam received all S’s, however, his grade cardshowed that there were skills he did not master by theend of the year. These skills included recognizing thealphabet out of order, recognizing initial consonantsounds, beginning to recognize words, and knowingnumber words. He also couldn’t recite the alphabet inorder until the last quarter of the year.

Sam again received mostly S’s in first grade (on amodified curriculum), with S’s in math, spelling, andlanguage. The area in which he struggled the most waswork habits, in which he received a U (Unsatisfactory).The teacher commented that he needed to work on lis-tening attentively and following directions. The area inwhich Sam was strongest was social development. Inthis area he received S+’s and E’s (Excellent), with histeacher commenting that he worked with others andwas courteous. Up to this point in second grade, Samhas not received any official grades, but his teacherreports that he is performing significantly below peersin all areas. Due to Sam’s age, he has not yet taken anystandardized group achievement tests.

According to Sam’s educational file, he missed2 days during the first semester of kindergarten and7½ days during the second semester. In first gradeSam missed 3½ days during the first semester and12 days during the second. Sam was absent approxi-mately 1 of every 6 days during the second half of hisfirst grade year. There is no reported history of disci-plinary problems in Sam’s file.

According to Sam’s psychological file, modifica-tions used in the first grade included small groupinstruction for reading in the Discovery Room. Samwas allowed to retake spelling lists as often as needed,and his list was reduced to 6 words instead of 10.Praise for work well done was used frequently.Rewards, consisting of prizes from the treasure box,were earned when the teacher found him workingindependently. A behavior system to increase on-taskbehavior was utilized. Sam’s workload was reducedby approximately half. The length of his readingassignment was modified, assigning him short phrasesand sentences when reading class books. Sam was

allowed to bring in a book from home to read to theclass. Individual directions were given to him aftergroup instructions. In spite of some growth academi-cally, Sam is still far below peers.

Sam was described by his first grade teacher as “anextremely active and usually a happy child. He alsolikes to socialize with others in class.” Miss J reportedthat Sam often had difficulty working with children insmall groups in the classroom; however, Sam’s cur-rent teacher reports that he displays good social skillsand is able to maintain friendships with same-agepeers. She states that he is not a problem behaviorally,but that there is a noticeable difference in his behaviorwhen he hasn’t taken his Ritalin. At these times hewill become preoccupied with something, such as ahangnail on his finger, and lose focus. According toSam’s mother, he enjoys playing soccer and flyingkites. He is also involved in farm activities.

Medical History

According to Sam’s mother, there were no pre-,peri-, or postnatal complications. Sam was a full-termbaby born by vaginal delivery. He weighed 7 pounds.Developmental milestones were reported as acquiredwithin normal limits. In August of 1996, when Samwas 2 years, 9-months-old, he had an incident inwhich he nearly drowned in a motel swimming pool.Sam’s mother suspects that he was under water forone to two minutes. When his cousin pulled him up,he had a faint heartbeat but was not breathing. AfterMrs. H began CPR, Sam vomited water and resumedbreathing.

In the Fall of 1999, he was diagnosed withAttention Deficit Disorder and is on Ritalin (20 mgslow-release in the morning and 7½ mg at noon). Hismother believes that this dosage is working wellfor Sam. They do not have any behavior concerns.According to school records, Sam passed both visionand hearing screenings in the Fall of 1998.

Sam’s mother reported that asthma has weakenedhis vocal cords leading to scar tissue and nodules.According to the speech pathologist, he had a speech/language evaluation for voice concerns at the hospitalapproximately a year before kindergarten, but no ser-vices were deemed needed. Sam was evaluated by thespeech pathologist at BBE in the Spring of 2000. Hislanguage skills were screened with the ClinicalEvaluation of Language Fundamentals-Third EditionScreening Test. Sam did not meet criterion to pass this

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screening instrument. It was also noted during thisscreening that Sam’s voice quality is hoarse andscratchy. He also had some aphonic (loss of voice)episodes while engaging in conversation. The teacher andspecial education teacher have mentioned Sam’s voicequality as a concern. Sam’s parents may want to con-sider consulting their pediatrician about this problem.

Social

According to multiple sources, Sam has fair togood social skills. His mother reports that she feelsSam has friends and gets along well with them. Hiscurrent teacher also reports that he has same-agefriends and is able to maintain these friendships. Hisprevious teacher reported that he had some problemsworking in small groups; however, according to hiscurrent teacher, he works better in small groups.

Family

According to a parent questionnaire, Sam lives withhis father, Will, his mother, Cindy, and his 10-year-oldbrother Nick. Nick is a fourth grader at Blue BirdElementary. According to the questionnaire, there is nohistory of education, medical, or psychological prob-lems among these family members. Mrs. H describesthe family as fairly close, with occasional disputes, butnothing she would characterize as major problems.

Background of Referral Problem

Sam’s academic functioning appears to have beena consistent concern since the beginning of his schoolcareer at BBE. He was referred to the CARE team byboth his kindergarten and first grade teachers forbeing behind his same age peers in the curriculum. Infirst grade, he received various interventions and mod-ification both in and outside of the classroom. Miss Jreported some progress, but still identified him asbeing substantially lower than peers.

Currently, Sam’s second grade teacher, Mrs. G.,describes him as being significantly behind his peersacademically. She describes him as being a hardworker, but not able to produce the same quality ofwork as his peers. She states that he often does notparticipate in group activities. His problems are theworst when he hasn’t taken his medication and isunable to focus. During these times, he becomes pre-occupied and doesn’t get anything accomplished. He

also struggles when Mrs. G is presenting lessons tothe entire class. She feels that he becomes lost easilyduring these times. He is at his best when working insmall groups and receiving individual attention andinstructions. According to a parent interview, Sam’smother views Sam’s academic progress as beinginconsistent. Some weeks he does well, then otherweeks he will really struggle. For example, he may dowell in math for one month then say he’s not inter-ested and do poorly.

Previous Evaluations:

None.

Assessment Tools:

Classroom Observation

Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children–ThirdEdition (WISC-III)

Test of Visual-Motor Integration (VMI)

Wechsler Individual Achievement Test (WIAT)

Phonemic Awareness Inventory

Developmental Reading Assessment (DRA)

Informal Oral Reading Inventory

Listening Comprehension Probe

Reading Probe

Spelling Probe

Untimed Writing Sample

Dictation Analysis

Written Language Probe

1st Grade Cumulative Math Test

Math Probe

Results:

Classroom Observations

An observation was conducted in Sam’s secondgrade classroom during a group reading activity. Samwas on task 82.5% of the time and a typical peer wason task 92.5% of the time. When Sam was off task, hewas typically looking off into space, but was never

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observed to be disruptive. As the group was instructedto read aloud, Sam would watch the teacher or look athis book, but did not participate with the group.

Testing Observations

During testing, rapport was easily established.Sam appeared to be hesitant to be taken from theclassroom, but quickly became comfortable in his newenvironment. He was excited when asked about eventsthat had happened over the weekend and appeared toenjoy telling stories about his life. He was calm andable to sit in his chair for more than an hour at a time.Sam was both attentive and cooperative throughoutthe testing; however, he did ask to have several of themath questions repeated. He was persistent at tasks,such as putting together puzzles, even as they becamemore difficult. Due to Sam’s persistence and coopera-tion, it is this examiner’s opinion that the results are afair representation of his abilities.

Cognitive Assessment

Sam is operating in the average range of intellec-tual functioning (FSIQ–95 +/− 5; 37%). No signifi-cant discrepancy is noted between Sam’s averageverbal comprehension/conceptualization skills (VIQ–95 +/− 5; 37%) and his average perceptual organiza-tional abilities (PIQ–95 +/− 5; 37%). His relativestrengths are in the areas of simultaneous processingand visual closure. He was able to look at a picturewith an important piece missing and identify thepiece.

Visual–Motor andAchievement Assessment

Sam had no difficulty copying simple shapes (cir-cle, square, rectangle, diamond, or triangle) or simplelines (horizontal, diagonal, or vertical). He started todisplay difficulties when the designs became morecomplex (lines within shapes), but he scored in the82nd percentile for visual-motor skills and at an ageequivalence of 10 years, 6 mos. He also used the cor-rect tripod grasp of the pencil with minimal prompting.

Compared to Sam’s overall ability, his math andreading scores are lower and fall in the low averagerange. Sam’s reading comprehension skills fell in the7th percentile. He was able to answer questions aboutvery simple stories that he had read, but had a hard

time when the stories became longer. He would substi-tute words in the story when he couldn’t read thembased on the accompanying picture. In contrast, Samdemonstrated above average skills in the area of listen-ing comprehension. He was able to listen to a story andthen answer very specific questions about the story.

In the math areas, Sam again scored in the lowaverage range. His Mathematics Composite score of82 places him in the 12th percentile. His strategy onmost of the problems was to count with his fingers.This strategy was often used inaccurately, particularlywith story problems. Sam had problems counting withhis fingers when the numbers presented were largerthan 10. On some problems, he appeared to use nostrategy at all; quickly stating a random answer.

Formal and informal measures and curriculum-based measurements (CBMs) were administered inthe Spring of 2000 by the resource teacher to gain amore complete picture of Sam’s functioning. The fol-lowing measures are grouped by achievement area.

Reading

The Phonemic Awareness Inventory was adminis-tered to assess Sam’s understanding of spoken lan-guage and how language fits together. Sam was ableto identify words that were the same and different (fat-bat, nut-nut), and create a rhyming word to match aword given to him. He was able to name the sound heheard at the beginning, middle, and end of words. Samwas also successful at counting the number of sylla-bles in a word and blending speech sounds. Syllablesegmentation, breaking a word into its individualsounds, leaving off beginning and ending sounds, andreplacing sounds was difficult for Sam.

A Developmental Reading Assessment (DRA) wasadministered to assess and observe Sam’s develop-ment as a reader.

Oral Reading –

Level 3 Independent 100% accuracy Grade 1.0

Level 4 Instructional 96% accuracy Grade 1.1

Level 6 Frustrational 85% accuracy Grade 1.2

There were several strategies that Sam wasobserved to use during the assessment. Sam had left-to-right and top-to-bottom directionality for reading.He was able to differentiate words and letters and hadone-to-one matching when reading early predictablebooks. He used his finger to track each word as he read

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with prompting. Sam was also able to look through thepictures in a book before actually reading them anddraw pertinent information from the pictures. He com-mented on each picture as a separate event.

Sam read very slowly, methodically, and word-for-word, especially as the text became more difficult.When Sam came to a word in the text that he did notknow, he would pause and try to sound the word out.He did not appear to be looking at the pictures for cluesand he did not reread to check if the word made sense.

An analysis of Sam’s reading errors show that hismost frequent reading error was substitution. In otherwords, he read an incorrect word for the word writtenin the text (there/here, where/why, etc.). When Samsubstituted an incorrect word, the word he read wasfrequently graphically similar at the beginning 73% ofthe time. The substituted word was graphically simi-lar in the middle 36% of the time and similar at theend 18% of the time. Sam’s errors did not change themeaning of the sentence 27% of the time, while hesubstituted a word of the correct class (noun for anoun, adverb for an adverb) 45% of the time. Samself-corrected 27% of the errors that he read.

An informal oral reading inventory was adminis-tered to determine an instructional reading level.

Independent level Level Preprimer

Instructional level Level Primer

Frustrational level Level 1st grade

A listening comprehension probe was administeredto assess Sam’s ability to understand and interpret orallanguage when a story or information was read to him.Passages from the QRI (Qualitative Reading Inventory)were read aloud to Sam. He was then asked to recall asmuch information as he could from the passage, andalso answer explicit questions about the passage.

Instructional level level 1 (first grade) 100% explicit,

63% implicit

When asked to recall information on his ownabout the passages read to him, Sam was able torecall events from the story. He was able to discussbackground information, events from the story, andhow the story was resolved. When asked direct ques-tions about the passages that were read, Sam wascapable of discussing what he remembered from thepassage. It was easier for Sam to remember directinformation from the text rather than information hehad to infer.

On the CBM reading probe administered to Samin January of his first grade year, he was able to read11 words per minute. The typical range of scores forother first graders in the district was 0–110. In Aprilof the same year, he was able to read 14 words perminute, with the typical range of scores being 10–168.

Spelling

Sam was administered a spelling probe (Grades1–2) to show his knowledge of basic spelling skills.On this probe, he correctly spelled 9 out of 20 words,or 45%. According to the assessment, Sam’s spellingskills fall slightly above the first grade level of 8/20 or40%. In looking at the results of the assessment, it isapparent that Sam is beginning to understand spellingrules. However, when asked about spelling in tests anddaily work, his teacher reports that he is on a modifiedlist and that his spelling is very inconsistent.

Written Language

On an untimed writing sample, Sam was asked tochoose one of several photographs to write about. Hewas then provided with unlimited time to write as muchas he wanted about the picture. Sam chose a picture ofa boy with a falcon over his head. He created a 10-wordstory that described what was happening in the pictureand what the bird was doing. There were 4 spellingerrors (60% spelled correctly) in the passage, and Samdid not include any punctuation in the story. Sam alsoused capital letters in the middle of the sentence and attimes put capital letters in the middle of words.

On a dictation analysis task, Sam was asked todictate a story to the administrator after making astory map with administrator assistance. Again, hewas given some pictures to look at, and he chose towrite about a cat lifting weights. Sam needed someassistance in order to come up with ideas to put on thestory map. He dictated four sentences. When readback to Sam, he did notice two mistakes and madeappropriate changes to make the story more fluent.

On the CBM written language probe administeredin April of 2000, Sam scored 13 in the area of TotalWords Written, with scores of typical peers in the dis-trict falling in the range of 8 to 37. He scored 10 in thearea of Words Spelled Correctly (range = 3–31), 5 inthe area of Correct Word Sequence (range = 0–28),and 10 in the area of Incorrect Word Sequence(range = 0–17).

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Math

On a first grade cumulative math test, Sam com-pleted 61% correctly. He was able to count objectsand order numbers to 99, but had difficulty completingaddition and subtraction facts, determining fractionalparts of a set, determining appropriate measurement,and solving word problems.

Sam scored 88% on the computation probe, whichincluded problems such as single-digit and double/sin-gle addition and subtraction. Sam used finger countingin order to solve most of the problems, although he didknow some facts by memory. In the problem 10 + 5, hemade a reversal in his numbers by answering 51.

On questions about money, Sam identified thenames and knew the value of all the coins (quarter,dime, nickel, penny). He was able to identify time to thehour and half hour, and was able to create those times.He was unable to identify or create times for 15 minutesafter the hour, and he often reversed where the hourhand should be for the 15 minute times. He was able tocount by 2’s, 5’s, and 10’s without assistance. He couldalso count backwards from 10–0 and from 20–0.

On the CBM math probe administered in Januaryof 2000, Sam received a score of 10 for addition, withthe typical range of peers in the district being 0 to 45.He scored 9 in the area of subtraction, with the rangebeing 0 to 29, and 9 in mixed math, with the rangebeing 0 to 32. On the April math probe, Sam receiveda score of 6 for addition, with a range of 11 to 66, 10for subtraction, with a range of 1 to 36, and 9 formixed math, with a range of 0 to 46.

Personality and Behavioral Assessment

According to interviews with Sam’s mother and cur-rent teacher, he is not a problem behaviorally, althoughhe does have problems focusing (particularly when noton medication). On a parent questionnaire used to gainmore information about how Sam acts at home, Sam’smother reported that she sees Sam’s personality as“quiet, sensitive . . .” a child who likes to “play alone aswell as with others.” She also reported that he is “fun-loving, humorous, and kind and thoughtful of others.”Sam’s mother checked the following characteristics onthe parent questionnaire regarding Sam: “he has diffi-culty handling criticism, he is shy but truthful and cre-ative, with a respect for authority.” She feels he is easilyupset and has difficulty following directions as well asshort attention span. She finds the short attention span

and difficulty completing tasks the most difficult thingabout raising Sam.

Summary and Conclusions:

Sam demonstrates a significant gap in achievementin the curriculum when compared to same-age peers.This gap has not narrowed in spite of small groupinstruction all year and extreme teacher modificationsto his instruction and curriculum.

Although Sam’s overall intellectual functioningfalls in the average range, his academic functioningis significantly lower in most areas as measured by astandardized achievement test, curriculum-based mea-surements, cumulative tests, and informal measures.

The area of greatest concern for Sam appears to bereading. In looking at both the CBM and DRA results, itcan be determined that Sam was reading at an emergentlevel when evaluated in the spring of 2000. At this time,he was at least one grade level lower than his first gradepeers. Sam struggles with reading, and he is unable toapply different decoding strategies when reading, such aslooking at the picture, “chunking” words, or rereading todecode. In examining his reading errors, it appears thatSam often relies on the initial letter/s of a word in orderto decode it. Some of his reading errors might occurbecause he may focus only on the initial sound, and mis-read the remainder of the word. When substituting wordsin a reading passage, the substitutions changed the mean-ing of the sentence 73% of the time. This makes it diffi-cult for Sam to understand what he is reading.

Other areas of concern for Sam are math, spelling,and written language. In these areas, Sam performslower than his overall ability would suggest and isbelow average when compared to peers based on bothstandardized and curriculum based measures.

Reports from Sam’s mother and past and presentteachers indicate that Sam may still experience somedifficulty attending to tasks and staying focused, par-ticularly when not taking his medication. A classroomobservation and testing situations showed that Sam canbe attentive and persistent under certain circumstances.

Sam’s present levels of performance qualify himunder law to be eligible to receive special educationservices for a child with a specific learning disability inthe area of reading comprehension. Despite numerousmodifications, Sam continues to demonstrate a severediscrepancy between achievement and intellectualability in the area of reading comprehension. Thisdiscrepancy is not determined to be caused by a visual,

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452———Reports (Psychological)

Psychometric Summary Sheet

Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children-Third Edition(WISC-III) 9/11/00

Index Scores Standard Score Percentile RankVerbal 95 37Performance 95 37Full Scale 95 37

Verbal Subtests Scaled Score Percentile RankInformation 10 50Similarities 9 37Arithmetic 7 16Vocabulary 11 63Comprehension 9 37Digit Span 9 37

Performance Scaled Score Percentile RankSubtests

Picture Completion 14 91Coding 7 16Picture Arrangement 7 16Block Design 9 37Object Assembly 9 37Symbol Search 7 16

Wechsler Individual Achievement Test (WIAT) 9/18/2000

Composite Scores Standard Score Percentile RankReading 81 10Mathematics 82 12

Subtest Scores Standard Score Percentile RankBasic Reading 86 18Math Reasoning 86 18Spelling 86 18Reading Comprehension 78 7Numerical Operations 83 26Listening Comprehension 112 67

Phonemic-Awareness Inventory

Level 1

Whole Word Discrimination 9/9 100%Rhyming Word Recognition 6/6 100%Rhyming Word Application 8/9 89%Syllable Counting 5/6 83%

Level 2

Syllable Segmentation 5/9 55%Oral Synthesis-Blending Sounds 14/14 100%

Level 3Approximation 6/6 100%Phoneme Isolation 12/12 100%Beginning 4/4 100%Middle 4/4 100%End 3/4 75%

Level 4Segmentation 5/9 55%

Level 5Phoneme Deletion 16/20 80%Phoneme Substitution 4/9 44%

Curriculum-Based Measurements

() = 1st grade norm

January Reading Probe

11 WPM (0-110)

April Reading Probe

14 WPM (10-168) Z-score = −1.28

Spelling-Test A (Grade 1-2) 9/20 45%

Test A Analysis

Long Vowels 4/5 (lowe/low)Short Vowels 6/7 (letr/letter)Consonant Blends 1/3 (thriye/try, fllat/flat)Consonant Digraphs 1/3 (bak/back, wite/white)Vowel Digraphs 5/5Vowel/Consonant/e 1/1Bossy ‘r’ 0/2 (torde/tardy, yuer, year)Long ‘A’ Sound With ‘ay’ 1/1Long ‘Y’ Sound 0/1 (thriye/try)Short ‘y’ Sound 0/1 (torde/tardy)Diphthongs 0/1 (tooy/toy)Schwa 0/2 (letr/letter, uther/other)Nonphonic Spellings 0/2 (mene/many, uther/other)Reversals- none

Written Language

Curriculum-Based Measurement (CBM) ScoresApril Writing Probes

Median Z scoreTotal Words Written: 13 (8-37) 18 –0.50Words Spelled Correctly: 10 (3-31) 13 –0.33Correct Word Sequence 5 (0-28) 9 –0.44Incorrect Word Sequence 10 (0-17) 9

Math-skills analysis (1st grade cumulative test)

Count how many objects in a collection 2/2 satisfactoryhave a given attribute

Compare two numbers, 0 through 99 1/1 satisfactoryOrder numbers to 99 1/1 satisfactoryFind how many in all given several sets 1/1 satisfactorySubtract to compare groups 1/1 satisfactoryWrite addition and subtraction sentences 1/2 unsatisfactoryComplete addition and subtraction 0/1 unsatisfactory

fact familiesIdentify 1/2, 1/3, or 1/4 2/2 satisfactory

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motor, or hearing impairment; mental retardation;emotional disturbance; or environmental, cultural, oreconomic disadvantage.

Recommendations:

As much extra time as possible in working withSam by the teacher, student teacher, or paraprofes-sional in the regular education classroom would behelpful to increase his success. Many repetitions, aswell as intensity of interaction may help him to graspnew concepts faster and easier.

Small-group instruction, with individual reinforce-ment for him, is the best model for keeping Sam’sattention and giving him more chances for interactionand teacher monitoring of skills. A minimum of wholegroup instruction might be best for Sam unless he canbe individually reinforced during this time.

Sam may work best in a structured classroom inwhich he can receive some preferential attention fortask completion. A behavior system, such as the onethat was implemented in first grade, may be helpful ifSam continues to have problems focusing.

Continuous monitoring of Sam’s medication takingwould be helpful. This might help to decrease theamount of time Sam loses focus.

Sam would benefit from further emphasis andencouragement of phonics skills, including sound and

letter manipulation, which may help him sound outmore quickly and accurately.

Encouraging Sam to use strategies other thansounding out, such as skipping a word and goingback, may help increase his reading accuracy andfluency. Continued participation in a small-group,guided reading setting in the Discovery Room may beimportant to help foster the use of those other strate-gies. Frequent practice of sight words and repeatedreadings of material that Sam has already read mayalso help increase his reading accuracy.

Small-group instruction focusing on guided writingmay help Sam increase his writing skills. This small-group focus could include practice of frequently writtenwords, spelling, punctuation, grammar prompting, andassistance with prewriting and story development skills.

Because Sam relies heavily on finger counting inorder to complete computation problems, teaching himthe touch math method may help increase his compu-tation speed and accuracy. This method will supplyhim with the tactile impact that he needs in order tocount up or down to solve computation problems with-out taking as much time as counting on fingers.

Current second grade curriculum for fine-motorand visual-motor tasks is appropriate. Sam will par-ticipate in a special program sponsored by the occu-pational therapist called “Handwriting Day” (whichhas already been arranged with his teacher to takeplace 2nd quarter).

—Tracy K. Cruise

See also Confidentiality; Ethical Issues in School Psychology;Multidisciplinary Teams

REFERENCES AND FURTHER READING

Sattler, J. M. (2001). Assessment of children: Cognitive appli-cations. San Diego, CA: Author.

Tallent, N. (1993). Psychological report writing (4th ed.).Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.

Wolber, G. J., & Carne, W. F. (1993). Writing psychologicalreports: A guide for clinicians. Sarasota, FL: ProfessionalResource Press.

RESEARCH

Research in school psychology is defined broadlyas any data collected systematically that may be

Research———453

Determine fractional parts or a set 0/2 unsatisfactoryIdentify sides and corners of a 2/3 satisfactory

figure, symmetryTime to half hour, inches, centimeters, 2/3 satisfactory

heavierDetermine appropriate measurement 0/1 unsatisfactoryChoosing correct number sentence for 2/2 satisfactory

word problemSolving word problems 2/6 unsatisfactory

CBM Scores

January Math ProbesAddition: 10 (0-45)Subtraction: 9 (0-29)Mixed Math: 9 (0-32)

April Math ProbesMedian Z-score

Addition: 6 (11-66) 32 −1.73Subtraction: 10 (1-36) 20 −0.91Mixed Math: 9 (0-46) 19 −0.77

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applied to benefit individuals primarily from birththrough age 18 years Recently, however, there hasbeen an impetus for school psychologists to study andconduct research on issues pertaining to individualsacross the life span, because learning is believed tocontinue indefinitely. Although research in schoolpsychology is usually conducted in schools or othereducational settings (e.g., residential facilities for indi-viduals with disabilities, therapeutic nurseries), there isno particular limitation imposed on where data may becollected. Similarly, there is no limitation placed onwho may collect the data (e.g., academicians, practi-tioners, graduate students, or paraprofessionals). Theparticipants in research studies may include youngchildren, college students, individuals with specificdisorders (e.g., learning disabilities, autism, attentiondeficit disorder), or other individuals.

HISTORY OF RESEARCHIN SCHOOL PSYCHOLOGY

In 1879, the first psychological laboratory wasfounded by Wilhelm Wundt in Germany, and in 1896Lightner Witmer established the first psychologicalclinic at the University of Pennsylvania. Witmer isoften cited as the founder of school psychology inthe United States, and each year the Lightner Witmeraward is given to a new scholar-researcher who hasmade significant contributions to research in schoolpsychology. Although it has been generally recog-nized since the dawn of time that individuals differwith respect to intelligence, personality, achievement,and other characteristics, it was not until the 19th cen-tury that the scientific research on individual differ-ences emerged. During this period, research focusedon inheritance of intelligence with variables thatincluded sensorimotor abilities (e.g., reaction time,sensory discrimination).

In 1905, the first intelligence test (the Binet-SimonIntelligence Scale) was published. Following earlyresearch endeavors, there was a period of rapid growthand development in psychological research includingthe measurement of intelligence; individual differ-ences in achievement, personality, vocational inter-ests; and numerous other domains (e.g., suitability formilitary duty). Research over the past 100 years hasevolved in many ways—the breadth of topics investi-gated, the sophistication of the data collection tech-niques used (e.g., computers and other specializedequipment such as polygraph machines), and the

knowledge base and understanding of how to interpretresearch findings have grown by leaps and bounds.Additionally, ethical guidelines have emerged, andthey strictly govern research practices to protect therights of participants in all research-related activities.

TYPES OF RESEARCH ANDDATA COLLECTION METHODS

In general, there are two types of research (basicand applied), and they differ in their primary goals.The goals of basic research usually involve formu-lating theories, establishing relationships amongdifferent psychological constructs or variables, andproviding knowledge for the sake of gaining knowl-edge. Applied research uses the results of basicresearch and applies them to solve everyday problemsthat children and adolescents encounter or to assistschool personnel in serving their constituents.Although one may think that these two types ofresearch are mutually exclusive, nothing could be far-ther from the truth. In fact, they are probably inextri-cably bound and inform each other in a reciprocal andevolving manner.

In addition to the two broad types of research inschool psychology, there are two major methods ofcollecting and presenting research findings: quantita-tive and qualitative methodologies. There are severalsubtypes of each method, and they tend to involve dif-ferent means for collecting the data and analyzing andreporting the results. As the name suggests, quantita-tive methods involve quantifying something (e.g.,how many words are read by two groups of secondgraders) and perhaps comparing groups on the vari-able in question. Qualitative methods usually involvedescribing a phenomenon (e.g., how a third gradersolves a math problem) so that the process can beunderstood and studied via a quantitative method.However, in most research a variety of methods areused because school psychologists believe and acceptthat there is more than one way to examine variables.They also believe that it is important to explore anyand all ways to answer questions that can be appliedto help children and adolescents. In fact, school psy-chologists have found that flexibility in the type(s) ofselected research methodologies leads to richer andmore valuable outcomes. Thus, school psychologyresearchers often combine quantitative and qualitativeresearch methodologies to maximize the generaliz-ability of their findings.

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DOMAINS OF RESEARCHIN SCHOOL PSYCHOLOGY

The domains of research in school psychologyinclude:

• Assessment• Interventions• Psychopathology or disorders• Consultation• Research methodologies

Each of these domains contributes valuableinformation about how children and adolescentslearn, grow, and cope in today’s society. Assessmentresearch in school psychology usually involves evalu-ating a child’s functioning in areas such as cognition(e.g., intelligence quotient [IQ]), achievement (e.g.,reading), behavior (e.g., study habits), and personality(e.g., extroversion vs. introversion). For example,assessment research may investigate the impact ofstudy habits and intelligence on reading comprehen-sion. It also may involve determining what assessmentmethods may be the most useful under a myriad con-ditions. Although many individuals in and outside ofthe field have equated assessment with testing, testingis only one method of assessment. Other methods ofassessment include informal and formal observations;interviews; and curriculum-based, performance-based,and authentic assessments.

Research in interventions in school psychologyinvolves determining the nature and extent of whatspecific strategies or treatments may be useful fora certain gender, age group, ethnic group, or abilitylevel under certain conditions. A wide range of inter-ventions exists today including behavior modification,individual and group counseling, parent training, psy-chopharmacology, and crisis intervention. Recently,many professionals in school psychology have beenactive in compiling a database on the most effectiveinterventions for learning (e.g., early literacy) andbehavior problems (e.g., attention deficit disorders).Additionally, psychopharmacological interventionswith young children have been widely debated topics.

Another major area or domain of research in schoolpsychology is the development of psychopathology orpsychological disorders, especially those that have anegative impact on children and adolescents’ learning.Examples of developmental disorders (those disordersthat begin early in life for a variety of reasons) include

mental retardation, autism, learning disabilities, andattention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Research isdevoted to determining the nature and causes of thesedisorders as well as what treatments may be mosteffective in alleviating or managing them. Additionalpsychological disorders that may be researched byschool psychologists include substance abuse (e.g.,alcohol and tobacco use), eating disorders (e.g.,anorexia, bulimia), and severe behavior problems(e.g., conduct disorder).

Consultation is a unique intervention process thatinvolves indirect service delivery. It is being usedmore and more in educational settings and includesworking with other professionals, parents, and otherindividuals who play a part in the learning process.Research in consultation involves uncovering the bestways to effect change in an educational system as wellas the best ways to engage others as helping agents inchildren’s and adolescents’ lives. Research may, forexample, focus on the efficacy of consulting withclassroom teachers to reduce disruptive behavior ascompared to school psychological services renderedto the children exhibiting these behavioral difficulties.Several types of consultation are described in theliterature including behavioral, instructional, mentalhealth, and organizational and systems.

Finally, although it may sound strange, research inschool psychology also involves determining the bestresearch methods to use to answer questions or solveproblems. Researchers are always trying to devisenew and innovative methods of collecting, analyzing,and reporting data. Thus, a small but fair amount ofresearch is devoted to increasing the utility or applic-ability of research methods and techniques.

COMMON TOPICS OF RESEARCH

There are many topics of research in school psy-chology. Most of the topics listed here fall under oneof the broad domains discussed previously. This list isprovided to give a sense of the breadth and depth ofresearch topics in school psychology. Some of thesetopics are defined further in this volume. The mostfrequently researched topics in school psychology are,but are not limited to, reading and other academicdomains, intelligence, instruction, special education,counseling, parenting, legal issues, ethics, profes-sional training, violence prevention, social skills,pharmacology, and psychopathology. Trends in schoolpsychological research are consistent with concerns of

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the times, and research attempts to solve problemsconfronting children and adolescents in our society.

LOCATING RESEARCHIN SCHOOL PSYCHOLOGY

The primary source for reading about research con-ducted in school psychology is professional journals.The major school psychology journals are:

• Journal of School Psychology• Psychology in the Schools• School Psychology International• School Psychology Quarterly• School Psychology Review

These journals publish some of the finest researcharticles in the field and are highly respected by schoolpsychologists and other professionals. They containarticles on many of the research topics identified pre-viously and examples of basic and applied research aswell as quantitative and qualitative research method-ologies. Most school psychologists subscribe to andregularly receive one or more of these journals. TheSchool Psychology Quarterly is the official Division16 (School of Psychology) journal of the AmericanPsychological Association (APA), and School Psycho-logy Review is the official journal of the NationalAssociation of School Psychologists (NASP). Division16 of the APA and NASP are the two largest nationalschool psychology associations.

There are another 16 secondary and 26 tertiary jour-nals that publish research and provide information onresearch topics. In addition, there are two other majorpublications produced by school psychology nationalorganizations. The School Psychologist (publishedfour times annually) is the official newsletter ofDivision 16 of the APA, and Communiqué (publishedeight times annually) is the official newsletter ofNASP. These newsletters print research articles, bookand test reviews, commentaries, current informationon federal mandates, position statements, and manymore interesting and important topics and features in areader-friendly manner. APA and NASP also sponsorannual conferences in which school psychologists andother psychologists share the results of their research.

Another source of research in school psychology isthe Internet and the World Wide Web. Most indivi-duals are aware of the information explosion that

has occurred because of access to the Internet and themillions of Web sites available on-line. The Internethas become a valuable source of information regard-ing research on children and adolescents. However, atthe same time, readers are cautioned about believingeverything they read on the Internet. There are manyWeb sites that provide inaccurate and potentiallyharmful information ranging from what to expectfrom children and adolescents to how to treat them.

In addition, there are literally thousands of textsthat publish the results of quantitative and qualitativeresearch, theoretical articles, and professional opin-ions. Space limitations preclude the listing of many ofthese texts. However, there are several excellent textsdevoted to school psychology research, practice, andethics. Although these texts are written for professionalsin the field, they may be helpful to parents, teachers,and others who have an interest in the well-being ofchildren and adolescents. These texts include BestPractices in School Psychology-IV; Children’s NeedsII: Development, Problems and Alternatives; HelpingChildren at Home and School: Handouts from YourSchool Psychologist (all published by the NASP) andThe Handbook of School Psychology-Third Edition(published by John Wiley).

TRENDS AND FUTURE DIRECTIONSIN SCHOOL PSYCHOLOGY RESEARCH

It is difficult to state exactly what the trends andfuture directions in school psychology research are,because there are many and they constantly changewith the times and sociopolitical agendas. However,the following three areas have been the focus of atten-tion in recent years and will probably continue tobe researched in the years to come. The first area isviolence and violence prevention. Almost everyone isaware of the amount of violence in American societyas well as in other societies around the world. Unfortu-nately, a high percentage of violence occurs in schools,ranging from bullying to the use of deadly weapons.School psychologists are especially adept at conducting,disseminating, and consuming research in violenceprevention and related areas. Funding for violence pre-vention has been very high for many years and proba-bly will not be decreased any time soon.

A second trend of school psychology research isearly intervention. There is little doubt that preventionof and early intervention for learning and behavior

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problems benefit many children. In addition, from aneconomic perspective, early intervention may savemillions of dollars in health care, special educationcosts, and so forth. Although it is known that preven-tion and early intervention are viable “treatments” andthat they work in general, the focus of research effortsshould be directed toward determining what works forwhom under what conditions. When assessment andinterventions for young children are streamlined, pos-itive effects on society as a whole may occur.

The third trend of research in school psychologymay be called disorder-specific interventions. Thisresearch involves uncovering what constitutes the mosteffective treatments or interventions for specific learn-ing and behavior problems. For example, it is nowknown that increasing young children’s phonologicalawareness (including awareness of sound– symbolcorrespondences) assists them greatly in learning howto read. Also, it can be helpful for young children whoalready demonstrate difficulties in learning how toread. Another example is behavior modification,which is used to treat children and adolescents whoexhibit a wide range of behavior problems. Althoughneither of these “interventions” has been the only oneto be successful for these difficulties, the research lit-erature clearly shows their superiority to other formsof treatment.

It seems that an additional area that needs to beexplored continuously is how school psychologistscan apply what is learned from research to educationalsettings as well as how practice or work that takesplace in applied settings can inform research. AsPhillips (1999) indicates in The Handbook of SchoolPsychology-Third Edition, “But science and practiceare still not joined in the most meaningful and signif-icant sense, and if future efforts are to be more suc-cessful, both the science and the practice of schoolpsychology must be changed, even transformed, inimportant ways” (p. 56). Thus, constant efforts mustbe directed at the science–practice link if there is to bea significant benefit to our children and adolescents ineducational settings.

In conclusion, research in school psychologyincludes a range of methodologies, is conducted byindividuals who work in various settings, and may bebasic or applied in nature. Research in school psy-chology, together with research from other branchesof psychology, has provided practitioners, parents,educators, and others with essential information that

has promoted the well-being of children and societyas a whole. Research is exciting in that countless prob-lems that have confronted our society, once deemedtoo insurmountable, have become more manageablethrough ongoing research efforts. Research hasimproved our knowledge of and ability to intervenewith certain disorders, reduce the prevalence of otherdisorders, assist children to learn more effectively,facilitate parenting skills, enhance self-esteem, reduceviolence, and so forth. There will always be a greatneed for more research because there will always benew questions to answer—research will, over time,provide those answers. What needs to be done and howit can be done remain unanswered, yet all questionsmay be answered via research in school psychology.

—Vincent C. Alfonso and Melissa B. Tarnofsky

See also Careers in School Psychology; Diagnosis andLabeling; Division of School Psychology (Division 16)

REFERENCES AND FURTHER READING

Aiken, L. R. (2003). Psychological testing and assessment.Boston: Allyn & Bacon.

Phillips, B. N. (1999). Strengthening the links between scienceand practice: Reading, evaluating, and applying researchin school psychology. In C. R. Reynolds & T. B. Gutkin(Eds.), The handbook of school psychology (3rd ed.).New York: John Wiley.

Reynolds, C. R., & Fletcher-Janzen, E. (Eds.). (2002). Conciseencyclopedia of special education (2nd ed.). New York:John Wiley.

RESILIENCE ANDPROTECTIVE FACTORS

RISK AND RESILIENCE

Risk and resilience have been conceptualized asopposite poles “of individual differences in people’sresponse to stress and adversity” (Rutter, 1987,p. 316), with risk representing the negative pole (e.g.,succumbing to adversity) and resilience the positive(e.g., overcoming adversity). Over the past fivedecades, a large and consistent body of research hasshown that children’s futures are made considerablydimmer by exposure to multiple, chronically adverseliving conditions such as poverty, family dysfunction,

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parental illness or incompetence, abuse, and poorphysical health. Negative outcomes of these conditionsinclude (Doll & Lyon, 1998):

• Increased delinquent activity/criminality• Lower measured intelligence• Increased educational and learning problems• Increased likelihood of physical and mental

health problems• Increased likelihood of teenage parenthood• Increased likelihood of unemployment• Decreased likelihood of social competence

However, most of these same studies describecomplex transactional relationships by which vulner-able children are protected against adult dysfunctionthrough an interplay among characteristics of:

• The child (e.g., easy temperament, achievementoriented)

• The caregiver (e.g., a desire to protect the childfrom burdensome family hardships)

• The environment (e.g., a high level of supportfrom extended family, friends, and other adults,including those in schools)

Taken together, the results of these studies suggestthat understanding the dynamic ways in which indi-viduals successfully negotiate risk situations holdsmore promise for understanding resilience thanamassing lists of discrete attributes of presumablyresilient individuals (Doll & Lyon, 1998).

Resilience research, therefore, is no longer pre-occupied with describing static or isolated patterns ofrisk and resilience. Instead, attention has shiftedtoward: (a) explaining the specific mechanisms bywhich constellations of risk propel a child towardpoorer adult outcomes, and the ways in which thesemechanisms are interrupted by protective factors(Rutter, 1987); and (b) understanding how thesemechanisms organize into developmental trajectoriesthat facilitate or hinder adult competence. This under-standing is dependent on sources of risk and resilienceat different points in children’s lives, variablesthat change the magnitude and direction of their lives,and the points in time when these influential variablesare introduced, as well as how they are maintained.Addressing both aspects of negotiating risk (e.g.,specifying mechanisms and investigating their influ-ence on developmental trajectories) is essential if

social and educational programs are to be successfulin helping protect vulnerable children.

PROTECTIVE FACTORS

Although the precise mechanisms underlyingresilience are just beginning to be understood, severaldecades of longitudinal research provide at least work-ing knowledge about protective factors that are key toameliorating conditions of risk. These protective fac-tors may be organized into two groups, those pertainingto characteristics of the individual and those related tothe context or environment (Doll & Lyon, 1998).

Individual CharacteristicProtective Factors

• Intellectual ability• Positive temperament or easygoing disposition• Positive social orientation, including close peer

friendships• High self-efficacy, self-confidence, and self-

esteem• An achievement orientation with realistically

high expectations• A resilient belief system, or faith• A higher rate of engagement in productive

activities

Contextual Protective Factors

• A close, affectionate relationship with at leastone parent or caregiver

• Effective parenting (characterized by warmth,structure, and realistically high expectations)

• Access to warm relationships and guidancefrom other extended family members

• Access to and relationships with positive adultmodels in a variety of extrafamilial contexts

• Connections with at least one or a variety ofprosocial organizations

• Access to responsive, high-quality schools

While these protective factors may appear simple atfirst glance, it must be remembered that they unfoldwithin the complex and continuous process of humandevelopment. As Pianta and Walsh (1998) have noted,“vulnerability and protective mechanisms operatewithin a window of opportunity—a period of relativeplasticity—when responses to risk are being formulated”

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(p. 414). Hence, protective factors may be best under-stood as a complex transaction between the individualand his or her contexts, with issues of timing and qual-ity of relationships being critical in ameliorating riskand facilitating development of competence.

THE FUTURE OF RESILIENCERESEARCH AND PROGRAMS

Most researchers agree that the most powerful meansof uncovering resilience mechanisms will be foundin prospective, longitudinal prevention studies, whereprocesses thought to promote resilience and reduce riskare deliberately implemented and their impact trackedover time in relation to important adult outcomes. Suchstudies have the potential to reveal the intricate relation-ships between early precursors and later outcomes thatstretch across childhood and adolescence into adult-hood. These studies must begin in early childhood inorder to examine mechanisms and processes operatingduring critical early developmental periods. The investi-gations must be prospective and manipulate variablessystematically to clarify links between mechanisms andlater outcomes, elucidating trajectories that Robins andRutter (1990) have termed the “straight and deviouspathways from childhood to adulthood.”

These types of studies will require differentresearch designs, data collection methods, and dataanalysis techniques than have been used in most pre-vious research on risk and resilience. Additionally,because protective factors are typically maintainedwithin caregiving relationships that are authentic andpersist over time, newer studies will need to occur innatural environments rather than laboratory settings.

This kind of research stretches across decadesand requires that we rethink the systemic supports forpsychosocial intervention/prevention programs thatnow exist. Longitudinal prevention studies will requirefunding that extends beyond the three- to five-yearperiods of most current social science grants. Thesestudies will demand dependable collaboration betweenyouth service providers with access to families andresearchers with the methodological sophistication toexamine risk and resilience relationships.

Schools can play a vital role in the advancement ofresilience research by virtue of the fact that they dealdaily with the problems of students who are seriouslyat risk for a wide variety of poor educational andpsychosocial outcomes. Schools contain a large andcaptive audience of at-risk students who would be

difficult to aggregate under other circumstances forpurposes of long-range prevention and interventionefforts. However, schools need to be mindful of thefact that resilience programs represent yet another areawhere it may be easy to place “the cart before thehorse.” The research base on resilience is still develop-ing, and as yet only a partial understanding of themechanisms involved in successfully negotiating risksituations has been achieved. Children who live in con-ditions of chronic risk are unlikely to profit from pro-grams that are short-lived, poorly organized, or do notplan for follow-through from grade to grade and fromschool building to school building. Such programsoften represent popularized notions of resiliencethat are based loosely on resilience research, if at all.Regrettably, a number of the current resilience effortsin schools seem to be of this ilk. Such programs seemdestined to go the way of the numerous educationalfads that have preceded them, but in the process mayalso damage the prospects of those programs that aresupportable. Pianta and Walsh (1998) have provided aset of generalizations for school-based programsaimed at fostering resilience. These include:

• Mobilize resources early in the interest of inter-rupting cycles of risk.

• Pay close attention to adult-child and peer rela-tionships in the service of building educationaland social competence.

• Provide only comprehensive, integrated pro-grams to children and youth rather than discreteskills-based or isolated pull-out programs,which offer little hope of long-term impact.

Programs based on these broad principles maywell succeed in interrupting chronic cycles of risk andpromoting resilience in many school-age children andyouth.

—Mark Lyon

See also Abuse and Neglect; Attention Deficit HyperactivityDisorder; Divorce Adjustment; Dropouts; Learned Help-lessness; Self-Concept and Efficacy; Self-InjuriousBehavior; Violence in Schools

REFERENCES AND FURTHER READING

Doll, B., & Lyon, M. A. (1998). Risk and resilience: Implicationsfor the delivery of educational and mental health services inschools. School Psychology Review, 27, 348–363.

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Pianta, R. C., & Walsh, D. J. (1998). Applying the construct ofresilience in schools: Cautions from a developmental sys-tems perspective. School Psychology Review, 27, 407–417.

Robins, L. N., & Rutter, M. (Eds.). (1990). Straight anddevious pathways from childhood to adulthood. New York:Cambridge University Press.

Rutter, M. (1987). Psychosocial resilience and protectivemechanisms. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 37,317–331.

RESOURCE ROOMS

Since 1975, the Resource Room has been an alter-native instructional placement for students who areeligible to receive special education services. A lessrestrictive alternative to self-contained classrooms,the Resource Room option allows the student to spendthe majority of the day with grade-level peers. Thestudent comes to the Resource Room for no more thana few hours each week. In the Resource Room, teach-ing methods geared to students with learning differ-ences are employed. It is not a study hall or a place forreview. Rather, Resource Room instruction providesan alternative to the general curriculum in specificacademic areas (such as reading or arithmetic), taughtby trained special education teachers, to meet theneeds of the individual student. Resource Roomplacement is appropriate for the student who needsmore intervention than can be provided in a regularclassroom.

—Cheryl H. Silver

See also Least Restrictive Environment; Special Education

RESPONSE COST. See APPLIED

BEHAVIOR ANALYSIS; BEHAVIOR ASSESSMENT;BEHAVIOR CONCEPTS AND APPLICATIONS; BEHAVIOR

INTERVENTION

RESPONSIVENESS TOINTERVENTION MODEL

The term learning disabilities is a disability categorythat includes persons with severe underachievement inacademic areas that is caused by a neurological delay

or dysfunction. This underachievement is not relatedto mental retardation, sensory impairments or envi-ronmental influences such as lack of educationalopportunity or poor instruction. The history of learn-ing disabilities (LD) has included much controversyabout the procedures and criteria for identifyingstudents with LD. Responsiveness to intervention(RTI) has gained momentum as a means of determin-ing whether a student has a learning disability. RTI isan assessment method that incorporates intenseinstruction focusing on improving the LD student’sskill deficits (e.g., word recognition deficits) withcareful monitoring of the student’s progress. RTIintends to rule out that poor instruction is responsiblefor the student’s skill deficits. Thus, RTI can be veryhelpful for assessing the quality of instruction for allstudents in a school.

RTI is proposed as a valuable model for schoolsbecause of its potential utility in identifying studentswith LD and preventing academic failure among allstudents. Students need and benefit from a close matchof their current skills and abilities with the instruc-tional and curricular choices provided within the class-room. When a mismatch occurs, student learningand outcomes are lowered. For some students, typicalclassroom instruction is appropriate and meets theirneeds, but for others, success is not easy. The hypoth-esis is the earlier that these floundering students can beidentified and provided appropriate instruction, thehigher the likelihood that they can be successful andmaintain their class placement. Thus, their under-achievement is reduced or eliminated.

Some advocates propose that RTI can have animportant role in LD determination because of itsemphasis on careful monitoring of student learningand providing high-quality instruction. One com-monly accepted characteristic of LD is that studentswith LD do not learn at the same speed or level asother students with similar age, educational opportu-nities, and assessed ability level. They are regardedas underachievers. This intrinsic difference meansthat the difficulties are attributable to the youngster,presumably because of an undetected neurologicalproblem, and not the classroom instruction.

The use of aptitude-achievement discrepancyformulas was one way of quantifying a student’s levelof underachievement. The underachievement wascomputed by calculating the difference between astudent’s ability score (from an ability test) andachievement score (from an achievement test). If the

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difference or discrepancy between these two scoreswas of sufficient magnitude, the student was consid-ered as having significant underachievement. RTI pro-vides another method of assessing underachievement.Students who are underachieving even when they areprovided high-quality instruction might have a learn-ing disability.

RESPONSIVENESS TOINTERVENTION CRITICAL FEATURES

RTI as an assessment method is designed to matchstudents with appropriate instruction, thereby helpinglearners who are experiencing difficulty. Therefore,RTI may be one of the best new approaches for link-ing assessment with instruction. The core features ofRTI include:

1. High-quality classroom instruction. Studentsreceive high-quality instruction in their generaleducation setting. Before students are singledout for specific assistance, one has to have assur-ance that the typical classroom instruction is ofhigh quality. The quality of instruction is basedon numerous considerations including that theinstructor is adequately prepared with appropri-ate background education, delivers the curricu-lum as intended, uses appropriate instructionaland assessment methods, and is consistent ininstruction. Comparing students’ learning ratesand achievement in different classrooms at thesame grade level is one means of assessing thequality of instruction.

2. Research-based instruction. General educa-tion’s classroom practices and the curriculumvary in their efficacy. Thus, ensuring that thepractices and curriculum have demonstratedvalidity is important. Research-based instruc-tion means that appropriate experiments havebeen completed that demonstrate the efficacyof the particular instructional methods and cur-riculum. If not, one cannot be confident that astudent’s limited gains are independent of class-room experiences.

3. Universal screening. School staff conducts uni-versal screening of all students’ academics andbehavior three times per year (e.g., fall, winter,and spring). This feature focuses on specific cri-teria for judging the learning and achievement

of all students, not only in academics but alsoin related behaviors (e.g., class attendance,tardiness, truancy, suspensions, and disciplinaryactions). The screening results are useful in twoways. First, the results can indicate the qualityof classroom instruction and possible changesin teaching, curricula, or instructional methods.Second, those screening results are applied indetermining which students need closer moni-toring or an intervention.

4. Continuous progress monitoring. Students’ class-room progress is monitored continuously. Thus,staff can readily identify the learners who are notmeeting the classroom-level benchmarks or otherexpected standards. Progress-monitoring dataare collected weekly or during alternate weeks.Various curriculum-based assessment models areused in this role (e.g., number of words read cor-rectly from the reading curriculum or arithmeticproblems correctly solved within a fixed timeinterval, such one or two minutes).

5. Research-based interventions. When a student’s screening results or progress monitoringresults indicate a deficit, an appropriate instruc-tional intervention is implemented, perhaps anindividually designed instructional package or astandardized treatment. The decision whether touse an individually designed instructional pack-age or a standardized treatment is made whenthe school or school district in setting up theirprocedures. In some school districts, bothapproaches are used in a fixed sequence. If thestudent doesn’t respond to the standard treat-ment protocol, an individually designed inter-vention is determined and implemented.

The standardized treatment protocols are the inter-ventions that researchers have validated as effective,meaning that the experimental applications werecompleted with the proper experimental controls todemonstrate that the intervention works. School staffis expected to implement specific, research-basedinterventions to address the student’s difficulties.These interventions might include a “double dose” ofclassroom instruction and/or different instructionalmethod. These interventions are not adaptations of thecurrent curriculum or accommodations, because onewould expect those procedures to be implementedalready. Research-based interventions are 8 to 12 weeks

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in length and are designed to increase the intensity ofthe learner’s instructional experience. These protocolsinclude specific information about the number of min-utes per day, the number of days per week, the numberof weeks that an intervention will be implemented,as well as the specific skills addressed, where theinstruction will be provided, who will provide theinstruction, and the materials used for instruction andassessing progress. Furthermore, the following twoprocedures should be implemented to ensure that arobust outcome is obtained and that it is directlyrelated to the intervention(s):

1. Progress monitoring during interventions.School staff uses progress-monitoring data todetermine interventions’ effectiveness and tomake any needed modifications. Carefullydefined data are collected, perhaps as often asdaily, to provide a cumulative record of thelearner’s response to the intervention. Thisprogress monitoring is very specific in that thetasks and responses are very closely tied to thespecific intervention the learner receives. Theseassessment data often do not have the normativeinformation that permits comparison with otherclassmates or peers.

2. Fidelity measures. While the classroom instruc-tion and interventions are designed, imple-mented, and assessed for learner effectiveness,fidelity measures are completed on individualsproviding instruction. A fidelity measure indi-cates the degree to which the intervention wasimplemented as intended and with consistency.Staff members other than the classroom teacherhave an important role in completing fidelitymeasures, which can be an observational check-list of critical teaching behaviors.

RESPONSIVENESS TOINTERVENTION ATTRIBUTES

RTI has been implemented in a number of differentways. Some attributes common to the many differentRTI versions include:

• Multiple tiers of increasingly intense studentinterventions. That is, if student progress is unsat-isfactory, then a more intense dosage of instruc-tion is considered (e.g., Fuchs & colleagues

2003). Thus, these tiers of interventions areoften described with the public health frame-work of primary, secondary, and tertiary. Theprimary intervention is for the population ofstudents in a school (e.g., students in a class-room). Students who need a stronger interven-tion are provided a secondary level intervention.The tertiary tier is for those students needing themost intense of all available interventions.Interventions continue for 6 to 12 weeks, andintervention cycles may be repeated.

• Implementation of a differentiated curriculum.The differentiated curriculum means thatstudents have the option to receive a differentcurriculum for their secondary or tertiary inter-vention. The assumption is that a different cur-riculum and its instructional methods mightbetter address the students’ learning difficulties.Students in a secondary or tertiary RTI tier areprovided a curriculum that addresses the spe-cific deficit indicated by the screening results orclassroom progress monitoring. An area of con-cern is that schools do not have clear guidelinesabout how the intensity of instruction needs tobe increased (e.g., size of grouping, amount oftime, and choice of intervention).

• Instruction delivered by staff other than theclassroom teacher. Classroom teachers have asignificant responsibility for all learners in theprimary level of intervention and integrating thehigher tiers of instruction and curriculum pro-vided to students. Resource staff (e.g., a readingteacher or a title I teacher) deliver instruction tolearners at the higher tier levels.

• Varied duration, frequency, and time of inter-ventions. The different intervention tiers canvary in several features (e.g., duration, fre-quency, staff roles, and time). A characteristic ofRTI models is that those features are specifiedfor the learners so that teachers, parents, andother staff involved have a clear blueprint forunderstanding the student’s intervention.

• Categorical or noncategorical placement deci-sions. School district staff implement RTI usingcategorical and noncategorical service deliverymodels. In a categorical model, the students’disability is considered in the grouping ofstudents (e.g., students with learning disabilitiesreceived instruction with other students withlearning disabilities). In noncategorical models,

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the students’ disability areas are not of primaryconsideration in providing instruction. Thisnoncategorical feature is attractive to many edu-cators who believe RTI can fit with their broaderframework for serving students with varieddisabilities.

• Prevention and LD identification. RTI has appli-cation for preventing academic difficulties andfor LD identification. As a preventive, earlyintervention framework, RTI can inform parentsand staff about youngsters who are not pro-gressing as well as their peers and help informparents and staff about the appropriateness ofselected interventions. For LD determination,RTI provides a framework for ensuring thatstudents have received appropriate learningexperiences as required in LD identification.One attribute of LD is that the students have notachieved commensurate with their peers whengiven appropriate learning experiences. Otherparts of LD identification require that thestudents demonstrate a significant discrepancybetween ability and achievement and that thediscrepancy is not related to other factors suchas other disabilities or educational, economic, orcultural differences.

RESPONSIVENESSTO INTERVENTION ISSUES

With the increasing emphasis on having a scientificbasis for practices, RTI is noticeably lacking in sup-portive scientific evidence. The concept has broadappeal as a prevention model for reading and behaviorproblems and some experimental evidence supportingthat application. To date, however, broad scale, rigor-ous experimental or evaluative evidence is lacking forRTI’s application for LD determination. School dis-trict applications, commonly considered as importanttestaments to RTI’s value, do not specifically identifystudents with LD but rather identify students for anoncategorical special education model. RTI hasmuch to offer for improving services to students in thewhole school; how RTI increases the validity of LDdetermination is unknown.

A second issue is in the category of “necessary, butnot sufficient” information. Underachievement is con-sidered one distinguishing characteristic of studentswith LD, but students can have underachievement andnot have a learning disability. Aptitude–achievement

discrepancy and RTI are two distinct ways of assessinga student’s underachievement. By themselves, they arenot sufficient information for making an LD determi-nation. A difficulty for the LD field remains that otherfeatures considered important to LD (e.g., average orabove-average ability level, processing deficits, anduneven profile of skills and abilities) have limitedempirical support. Processing deficits include a varietyof specific aptitudes or abilities (such as attention, per-ception, recognition, short-term memory, recall, orga-nization, and expression) that influence one’s ability tounderstand and interact effectively and efficiently witheveryday situations. The challenge is to determine theappropriateness of such processing constructs and cor-responding assessments that can further differentiatestudents with LD from other students experiencingdifficulty in the curriculum.

A critical issue for implementation is that RTIactivities take place within the general educationframework, and such activities as universal screening,progress monitoring, and multiple tiers of interven-tions rely on the close cooperation of general educa-tion staffs. RTI involves a significant shift in roles andresponsibilities and the interaction patterns amongstaff. The working relationship among staff will bevery important to successful RTI implementation andassessing that classroom-level instruction is research-based, of high quality, and implemented with fidelity.A related concern is that when a student does res-pond positively to an intense intervention in terms ofimproved learning rate and at a higher achievementlevel, the conditions that lead to that improvementmay be very burdensome to classroom staff. Main-taining that level of intervention may be difficult, andstaff might consider that a special education place-ment is a better option for the youngster. On the otherhand, because the student was responsive to the inter-vention, is the appropriate conclusion that the studentdoes not have a disability?

For some school staff, who are concerned aboutpracticality and feasibility issues, the RTI componentmay look like a more complicated, intensive model ofprereferral intervention. Prereferral interventioninvolved a set of procedures intended to reduce thenumber of referrals to special education. The assump-tion was that if classroom teachers implemented spe-cific interventions within the classroom, the studentswould benefit and the costs of a comprehensive eval-uation and time requirements would be reduced.While this approach was desirable, implementation

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was difficult to achieve. RTI likely faces similarimplementation difficulties.

An additional point to consider is that no one modelof RTI exists. Current implementations differ on anumber of features that influence the validity of theresults:

• Number of tiers in the model• Normative framework for cutoff scores on

screening measures• Agreement on what constitutes high-quality

general education instruction• Agreement on what constitutes appropriate

interventions for each tier• How long an intervention should be conducted• Delineation of student responses that indicate ade-

quate or inadequate progress to an intervention• Specification of other necessary information as

a basis for LD determination

Some other practical points include which budgetwill support the tiers of intervention (e.g., are screeningand interventions a general education or special educa-tion activity?) and at what point do parents need tobe involved and due-process protections applied? Due-process protections are the legal safeguards that areafforded to parents in relation to schools’ assessmentand intervention activities with children. An example ofthose protections is that a parent or guardian must pro-vide informed consent before an evaluation or changeof class placement can be completed with a youngster.The due-process protections ensure that parents havea right to formal hearing if they are challenging theschool’s plans regarding their child.

SCHOOL PSYCHOLOGIST’S ROLE

School psychologists potentially have a number ofimportant roles in RTI models. As in their current role,they will continue to be the staff member who interpretsstudents’ learning and behavior within a developmentaland psychological framework. Parents and teachers canprovide excellent descriptions of students’ behavior(e.g., the student has difficulty paying attention for longperiods of time, can’t stay in his or her seat, is aggres-sive toward other students, doesn’t interact with peers,seems sad or depressed, has trouble sounding outwords, doesn’t read fluently, can’t remember multi-plication facts, and has trouble copying from thechalkboard to paper). Parents and teachers look to

psychologists to interpret those behaviors, providemeaning, and increase understanding. Thus, an impor-tant role is for the psychologist to interpret such behav-iors within a social competency perspective (e.g.,teacher-student, child-peer, or parent-child interactions)or an information processing or psychological process-ing framework (e.g., describing the role that attending,memory, recall, self-monitoring, and motor skill inte-gration can have in a student’s learning and achieve-ment). The school psychologist is frequently the bestand often the only resource person within a school tooffer these perspectives. These perspectives will bevery important in the analysis, design, and implementa-tion of any student’s RTI intervention.

Further, school psychologists’ experiences in assess-ment and instructional and behavioral interventions willassist in RTI implementation through strategic planning,staff development, and technical assistance to schoolstaff and parents. In a technical role, they can help in thedevelopment and implementation of behavioral obser-vation and curriculum-based assessment measuresimportant to student screening and progress monitoring.School psychologists can help schools address theneeds of all students through accurate monitoring ofstudents’ learning rates, achievements, and behaviors, aswell as the development and outcomes of interventions.

Fidelity checks are an important part of RTI. Schoolpsychologists can have an important role in helpingschools establish the procedures for fidelity checks. Ifinstruction is not of high quality and delivered withfidelity, students are perceived as having problemsand efforts are directed toward those students ratherthan the larger issue of poor or inconsistent instructionaffecting all students.

—Daryl F. Mellard

See also Learning Disabilities

REFERENCES AND FURTHER READING

Case, L., Molloy, D., & Speece, D. (2003). Responsiveness togeneral education instruction as the first gate to learningdisabilities identification. Learning Disabilities Researchand Practice, 18, 147–156.

Fuchs, L. S. (2003). Assessing intervention responsiveness:Conceptual and technical issues. Learning DisabilitiesResearch and Practice, 18, 172–186.

Fuchs, D., Mock, D., Morgan, P., & Young, C. (2003).Responsiveness to intervention: Definitions, evidence, andimplications for the learning disabilities construct.Learning Disabilities Research and Practice, 18, 157–171.

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Hickman, P., Linan-Thompson, S., & Vaughn, S. (2003).Response to instruction as a means of identifying studentswith reading/learning disabilities. Exceptional Children,69, 391–410.

RETENTION AND PROMOTION

Grade retention is defined as the practice of requir-ing a student who has attended a given grade level fora full school year to remain at that same grade levelfor the following school year. Other commonly usedterms to describe grade retention are “being retained,”“being held back,” “nonpromotion,” and “flunking.”Recent estimates suggest that 5% to 10% of studentsare retained annually in the United States, whichtranslates to more than 2.5 million children every yearwho are required to complete an extra year of school.The use of grade retention as an academic inter-vention has increased over the past 30 years. Graderetention is increasingly popular within the currentsociopolitical climate, which emphasizes high stan-dards and accountability.

Considering its popularity as an academicintervention, one might assume that grade retentionis highly effective and beneficial for students whoare struggling—academically, behaviorally, and/orsocially—within the school context. However, theconvergence of research suggests that grade retentionis quite the opposite—in other words, it is an ineffec-tive and discriminatory policy. Considering the abun-dance of information research has provided regardingthe effectiveness (lack thereof) of grade retention asan intervention to address academic, social–emotional,and behavioral problems, the increasing use andexpense in the United States has led to numerousdebates. The relevant research provides essential infor-mation regarding:

• Individual, family, and demographic character-istics of retained students

• The effectiveness of grade retention in address-ing academic, social–emotional, and behavioralproblems

• Long-term outcomes associated with graderetention

• The perceived stressfulness of grade retentionfrom students’ perspectives

CHARACTERISTICSOF RETAINED STUDENTS

Numerous studies have examined the gender andethnic characteristics of retained students. Boys aretwice as likely to repeat a grade as girls, and retentionrates are higher for minority students, particularlyAfrican American and Latino children. In general,retained students have lower achievement scores rela-tive to the average student in a classroom. Yet, it isessential to consider additional characteristics of thispopulation because low achievement is not a distin-guishing characteristic among retained and promo-ted students when studied in isolation. Compared toequally low-achieving but promoted peers, researchreveals that retained students do not consistently havelower intelligence quotient (IQ) scores. However,children who are retained are more likely to havemothers with lower IQ scores than their peers who arepromoted despite low academic achievement. Anothersignificant factor in determining whether a studentwill be retained is the level of parents’ involvement inschool and their attitude toward their child’s educa-tion. Low parent involvement and a less-than-positiveattitude toward their child’s education are associatedwith a child who is more likely to be retained.

Students who are retained are often reported asexperiencing difficulties in both intrapersonal andinterpersonal areas. Within these realms, factors con-tributing to the decision to retain include significantlyless confidence, less self-assuredness, less engage-ment, greater levels of immaturity, and evidence ofmore behavior problems compared to their similarlylow-achieving, but promoted peers. Teachers havealso reported that retained students are less popularand less socially competent than their peers. Thus, itis evident that social behavior plays a significant rolein the decision of whether to use retention as an inter-vention. Available research indicates that retainedstudents are a diverse group of children with an assort-ment of challenges influencing their low achievement,behavior problems, and poor classroom adjustment.

EFFECTIVENESS OF GRADE RETENTION

Statistical meta-analyses provide a synthesis ofstudies of grade retention research published between1925 and 1999. Meta-analysis methodology incorpo-rates a statistical procedure that yields an “effect size.”The use of effect sizes is a means for researchers to

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systematically pool results across studies. Analysesresulting in a negative effect size indicate that anintervention (i.e., grade retention) had a negative orharmful effect relative to the comparison groups ofpromoted students. Meta-analyses examining theeffectiveness of grade retention have included acade-mic achievement, behavior problems, and socialadjustment.

Effects on Academic Achievement

Overall, academic advantages for retained studentsrelative to comparison groups of low-achievingpromoted peers have not been demonstrated in theresearch. A meta-analysis of research examiningthe effectiveness of grade retention (Holmes, 1989)reported that among 63 published studies, 54 yieldednegative achievement effects for retained students.Only nine studies revealed positive short-term achieve-ment effects (during the repeated grade the followingyear), and these short-term benefits were found todiminish over time, disappearing entirely in latergrades. The overall effect sizes for academic achieve-ment outcomes in the Holmes and Matthews (1984)and Holmes (1989) meta-analyses were −.44 and −.19,respectively.

The most recent meta-analysis examining 20 stud-ies published between 1990 and 1999 (Jimerson,2001) revealed that 5% of 169 analyses of academicachievement outcomes resulted in significant statisti-cal differences favoring the retained students, whereas47% resulted in significant statistical differencesfavoring the comparison groups of low-achievingpeers. Of the analyses that did favor the retainedstudents, 33% of them reflected differences during therepeated year (for instance second year in kinder-garten). Moreover, these initial gains were not main-tained over time. Analyses examining the effects ofretention on language arts, reading, and math yieldedmoderate to strong negative effects (ES = −.36, −.54,−.49, respectively). Notably, decisions regarding graderetention are often based on reading skills; however,research reveals that grade retention appears to be anineffective intervention to improve reading skills.Thus, grade retention appears to be contraindicatedfor children with reading problems. These findingsindicate that across published studies, low-achieving,but promoted students outperformed retained studentsin language arts, reading, and math. The overall averageeffect size across academic achievement outcomes

was −.39. Altogether, the results of meta-analysesexamining more than 80 studies during the past 75years, including nearly 700 analyses of achievement,do not support the use of grade retention as an earlyintervention to enhance academic achievement.

Effects on SocialAdjustment and Behavior

Relatively fewer studies have addressed the socialadjustment and behavioral outcomes of retainedstudents. The results of these studies indicate thatgrade retention fails to improve problem behaviorsand can have harmful effects on social–emotional andbehavioral adjustment as well. The Holmes (1989)meta-analysis examined more than 40 studies includ-ing 234 analyses of social–emotional outcomes. Itconcluded that, on average, the retained studentsdisplayed poorer social adjustment, more negativeattitudes toward school, less frequent attendance, andmore problem behaviors in comparison to groups ofmatched controls. Jimerson’s (2001) meta-analysisexamined 16 studies that yielded 148 analyses ofsocial–emotional adjustment outcomes of retainedstudents relative to a matched comparison group ofstudents. The overall average effect size regardingsocial adjustment and behavior outcomes acrossstudies published between 1990 and 1999 was −.22.Related research reveals that retained students may beteased or have difficulties with their peers. Overall,results of the meta-analyses of more than 300 analy-ses of social–emotional and behavioral adjustment(from more than 50 studies during the past 75 years)do not support the use of grade retention as an earlyintervention to enhance social–emotional and behav-ioral adjustment.

High School Dropoutand Grade Retention

There is considerable literature examining highschool dropout rates that identifies grade retention asan early predictor variable. Grade retention has beenidentified as the single most powerful predictor ofdropping out, even when controlling for other charac-teristics associated with dropping out. A review(Jimerson & colleagues, 2002) of 17 studies examin-ing factors associated with dropping out of highschool prior to graduation supports the findings thatgrade retention is one of the most robust predictors of

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school dropout. All studies of school dropout thatincluded grade retention found that it was associatedwith subsequent school withdrawal. Several of thesestudies included statistical analyses controlling formany individual and family variables commonlyassociated with dropping out (i.e., social–emotionaladjustment, socioeconomic status, ethnicity, achieve-ment, gender, parental level of education, and parentalinvolvement). Research indicates that retainedstudents are between 2 and 11 times more likely todrop out during high school than nonretained

students, and that grade retention increases the risk ofdropping out between 20% and 50%.

Long-Term OutcomesAssociated with Grade Retention

In addition to increasing the likelihood of droppingout of high school, grade retention is associated withother long-term negative outcomes. The results oflongitudinal research provide evidence that retainedstudents have a greater probability of poorer educational

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Point Versus Counterpoint: Grade Retention

The case for:

The most common reasons provided in support of grade retention include: immaturity, not meeting educa-tional standards, traumatic injuries, and personal experiences with retention (i.e., anecdotal evidence).

Immaturity—physically, socially, and/or behaviorally—is a common reason given when retention is rec-ommended for a child in the elementary grades, the position is often advocated that this will “give the childa year to grow.” In some instances, late birthdays are offered as a supporting reason provided for the rec-ommendation of retention for many “immature” students. A phrase that is often mentioned by proponentsof retention is, “It was successful for ___ when retained.” Many education professionals cite examples ofpositive outcomes in students for whom they recommended retention. Particularly in the elementarygrades, educational professionals are less hesitant to retain, believing that retention would be less deleteri-ous for a student in kindergarten or first grade, relative to middle school or high school.

The high academic and behavioral standards expected of students beginning in the elementary yearsimpact decisions regarding retention for students now more than ever. In some cases, if a child is unableto meet district or state standards, it is required that he or she be retained. Even if not required, anticipat-ing that a child will experience great difficulty if promoted to the next grade level, teachers are faced witha difficult decision whether to promote or retain.

Lastly, students who have experienced a traumatic injury (e.g., brain injury) are sometimes recom-mended for retention. The rationale is that the student missed an excessive amount of school days becauseof the injury and may need time to recover and catch up with his or her peers.

The case against:

Extensive and long-term research focusing on the effectiveness of grade retention reveals that it is associatedwith deleterious outcomes. While short-term improvements among retained students may be noted in a fewstudies, the long-term negative effects of retention are consistently documented. Students who have beenretained are at a much greater risk of dropping out of high school, engaging in antisocial behaviors, and expe-riencing poorer educational and employment opportunities. Furthermore, students at various grade levelshave rated the prospect of being retained as one of the most stressful life events. Considering the cumulativeevidence, students who have been retained do not excel in any areas above and beyond their lower-achieving,yet promoted peers. Thus, given the convergence of research, the use of grade retention as an academic inter-vention is discouraged. Instead, those interventions that have been demonstrated to be effective in facilitatingacademic and developmental outcomes should be implemented. The primary objective should be to promotethe social and cognitive competence of students and enhance their academic success.

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and employment outcomes during late adolescencerelative to a comparison group of low-achieving, butpromoted students. Specifically, retained students arereported to have lower levels of academic adjustmentat the end of 11th grade, more likely to drop out ofhigh school by age 19 years, and less likely to receivea diploma by age 20. They were also less likely to beenrolled in a postsecondary education program,received lower education/employment status ratings,and were paid less per hour.

STUDENT’S PERSPECTIVESON GRADE RETENTION

It is also important to consider children’s perspec-tives regarding grade retention. In a study published in1987, students in first, third, and sixth grade wereasked to rate 20 stressful life events that included suchoccurrences as losing a parent, going to the dentist, andgetting a bad report card. The results indicated thatsixth-grade students reported only the loss of a parentand going blind as more stressful than grade retention.This study was replicated in 2001, and it was foundthat sixth-grade students rated grade retention as thesingle most stressful life event, higher than both theloss of a parent and going blind. A developmentaltrend was noted in both studies, with the reportedstress of grade retention increasing from first, to third,to sixth grade. Thus, research indicates that childrenperceive grade retention as extremely stressful.

While retention may seem appealing in the shortterm as a solution for children who are experiencingacademic, behavioral, and/or social difficulties in school,there is substantial empirical evidence contraindicating

its use. Research during the past century examiningthe effectiveness of grade retention consistently indi-cates the potential for negative outcomes. In light ofthis cumulative research evidence, it is imperativethat educational professionals and parents alike con-sider evidence-based alternatives (i.e., empirically sup-ported alternative strategies) to promote the social andcognitive competence of children at risk for academicfailure.

—Shane R. Jimerson and Sarah M. Woehr

See also Academic Achievement; Friendships; Grades; Race,Ethnicity, Class, and Gender; Special Education

REFERENCES AND FURTHER READING

Holmes, C. T. (1989). Grade-level retention effects: Ameta-analysis of research studies. In L. A. Shepard &M. L. Smith (Eds.), Flunking grades: Research and poli-cies on retention (pp. 16–33). London: Falmer.

Holmes, C. T., & Matthews, K. M. (1984). The effects of non-promotion on elementary and junior high school pupils: Ameta-analysis. Reviews of Educational Research, 54,225–236.

Jimerson, S. R. (2001). Meta-analysis of grade retentionresearch: Implications for practice in the 21st century.School Psychology Review, 30, 420–437.

Jimerson, S. R., Anderson, G. E., & Whipple, A. D. (2002).Winning the battle and losing the war: Examining the rela-tion between grade retention and dropping out of highschool. Psychology in the Schools, 39(4), 441–457.

RETT’S DISORDER. See AUTISM SPECTRUM

DISORDERS

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