R. Highlights 2010-11nird.org.in/nird_docs/rsh/rs_11r.pdf · R. Highlights 2010-11 ... Effect of Financial Inclusion on Saving Dr. B.C. Das 47 ... Integration of felt needs of Tribals

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Research Highlights 97

NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF RURAL DEVELOPMENT(Ministry of Rural Development, Government of India)

RAJENDRANAGAR, HYDERABAD- 500 030.

2010-11

RESEARCH HIGHLIGHTS

© National Institute of Rural Development

March, 2012

Published byNATIONAL INSTITUTE OF RURAL DEVELOPMENT(Ministry of Rural Development, Government of India)Rajendranagar, Hyderabad - 500 030. IndiaTelephone : 040 - 24008473www.nird.org.in

Printed at : VAISHNAVI LASER GRAPHICS, Ph. 040 - 27552178

It gives me immense pleasure to present the ResearchHighlights for the year 2010-11 to the discerning readers. NationalInstitute of Rural Development, as part of its mandate, takes upresearch studies on various aspects of rural development andpoverty alleviation. The purpose of research is to gain firsthandinsights about the needs and priorities of the rural people, theprocess of rural transformation and the factors affecting theimplementation of all flagship programmes of Government ofIndia. The findings of these studies are useful for the policy-makers, academicians and rural development functionaries tounderstand the ground realities.

In order to facilitate wider dissemination of the findings ofthe studies, the annual publication of the Research Highlightsis brought out by the Institute. I trust that the publication willprovide adequate glimpses of the research conducted by theInstitute.

(M.V.RAO)

Dr. M.V.RAO, IASDirector GeneralNational Institute of Rural Development

Hyderabad.

FOREWORD

S.No. Project Title Project Page.Team No.

1. Dynamics of Participatory Watershed U.Hemantha Kumar 1

Management : A Case Study of ChittoorDistrict Watershed in Andhra Pradesh

2. Economic Improvement of SHG Dr. Shankar Chatterjee 7

members after Forming Federations :A Study across Two States of India

3. Study of Variations in Social Audit Dr. V. Annamalai 11Processes Across certain States Dr. R.R. Prasad

in India

4. Impact of Antyodaya Anna Yojana (AAY) Dr. R.Chinnadurai 18

on the Food Security of the Poorest

of the Poor in Rural Areas

5. Factors Facilitating Participation of Dr. C. Dheeraja 25

Women in Mahatma Gandhi NREGS Dr. N.V. Madhuri

6. Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Dr. K.P. Kumaran 31

Employment Guarantee Schemeand inclusion of People with

Disabilities

7. Role of Exclusive Credit Linkage Dr. T.G. Ramaiah 34

Programme for Occupational Dr. G. Rajanikanth

Dynamics among Fisherwomen

8. Training and Capacity Needs Dr. B.Uday Kumar Reddy 41

Analysis for MGNREGS’ Functionaries Dr. Gyanmudraand Officials Dr. C. Dheeraja

9. Effect of Financial Inclusion on Saving Dr. B.C. Das 47and Expenditure Pattern of ST Wage Dr. P.K. Nath

Seekers in MGNREGS

CONTENTS

10. Problems and perception of Women Dr. G. Valentina 55

Elected Representatives on Planningand Implementation of Rural

Development Programmes at the

Grassroots Level

11. Study on “Impact of MGNREGS Ms. P. Leelavathi 59

on Migration” Dr. G. Valentina

12. Study on Indira Awaas YoJana (IAY) : Dr. Y. Gangi Reddy 66

Integration of felt needs of Tribals Dr. P. SivaRamDr. S. Venkatadri

13. Sustainability of Total Sanitation Dr. P.SivaRam 74Campaign (TSC) in Nirmal Gram Dr. Y. Gangi Reddy

Puraskar (NGP) Awarded Gram Dr. S. Venkatadri

Panchayats in Sikkim

14. Empowerment of Disadvantaged Dr. Y. Bhaskar Rao 80

Groups Through the Initiativesof PRIs : A Study in Orissa and

Jharkhand

15. Effect of MGNREGS on School Dr. T. Vijaya Kumar 87

Enrolment and Attendance Among

the Children of Below Poverty Line(BPL) Families

16. District Planning Committees : Dr. K. Jayalakshmi 92Performance in BRGF and Non -

BRGF Districts

S.No. Project Title Project Page.Team No.

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DYNAMICS OF PARTICIPATORY WATERSHEDMANAGEMENT : A CASE STUDY OF CHITTOORDISTRICT WATERSHED IN ANDHRA PRADESH

U. Hemantha Kumar

Introduction

Increasing regional imbalances on account of

unprecedented development in resource endowed areas and

low profile of tapping full potential in rainfed areas is an

anthropological phenomenon across the globe. Development in

rainfed areas has been receiving considerable priority through

several initiations in recent past. It has been receiving priority

attention since mid-eighties (DPAP, DDP and IWDP). These

interventions with regard to natural resource based activities

showed promising performance during project and post-project

period to some extent. Keeping in view the above developmental

interventions, the importance of the study is as follows.

* The important dynamic intervention in watershed is dealing

with people. People who depend upon the resources are

important. Many of watershed initiations during the project

and post-project periods, the sustainability of interventions

was however low in majority of cases. This was essentially

due to improper adoption methods right from selection of

watersheds, PIA and without the knowledge of different

sections of people and their dynamics (homogeneous/

heterogeneous groups and their socio-economic profiles)

in different villages in the watershed area.

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2 Research Highlights

* The watershed villages across India have different

dynamics of highly complex resource dependability (over-

exploitation of groundwater), dominance of power

structures/pressure groups, poor negotiation norms,

networks and risk prone areas of scanty rainfall, geo-

morphological differences.

The participatory watershed approaches right from 1994-

95 initiated by MoRD, MoA (2000) and other funding agencies

adopted similar approaches where during project and post-

project sustainability of interventions is not up to the mark. The

variations in project processes, technological interventions and

poverty initiatives, all these concerns were not dealt properly.

Recent studies showed that the sustainable aspect of watershed

intervention is hardly noticed barring a few watersheds in India.

The mainstream implementation of watersheds lacks proper

mechanisms for institutional arrangements and dealing its

dynamic attitudes either power structures or homogeneous/

heterogeneous nature of communities and their actions in tune

with natural resources management and livelihoods in the

watershed areas.

Prime Objective

The main objective of the case study is to know the

participatory watershed approach adopted by different agencies

and to prepare a case study of success/failure participatory

management of watersheds.

Methodology and Study Area

The methodology for preparation of case study is selecting

two watersheds spread across the district of Chittoor (one is

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successful implementation and management of watershed -

Sanganapally and another one is failure watershed-Jagamarla)

in Andhra Pradesh. The sample includes the Watershed

Committee, User Groups, Self-help Groups, Panchayati Raj

Institutions (PRI), Project Implementation Agency (PIA)-

Watershed Development Team (WDT), district officials and 5

households each from size class-wise farmers and social class-

wise villagers, labourers (landless also) and women.

Important Findings

a. Maintenance of Watershed Development Fund : There is

no clear cut norm over management and utilisation of

Watershed Development Fund (WDF). The withdrawal

strategies were very weak in the watershed. Due to

inefficiency over maintenance of WDF, this fund still

remains unutilised and Project Director at the district keeps

without any proper arrangements. The withdrawal

strategies were very weak in the watershed.

b. Intensive Cultivation : Paddy is being cultivated intensively

by the farmers in the watershed area. Due to recharge of

groundwater (construction of checkdams, series of farm

ponds, and percolation tanks over ridge to valley approach

in the watershed area) water is available to second crop,

where farmers are cultivating the paddy crop regularly.

This causes conflicts between the upper reach and down

reach farmers. This indicates that there is a need for

collective action arrangements and negotiation norms are

required while implementing watershed.

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c. Competition among women members : At the time of

watershed initiations and formation of Watershed

Committee (WC), User Group (UG) and Self-help Groups

(SHGs), there was a competition among the villagers

(Sanganapalle and Burugulapalle) as well as among the

women members. This caused absence of initial meetings

for several months. Some of the women members

dominated the groups and each member wanted president

post.

Despite the above conflicts, the impact of watershed

project was visible in the watershed villages of Sanganapalle

and Burugulapalle. Impact is visible and positive in the case of

economic as well as social indicators when we compare before

and after scenarios. Groundwater recharge has improved (both

borewell as well as open wells). The newly emerged dairy

development (improvement of livestock population and fodder

availability) (100 per cent increase in milk production), floriculture

and vegetable cultivation and thrift activities (through SHGs) some

of the households strengthened economically and socially.

MGNREGS vs. Watersheds Impact

Interestingly, the implementation of MGNREGS is followed

after completion of the watershed projects in the village. It gives

upgradation of the watershed initiations. Since in the watershed

area most of the geophysical condition are not favoured (the

type of the soil and nature of soil texture is gravel and sand), the

NREGS works have strengthened the watershed works in the

sample villages. The works under NREGS and Comprehensive

Land Development Programmes (CLDP) have contributed a lot

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in the watershed area. However, from administration (scheme

implementation) and labour point of view, the NREGS is so

flexible when compared to watershed programme with regard

to the programme implementation. The following are some of

the facts generated during interaction with the officials and the

group of labour.

Conclusion and Suggestions

The findings of the study reveal that any development

initiative needs proper mix of involvement, commitment and

collective action mechanisms at different levels of the

programme. Dynamics of participatory watershed management

has to be implemented in certain lines such as proper institutional

mechanism, dedicated PIA, delivery mechanisms, proper

assignment of rights, norms and negotiations and finally

addressing the issues of social and political dominance in the

watershed area. The two sample watersheds in Chittoor district

of Andhra Pradesh reveal two different dimensions.

* Proper Institutional Mechanism: Though there were conflicts

initially in Sanganapalle watershed, these conflicts have

been minimised due to the stringent steps taken by the

PIA and WDT members.

* Collective action is needed: The villagers (heterogeneous

group) realised the full benefits of the watershed through

a series of negotiations as well as collective action

mechanisms.

* Withdrawal mechanisms need to be addressed properly.

The WDF maintenance and rights over asset creation

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and maintenance are not clear. Due to the failure of delivery

mechanism and proper assignment of rights, some of the

conflicts over use of resources still exist in both the

successful as well as failure watershed areas.

* When it comes to the Jagamarla watershed (failure

watershed), despite the initial efforts made by the Project

Director, due to dominance of group politics and continuous

changes of PIA, the implementation of watershed has not

materialised.

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ECONOMIC IMPROVEMENT OF SHG MEMBERSAFTER FORMING FEDERATIONS : A STUDY

ACROSS TWO STATES OF INDIA

Dr. Shankar Chatterjee

Introduction

The study was conducted among SHG members who

were federated as a single unit for effective utilisation of

resources.

Objectives

i) To study levels of living of SHG members before joining

and after joining Federations.

ii) To assess improvement in the income level of SHGs/BPL

families after joining Federations.

iii) To analyse strengths and weaknesses of SHG members

after joining Federations.

Methodology and Data Sources

Methodology for the study includes data of both

secondary and primary sources. For secondary data, annual

reports published by the MoRD, GoI, state government’s

publications and other publications were consulted. As primary

study, Federation members and SHG members of the Federation

were visited and data were collected by framing structured

schedule.

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From Howrah, 1 block and 4 villages were visited for the

study. On the other hand in Krishnagiri, 4 blocks and 7 villages

were studied. Although from village federation(s), as per proposal

50 SHG members from each State (thus totaling to 100

members) were planned to be covered for the study but in the

field 58 members, from Tamil Nadu, in West Bengal 51 SHG

members who were part of Federation were contacted for the

study. Thus, 109 SHG members (58+51) were covered under

the study.

Study Area

The study was carried out in Tamil Nadu and West Bengal.

In Tamil Nadu, Krishnagiri district was visited where MYRADA

promoted SHG federations whereas in West Bengal federations

promoted by State Government in Howrah district were taken

up for the study.

Principal Findings

a) All the beneficiaries under the study in both the districts

were women.

b) In Howrah district under this study SCs and STs constituted

54.9 per cent of the swarojgaris (only SC, no ST) and

whereas minority were 40 per cent. SC & ST together

constituted little more than 30 per cent of the beneficiaries

in Krishnagiri district with no minority beneficiary.

c) Most of the beneficiaries in both the districts joined the

SHGs on or before 2005.

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d) In Howrah district most of the beneficiaries were mainly

involved with various types of trades /business which

before project and after project they continued. Only one

was eking out her (family) livelihood through agriculture

and animal husbandry. No beneficiary in Krishnagiri was

fully involved with agriculture after extended bank loan.

Along with agriculture they were rearing various livestock,

although 18 (31 per cent) beneficiaries prior to getting

bank loan i.e. before joining CMRC, were eking out their

livelihood mainly through agriculture (animal husbandry

was in small way).

e) Income statistics reveal that prior to assistance average

income of each beneficiary from agriculture, animal

husbandry and poultry was almost ` 1847 in Krishnagiri

district, after the assistance in Krishnagiri district income

of the beneficiaries has gone up almost by three times. In

case of trade and business, initial average income level

was ` 2300 per month which has increased to more than

double as average income for beneficiary comes to around

` 4900 per month. Impact on income prior to assistance

and post-assistance in Howrah district reveals that

agricultural and allied activities which were major activities

of one beneficiary increased by four times from ` 500 to

` 2000. In Howrah, average income from trade and

business, which prior to assistance was ` 1013, increased

by nearly 2½ times to ` 2423.

An attempt was made to get an idea about the impact of

income prior to assistance and after assistance. For this t-value

was tested and found that the t-value for Krishanagiri district is

19.4 and same for Howrah district is 17.8. Thus it is evident that

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at 1 per cent level it is significant. In other words, beneficiaries

benefited after the assistance/bank loan in both the study areas

by way of increase in income significantly.

Suggestions

i. All the beneficiaries should be provided with the monitoring

card and same should be up-dated from time to time.

ii. In Howrah district, Swarojgaris may be extended second

cycle of loan who deserves for expanding their business.

iii. Marketing arrangement of ‘jari’ clothes may be made in

Howrah district.

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STUDY OF VARIATIONS IN SOCIAL AUDITPROCESSES ACROSS CERTAIN STATES IN INDIA

Dr. V. Annamalai

Dr. R.R. Prasad

Introduction

Social audit in India is part of an international trend

towards greater accountability in all fields. Social auditing is a

process by which organisations can account for, report on, and

improve their social performance. It indicates and quantifies the

social impact and ethical behaviour of an organisation in

relation to its aims and those of its stakeholders. To put

it precisely, social auditing is a process by which an organisation

accounts for its social performance to its stakeholders and seeks

to improve its future social performance.

To ensure continuous public vigilance, Mahatma Gandhi

National Rural Employment Guarantee Scheme (MGNREGS)

through Social Audit (SA) involves the potential beneficiaries

and other stakeholders of an activity or project at every stage:

planning, implementation, monitoring and evaluation. This

process is to ensure that a project is designed and implemented

to suit local conditions, reflecting priorities and thus effectively

serving the public interest. Under the scheme, there are certain

standard procedures and process of social audit is to be adopted

by all the states. This research study was carried out broadly

to find how various states responded to the mandatory social

audit process in MGNREGS as now the scheme acquired

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enormous experience in the process of social audit. It would be

also necessary to look at how other agencies are adopting social

audit process in improving their organisational performance.

The issues involved in the study are, firstly, to what extent

different organisations could adopt the process? What are the

difficulties in following social audit process? Could it help in

improving the performance of MGNREGS? How do the

grassroots institutions responded in terms of participation and

support? Does it improve local governance and transparency?

Whether these practices follow the principles as enunciated

above viz: multi-perspective, comprehensive, comparative,

regular, verifiable, widely disclosed to community and ultimately

improves organisational performance.

Objectives

1. To study the state-specific variations with regard to

processes and steps followed in conducting social audit

2. To study the nature of involvement of Civil Society

Organisations (CSOs) in facilitating social audit process

3. To study the follow-up action on the findings of social audit

Methodology

Since this research study is primarily based on the

secondary data, efforts have been made to collect and compile

various government orders issued by the various state

governments regarding conduct of the social audit, its frequency

in a year, processes involved, facilitating agency, and the role of

the NGOs and CSOs in facilitating social audit. Findings of the

social audit are compiled and efforts have been made to

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ascertain whether any follow-up action was made on the social

audit findings. The study also looked into whether social audit

has been conducted for programmes other than the MGNREGS.

Attempts are also made to ascertain whether the cost and time

involved in the conduct of social audit are factored in the

programme budget.

The study mainly relied on secondary data including

circulars, documents, case studies as documented by these

agencies, publicity materials and any other relevant documents

from various agencies. Published practices, content analysis of

social audit reports of MGNREGS, recorded or published

practices were also collected during the fieldwork for analysis.

Stakeholders have been contacted in the States of Andhra

Pradesh and Rajasthan for their views on strength and weakness

of social audit through methods of Focus Group Discussion

(FGD) and interviews.

The process of other organisations using social audit

was also studied for comparison with MGNREGS Social Audit.

Study Area

The research study is carried out in the States of Andhra

Pradesh, Bihar, Chhattisgarh, Gujarat, Himachal Pradesh,

Jharkhand, Kerala, Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan and Tamil Nadu.

Findings

The concept of social audit as envisaged by MGNREGS

has been adopted and developed in its own way by Andhra

Pradesh. It developed mechanisms like “Society for Social Audit,

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Accountability and Transparency” (SSAAT) for elaborate and

systematic process of social auditing through formation of a

series of rules and changed the rules and regulations based on

its experience in evolving social audit mechanisms. The case of

AP shows the enormous magnitude of SA in MGNREGS. There

are reports of other states like Rajasthan also introducing

separate directorate/wing for social audit. It is necessary to

mention here that it took many years since NRGES came into

being to develop such social audit mechanisms and process. It

remains to be seen that the evolved system of social audit is

able to meet the goals of accountability and transparency in all

the villages in AP.

Kerala social audit process is unique as it adopted the

concept of social audit during people’s planning stage and

incorporated in the Kerala Panchayat Act itself. These include

Citizen’s Charter, Right to Information about the developmental

activities of Panchayats, Notice Boards, Social Audit, presentation

of Performance Audit Report in Gram Sabha, and convening of

four Gram Sabha meetings a year. Kerala Panchayat Raj aims

to attain efficient governance by ensuring people’s participation

and transparency in governance. Many Panchayats have initiated

innovative experiments in this respect over the last 10 years.

Based on these experiences, steps to develop more transparent

governance of Panchayats in Kerala have been underway during

the 11th Five Year Plan.

Initially, Kerala has carried out social audit process under

NREGS in two districts. Based on these experiences it developed

social audit manual for carrying out social audit in all the districts,

Its experience is unique as Kerala panchayat act itself provides

provision for social audit by Gram Sabha. As per the KPR Act,

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Gram Sabha is the forum for social audit. Panchayats are bound

to conduct social audit of their developmental activities in Gram

Sabha. The Gram Panchayat is responsible for creating

conducive environment by providing necessary information and

records for conducting social audit in Gram Sabha. Kerala is

planning to expand to other districts of Kerala based on the

social audit manual. Interestingly, other departments like finance,

pensions and roads also adopted and carried out social audit.

Efforts have been made to describe the process of social

audit in Madhya Pradesh. It may prima facie appear that social

audit in the State is not being organised in the manner it is

desired by the act conforming norms of “transparency and

accountability.” State endeavour is to organise social audit in

regular interval. Looking at the concern of state government it

should be hoped that process will improve gradually. It appears

from the instructions that concept, guidelines, circulars and

instruction issued by the State are clear. It is to be monitored

as to what extent they are being understood and followed at the

field level.

Gujarat evolved its own mechanism and process of social

audit notably with major involvement of an NGO called Unnati.The involvement of Unnati is beginning with the formation of

social guidelines and actual facilitating of social audit at gram

sabha level. Its social audit reports are submitted to relevant

levels of government to follow-up action. Acccording to Dr Binoy

Acharya, from Unnati, state government sent immediate actions

on the reports submitted by his organisation. Gujarat interestingly

involved colleges and universities as neutral observers and

involved in the documentation of the social audit done under

NREGS.

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Recently, Himachal Pradesh brought out social audit

guidelines with assistance from GTZ-German Agency working

in HP on social accountability mechanism in rural development

sector particularly on drinking water. However, it is not clear

whether these guidelines are superseding the earlier rules on

social audit. To sum up, there has been delay in developing full-

fledged social audit mechanism as of now in HP.

The State of Rajasthan is known for pioneering right to

information and social audit. However, it is yet to develop

mechanism and process as envisaged under the operational

guidelines of MGNREGS of 2008. There have been severe

backlashes particularly opposition from sarpanches against social

audit.

Government of Tamil Nadu (GoTN) built up over a period

of time social audit mechanism and process in the

implementation. It used the experience in Community Resource

Persons (CPRs) available in Mahalir Thittam (MT) and

Community Professionals (CPs) of Vazhndhu Kattuvom Project

(VKP) for capacity building of social audit committee members.

In the implementation of VKP, it has developed participatory and

transparent mechanism and adopted the practices of social

audit. However, it acts in extreme caution in selecting social

audit committee members and relies extensively on local

bureaucracy.

Conclusions

There are certain fundamental things as mandated by

NREGS act adopted by all the states like conducting of social

audit by gram sabha. It is interesting to note that the act has not

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adopted any definition of social audit. The supposed framework

of social audit process mandated and suggested is not time-

bound so that the intended aims of transparency and

accountability of NREGS scheme can be achieved within a

particular period. Variations can be seen despite certain

fundamental principles and practices to be adopted by various

state governments.

All the state governments adopted the mandatory

provisions like conducting of social audit by gram sabha and

disclosure of information. However, the variations are shown in

selected states when the operational guidelines are to be followed

and to achieve overarching principles of transparency and

accountability. Broad dimension of social audit process as it

emerged now could be seen in States like Andhra Pradesh,

Kerala, Gujarat and Rajasthan. It is not to discount that other

states in the study not performed well. They are in the process

of evolving social audit mechanisms

The selected states for the study adopted different

approaches for facilitating social audit. States like AP adopted

the approach of synergising the government machinery with

Civil Society Organisations (CSOs). It also exclusively and

intensely focused on social audit process by having SSAAT with

the people having background of community mobilisation. States

like Gujarat, Rajasthan and Himachal Pradesh partnered with

CSOs to develop and implement social audit mechanisms and

process. Many states mainly involve administration to carry out

social audit activities.

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IMPACT OF ANTYODAYA ANNA YOJANA (AAY) ONTHE FOOD SECURITY OF THE POOREST OF THE

POOR IN RURAL AREAS

Dr R. Chinnadurai

Introduction

Antyodaya Anna Yojana was launched on 25 December,

2000. This scheme reflects the commitment of the

Government of India to ensure food security, to create a hunger

free India and to reform and improve the Public Distribution

System so as to serve the poorest of the poor in rural and

urban areas. It is estimated that 5 per cent of population are

unable to get two square meals a day on a sustained basis

throughout the year. Their purchasing power is so low that

they are not in a position to buy foodgrains round the year even

at BPL rates. It is this 5 per cent of population (5 crores of

people or 1 crore families) who constitute the target group of

Antyodaya Anna Yojana. From the inception, the scheme was

expanded to three times and at present, the target group has

been increased to 2.5 crores families. Identification of 2.5 crore

families out of the number of BPL families is the responsibility

of the state governments and they would be provided foodgrains

at the rate of 35 kg per family per month. The foodgrains have

to be issued by the Government of India @ ` 2 per kg for wheat

and ` 3 per kg for rice. The Government of India suggests that

in view of abject poverty of this group of beneficiaries, the State

Government may ensure that the end retail price is retained at

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` 2 per kg for wheat and ` 3 per kg. for rice. The criticism of

various civil society organisations and reports of press on the

status of implementation of the scheme by the different states

brings out a number of problems at the identification of

beneficiaries and distribution of benefits. In this context a study

on the impact of the AAY programme on the food security of the

poorest of the poor was conducted to bring out various untouched

issues on the status of implementation, ability of the distributing

agencies, problems faced by the implementing agencies and

beneficiaries.

Objectives

* To analyse the impact of AAY in the light of increased

number of BPL card holders.

* To analyse overall impact of AAY on the food security of

poorest of the poor in the rural areas.

* To identify successful factors for strengthening of

programme delivery.

Methodology

The study was conducted in three States namely

Maharashtra, Uttar Pradesh and Jharkhand. Purposive sampling

technique was used to identify the study districts and below

study units. In each state one district was selected on random

and two blocks from each district were selected. In order to

carry out in-depth impact analysis, from each block two to three

AAY distribution centres were selected. A minimum of 10 per

cent and maximum of 100 beneficiaries were selected by using

systematic random sampling technique. List of AAY beneficiaries

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in each PDS distribution centre was collected, based on the

number of beneficiaries in each centre maximum of 100

respondents were selected. For example, in Maharashtra five

centres were studied, each centre was having AAY beneficiaries

ranging from 150 to 200, around 20 beneficiaries were selected

for interview. Only Antyodaya BPL card beneficiaries were studied.

The selection of respondents was from the pool of entry of last

5 years, 4 per cent of the beneficiaries from each year were

covered to constitute the expected 10 per cent. Suitable interview

schedule of questions covering all the issues mentioned above

was developed for the study. Adequate care was taken while

preparing the study tool with focus to collect required data to

fulfil the objectives. Interview schedule was administered with

adequate pre-tests. Data were also collected from the officials

of programme implementing agency, NGOs and CBOs etc.

Direct interview was conducted with the beneficiaries, focus

group discussions and observational techniques were also used.

People’s responses regarding awareness on their entitlements

and other provisions of the schemes were enquired. Eligible

non-beneficiaries were also contacted for their views on their

difficulties in getting or not getting the BPL cards and scheme

benefits.

Study Area

Maharashtra, Uttar Pradesh and Jharkhand.

Findings

Among the study respondents, 79.6 per cent are males.

In all the three States majority respondents are males only.

There were 35.3 per cent in the age group of 36-45, followed

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by 28.3 per cent above the age of 46. Another 27 per cent

belong to the age between 26-35. Since the AAY focused to

cover aged, widows and single member families and majority

respondents belong to the age group of 40s and 50s.

There is high level of illiteracy among study population,

it is around 63 per cent, among the literates majority studied

only primary education. The occupational status reveals that

around 83 are agriculture casual labourers. They earn adequate

livelihood only during peak agriculture season. Annual family

income of the study area reflects that 33.6 per cent have income

between ` 12000-15000, followed by 32.6 per cent having income

between ` 9000-12000. Family annual expenditure of whole study

population is in the range of ` 6001 to less than 15000. But sub-

classification shows 32.6 per cent families had expenditure

between ` 12001 to 15000, another 30.6 per cent had family

annual expenditure ` 9001 to 12000. Eighty three per cent

respondents agreed on payment of money for obtaining ration

cards and they paid to the officials of the revenue department.

Around 80 per cent of respondents have access of distribution

centre in their own habitations; only 20 per cent respondents

have to move to nearby main village to get PDS benefits. All the

respondents buy wheat and rice every month from PDS. In

addition, around 83 per cent beneficiaries purchase kerosene,

77 per cent purchase cooking oil and 84 per cent buy edible

levy sugar from the PDS system on subsidised rates.

Foodgrains are supplied to the beneficiaries on monthly

basis, it was acknowledged by 72.3 per cent, on the cost loss

in terms of losing labour wage, 65.6 per cent replied ` 100-200

as their loss in every purchase.

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Around 36 per cent replied positively on the prevalence

of gender discrimination and suppression by rich against poor

but remaining 64 per cent responded negatively. Only 10.3 per

cent responded that the quantity supplied under AAY is sufficient

for their consumption. According to data, higher percentage of

people i.e. 49.3 responded that whole year they face food

inadequacy due to less income and more number of children.

Followed by, 34.6 per cent face food inadequacy during October

– December; 13 per cent replied January – March. Majority

respondents, i.e. 56 opined that the quality of materials under

PDS is good, 22 per cent feel satisfactory and another 22 per

cent expressed that materials are of poor quality. It is reported

that 73 per cent have not verified or cross checked the entries

of ration card and PDS supply register. Seventy one per cent

responded that middlemen involvement is very high in all the

three States in functioning of PDS. It is due to local politicians’

interference to help their kith and kin to control over PDS supply

which is one of the important factors of local influence to keep

people within their clutches. Local traders also hinder the civil

supplies for making benefit through illegal trade of PDS goods

because of prevailing high variation of commodity prices in the

open market. Another around 19 per cent viewed that local

powerful people enjoy the benefits through indulging into

malpractices; another 56 respondents expressed that local

traders encourage and instigate the PDS functionaries to involve

in black marketing to make money; It is understood from the

views of respondents that PDS goods are sold up to ` 15 per

kg of rice or wheat. Around 36 per cent respondents confirmed

that goods are sold for the price range from ` 10-15.

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All the respondents use foodgrains for their own

consumption but only 22 per cent sell some of the materials like

sugar, kerosene and cooking oil. These commodities help to

fetch some money to buy essential commodities like groceries,

dhal, salt etc. The effect of increased number of BPL population

on the supply of PDS materials to the consumers was verified

and responses reveal 34 per cent agree that they could not get

entitled quantity in some instances.

The BPL survey conducted during the year 1994 was

the latest one therefore, newly emerged families and families

which became BPL from APL category due to natural shocks

have not been included in the present public distribution system.

The quantity of supply of foodgrains by the Government of India

is based on the Planning Commission BPL data but the State

Governments give additional BPL cards to the new families of

the BPL category which mismatch the demand and supply in

the PDS system. There are inclusion errors of APL category

who get BPL cards by political influence or local power structure.

There are bogus cards in the name of dead members or migrated

families, etc., in this direction around 41 per cent of study

population agreed about the existence of inclusion and exclusion

errors. It happens in all the study regions of the three States.

There are 88.6 per cent who purchase all the items and quantity

entitled for them. But there are 11.3 per cent who are not able

to purchase because of non-availability of money or if the

products are inferior quality or denial by PDS shop.

Conclusion

It is now well recognised that the availability of foodgrains

is not a sufficient condition to ensure food security to the poor.

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It is also necessary that the poor have sufficient means to

purchase food. The capacity of the poor to purchase food can

be ensured in two ways – by raising the incomes or supplying

foodgrains at subsidised prices. While employment generation

programmes attempt the first solution, the PDS is the mechanism

for the second option. With a network of more than 4.62 lakh

fair price shops (FPS) distributing commodities worth more than

` 30,000 crore annually to about 160 million families, the PDS

in India is perhaps the largest distribution network of its kind in

the world. This huge network can play a more meaningful role

only if it ensures the availability of food to the poor households.

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FACTORS FACILITATING PARTICIPATION OFWOMEN IN MAHATMA GANDHI NREGS

Dr. C. Dheeraja

Dr. N.V. Madhuri

The National Rural Employment Guarantee Act is a

landmark initiative in providing 100 days guaranteed employment.

MGNREGA has the potential to enhance women’s economic

independence through cash earnings and social status through

participation. So the present study sought to explore, through

fieldwork, the reasons behind, extent and the implications of

women’s participation in NREGA in selected districts of four

States, Kerala, West Bengal, Andhra Pradesh and Bihar.

Objectives

The specific objectives of the study are:

* To assess the present status of women’s participation in

Mahatma Gandhi NREGS in all phases;

* To analyse the facilitating factors as well as hindering

factors (socio-cultural and economic) for qualitative

participation of women in MGNREGS and also state

specific development programmes affecting women’s

participation.

* To study the role of women functionaries in MGNREGS on

quality of participation of women wage seekers.

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Survey instruments include structured schedules for

MGNREGS women workers, Focused Group Discussions

(FGDs) and interviews. Information was collected on the socio-

economic profiles, institutional affiliation, participation in women

development programmes and also their participation with regard

to MGNREGA. The village information was collected to assess

the socio-economic conditions of the village in which study was

carried out. Study was conducted in four districts of four States

namely Mahaboobnagar of Andhra Pradesh, Thrissur district of

Kerala, Gaya district of Bihar and South 24 Paraganas of West

Bengal.

Findings of the Study

Factors like characteristics of a person (such as literacy),

a situation (such as the drought), or a person’s environment

(such as family members’ - ill-health) that force a person to

participate though not really interested are called vulnerability

factors. In the present study an attempt was made to list out

few such factors and they are, no sufficient agriculture work,

migration, lack of skills to do other works, poverty, unemployment,

debts, bonded labour, health problems of other members in the

family etc.

There are few factors which encourage and motivate the

respondents to participate in MGNREGS. Such factors are listed

out and they are, support from the family, group arrangement,

equal wages, minimum wages, timely wages, work taken up in

their own land, higher than market wages, institutional payment,

worksite facilities, timely employment, sensitivity of the officials,

SHG membership etc.

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There are few factors which form as constraints or

obstacles for the respondents to participate in MGNREGS even

though they are willing to work. Out of such factors, untimely

employment, delayed payments, health problems, rigid timings

are few. Household work load, own agricultural works, wages

less than market wages, unequal wages, gender and caste

discrimination, worksite harassment, insensitivity of the officials,

problems in getting employment, officials not able to provide

employment, lack of mandatory worksite facilities, hard work

and distance to worksite etc. are also included in such category.

To document the outcomes of women participation in

MGNREGS, data on the changes in the quality of life (like

incomes, food, clothing, health, education, housing etc.) and

changes (within and outside) in environment of women are

collected. In all the parameters of quality of life, majority of the

respondents reported moderate change; however the outcomes

varied across the sample districts. In Gaya, major change was

observed in the income levels and also in the quantity and quality

of food intake followed by expenditure on clothing, health and

education. Very minimal changes took place in the area of

housing. Similar trend was observed in other two sample districts

of Thrissur and South 24 Paraganas with varying degrees of

change. But when it comes to Mahaboobnagar in almost all

parameters, responses reveal that changes occurred were

moderate and significant.

Any development programme will impact not only the

quality of living of the beneficiary but also the factors contributing

to the empowerment within and outside the environment women

deal with. Few indicators of empowerment like leadership

qualities, mobilising skills, negotiation skills, decision making

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skills, financial management skills, resource mobilisation, political

participation, mobility, membership in VDOs, self-confidence,

competence and self-esteem were measured posing few

questions before the participation in MGNREGS and at present.

An attempt was made to score the responses of the respondents

for the outcomes and the changes that took place within and

outside environment of women due to participation in

MGNREGS. The average score was 11.9 per cent before

participation in MGNREGS and increased to 47.4 per cent with

participation in MGNREGS.

Recommendations and Policy Implications

* For improved participation of women focus to minimise

the vulnerable factors and hindering factors should be taken

up and more attention on motivating factors should be

laid.

* As per the observations of the study there is impact of

women empowerment programmes on quality of

participation of women in MGNREGS. So a convergence

mode of planning should be taken up where both

programmes will take the support of each other.

* Women officials are found playing constructive role and

facilitating the participation of women in MGNREGS and

so as a policy certain percentage of positions at each

level may be reserved for women functionaries.

* There are few grey areas with regard to participation of

women in the MGNREGS process like participation in social

audit and planning of works etc. where special IEC efforts

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should be made to educate women. The women members

of GP should also be involved, in large measure, in

mobilising and guiding women workers.

* Though NREGA was not envisioned as an exclusively

women’s empowerment programme, the opportunity taken

by a large number of women indicates a preference for

“government work” which provides dignity and higher

wages than available in the market. The problems such

as drudgery need to be addressed by making available

gender-sensitive / women-friendly tools.

* NREGA implementation could be strengthened by effective

provisioning of what is already available in the Act, such

as worksite facilities, eg. shade and safe drinking water

and especially child care facilities. The functionaries of

Anganwadis may also be reviewed in providing child care

services (in terms of timing and other services), so that

MGNREGA women workers are ensured of the safety of

children.

* The composition of women workers seen on worksites,

and the nature of the work offered, suggests that there is

need to give some serious thought to developing a wider

range of activities under the NREGA. For example, while

elderly women and young women with infants coming to

sites confirm their pecuniary needs; however, hard manual

labour is not desirable from the point of view of their own

health or that of infants. The design of the programme

needs to accommodate these variations in life cycle and

physical ability to undertake hard manual labour.

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* The potential of the programme for allowing women to

make some savings is observed everywhere. Facilitating

their ability to save towards specific income generation is

a way of enhancing well-being.

* Some “gender-sensitive measures” such as increase in

participation of women in planning, implementation and

social audits of NREGA, in turn, will create an opportunity

for women’s role in asset management.

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Introduction

The MGNREGS is aimed at enhancing livelihood security

of people living in rural areas by providing minimum 100 days

wage employment in a financial year to every household whose

adult members, volunteer to do unskilled manual labour. One of

the main objectives of this scheme is to generate employment

and enhance purchasing power among the rural poor. Therefore,

if the ultimate goal of NREGS is poverty eradication, it is

necessary to ensure the reaching of its benefits to the PWD

who are considered not only vulnerable but also belong to the

poorest of the poor. Despite the mandatory 3 per cent reservation

to the PWD in the entire poverty alleviation programme, the

participation of disabled in such programmes is not very

satisfactory. The present study was undertaken to examine the

implications of inclusion of People with Disabilities (PWD) in

MGNREGS with the following specific objectives.

* To examine the national coverage of disabled under

MGNREGS during the last two years.

* To know the respondents’ awareness about the scheme

* To study the type of work undertaken under this scheme.

MAHATMA GANDHI NATIONAL RURALEMPLOYMENT GUARANTEE SCHEME ANDINCLUSION OF PEOPLE WITH DISABILITIES

Dr. K.P. Kumaran

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* To know the employability and work participation

* To understand the extent of enhancement of livelihood

security achieved through MGNREGS.

Methodology

Multi-stage purposive and random sampling methods

were used for the selection of study areas and samples.

Study Areas

Andhra Pradesh (Mahabubnagar district), West Bengal

(Burdwan district) and Madhya Pradesh (Seoni district).

Sample size

280 Disabled MGNREGS workers

Findings

Like others, the PWD are also keen and interested in

undertaking employment suited to their physical and mental

conditions. The current level of work participation of disabled

population either in skilled or un-skilled employment sector is

very low despite the protective measure extended through the

Disability Act (1995). One of the reasons for low participation is

due to the social and environmental barrier erected around them.

But the introduction of NREGS heralded a new chapter in the

history of wage employment for the disabled. The sample based

study showed that many of those disabled who were hitherto

denied or deprived of employment in the unskilled sector got an

opportunity to take up wage employment for the first time in

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their life and earn a modest income. The study revealed that

those who suffered not only from locomotor disability but suffered

from non-locomotor disability also undertook wage employment.

However, the national level data considering the total population

of the disabled showed that the number of them engaged in

MGNREGS is too small. Some of the UTs and North-eastern

States are yet to involve disabled in NREGS work. Considering

their vulnerability, physical and mental condition, there is a need

to provide a conducive working environment by discounting of

work norms to attract them into NREGS work. Such an action

will help the disabled to realise their potential and contribute

their mite in the nation building.

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Introduction

Fisheries are an important sector in India as it provides

employment to millions of people and contributes to food security

of the country. India, with a coastline of over 8,000 km, an

Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) of over 2 million sq km, and

with extensive freshwater resources, fisheries play a vital role.

Presently, fisheries and aquaculture contribute 1.07 per cent to

the national GDP, and 5.30 per cent to agriculture and allied

activities, while the average annual value of output during the

Tenth Five Year Plan (2002-2007) was ` 31,682.50 crore, (ICSF,

2010).

India has vast marine and fresh-water sources and the

potential of fisheries has immense value in the national economy.

As per the data available, Marine Fisheries contributes to food

security and provides direct employment to over 1.5 mn fisher

people besides others indirectly dependent on the sector. The

total marine fisher folk population of 3.57 mn is in 3,305 marine

fishing villages spread across the coastal States and Union

Territories (including islands). Of these, 0.90 mn are active fisher

people, and another 0.76 mn fisher people are involved in other

fisheries related activities (ICSF, 2010).

ROLE OF EXCLUSIVE CREDIT LINKAGEPROGRAMME FOR OCCUPATIONAL DYNAMICS

AMONG FISHERWOMEN

Dr. T.G. Ramaiah

Dr. G. Rajanikanth

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The study was conducted with the aim of observing the

occupational dynamics resulted among the fisherwomen who

had accessed the micro-credit offered to the Self-Help Groups

in which they were the members.

The credit linkages programme is decided to only

fisherwomen who were entrusted with fish-vending activity. Since

the timely credit supply for fisherwomen ensures timely

diversification into various activities, the study intends to cover

the following aspects:

* Perception on programme

* Perception on utility of credit linkages

* Perception on qualitative and quantitative aspects of credit

* Pattern of access to credit

* Occupational diversity

* Occupational mobility

* Impact on livelihoods

* Impact on household economy

* Perception on capacity – building activities

* Institutional mechanism in place.

Objectives of the Study

The specific objectives of the study are:

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i. To assess qualitative/quantitative requirements of credit

among women from fishing community and suitability of

strategies adopted under exclusive credit programme:

ii. To analyse the process, prospects and promotion of credit-

linkage for women from fishing community;

iii. To study the pattern and paradigms of credit-support and

its impact on occupational dynamics of women from fishing

community.

Methodolgy

The methodological issues pertaining to the study are as

under :

i. Sampling : Keeping in view the resources available with

the research team and also the quantum of SHG women

accessed the micro-credit facilities, from each block, 50

SHG women members were selected for the study. Thus,

the total sample of the study consists of 400 SHG women

members. Further, as the study was focused on

fisherwomen, the sample consists of only SHG members

from the fishing community.

ii. Instruments of Data Collection : Keeping the objectives

and focus of the study in view, a structured schedule was

used to collect the data from the selected fisherwomen. In

addition, FGD and PRA techniques were utilised to collect

the primary data. Official records and registers available

with the SHGs were utilised to collect secondary data.

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iii. Analysis : Data analysis was attempted based on the

following variables:

* Time spent in accessing the credit

* Quantum of credit accessed

* Internal lending

* Utility of revolving fund

* Pattern of repayment vis-a-vis economic status of

fisherwomen

* Occupational diversity

* Impact on linkages with formal financial institutions

* Impact on economic conditions

* Impact on social issues and future outlook etc.

Study Area

The study area was proposed in the States of Andhra

Pradesh and Tamil Nadu. The two States were purposively

selected keeping in view the unique experiments made by these

two States while implementing the programme as well as

abundance of marine fishing activities. In each State, two districts

were selected keeping in view the number of SHGs operating

among fisherwomen community and also quantum of micro-

credit accessed. Based on the data available, the following

districts were selected for the study :

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Andhra Pradesh : East Godavari and Visakhapatnam

Tamil Nadu : Tutucorin and Ramanathapuram

From each district, once again based on the discussion

held with officials concerned and the secondary data available,

two blocks with much concentration of fisherwomen SHGs and

micro-credit facilitated were selected. Based on these criteria,

the following blocks (mandal in the case of Andhra Pradesh)

were selected:

State District Block/Mandal

Andhra Pradesh East Godavari Uppada Kothapalli

Thallarevu

Visakhapatnam Bheemunipatnam

Atchuthapuram

Tamil Nadu Tuticorin Thiruchanduru

Vottapidarom

Ramanathapuram Mandapam

Kadaladi

Findings

In an exploratory study of this nature which aims at

understanding the utility of micro-credit accessed by the

fisherwomen through their respective SHGs, it is indeed quite

positive to observe that the targeted community had benefited

to a large extent from the avenues provided to them for

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development. However, based on the results of data analysed

and also keeping in view the field observations, especially that

were grasped through PRA approaches, the study suggests the

following for the amelioration of conditions among fisherwomen:

* The pace of micro-credit and also the quantum need to be

more;

* The fisherwomen SHGs were still functioning in isolation

and they need to be mainstreamed;

* Though the social and economic development issues were

quite encouraging, occupational dynamics were operating

around the fishing activity alone. Hence, more new

economic activities need to be introduced among the

fisherwomen.

* Marketing support for the fisherwomen SHGs has been in

place, but the value addition issues were not encouraging.

Hence, there is every need to provide market support for

the value added products from the SHGs;

* The training component was well received by the

fisherwomen, but the training imparted was only confined

to SHGs procedures and self-development. There is every

need to encourage more occupation-based training.

* Participation of NGOs was limited in Andhra Pradesh and

to some extent good in Tamil Nadu. However, NGOs had

better role to play, especially with reference to occupational

issues.

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* Training imparted and the participation in SHGs has indeed

been providing several social development concerns

among fisherwomen. However, there is every need to

strengthen the social development issues among

fisherwomen.

* Micro-credit facilities are quite well utilised by the

fisherwomen, yet the quantum of credit and other loan

facilities should be enhanced to strengthen the SHGs

concerned.

* Leadership appears to be dominating the SHGs concerned.

This in view, the empowerment of SHG members need to

be concentrated through more personality development

concerns.

Conclusion

To sum up, the SHGs operating among fisherwomen

were making good inroads as far as social and economic issues

are concerned. However, the quantum of good penetration made

through the SHGs was not sufficient to meet the requirements

of fisherwomen. Continuity in micro-credit at enhanced level,

more focus on capacity building to empower each and every

fisherwoman would certainly pave better avenues of

development. Further, physical facilities for diverse occupations

are also needed for fisherwomen in view of their accessing to

new skills and institutional support from NGOs is also quite

worthy in this regard.

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TRAINING AND CAPACITY NEEDS ANALYSIS FORMGNREGS’ FUNCTIONARIES AND OFFICIALS

Dr. B. Uday Kumar Reddy

Dr. Gyanmudra

Dr. C. Dheeraja

Introduction

Our country had the experience of implementing many

types of Public Works Programmes since its Independence.

Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Scheme

(MGNREGS) has evolved into its present shape by building on

the past experiences in designing and executing schemes

providing employment. It is an improvement over its

predecessors. Hailed as ‘flagship programme’, ‘first ever scheme

that guarantees wage employment at an unprecedented scale’,

‘mother of all local development programmes’, ‘demand-driven

and people-centered programme’, ‘boon to the rural poor’, ‘lifeline

to the marginalised and landless’, ‘the largest employment

programme in human history’, the scheme was introduced

through an Act known as ‘National Rural Employment Guarantee

Act’ notified on Sep. 7, 2005.This scheme guarantees number

of days of employment each year to any unemployed work-

seeker from rural household seeking employment. It gives the

people the legal right to seek employment.

It is obvious that the results of NREGA depend very much

on the extent of building appropriate administrative mechanisms.

Considerable attention should be paid to mutual learning from

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the evolving best practices in implementation across the regions

and in appropriate resource allocation not merely for

administration but thorough role-specific Training Needs Analysis

from time to time and competency based - capacity building

accordingly.

Objectives

The main objective of present research study is to conduct

TNA and facilitate for competencies based training strategy and

training plan for MGNREGS officials and functionaries with the

following specific objectives :

* To list out roles and responsibilities of the identified

functionaries

* To design Competencies Framework, model for

assessment.

* To list out cadre-specific behaviour descriptor in each

competency.

* To assess the competencies status of the targeted

respondents.

* To facilitate training strategy and training plan for

MGNREGS officials and functionaries.

Methodology

To analyse key functionaries’ role and responsibilities of

the functionaries of MGNREGS, two-day State-specific TNA

workshops were held in three places separately at Hyderabad,

Jaipur and Bhubaneswar in which all functionaries were present.

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In this workshop role-wise (mate, field assistant, technical

assistant etc.) and level-wise (panchayat, block and district)

identification of employees was done. Job charts were prepared,

and performance problems were discussed. Training and non-

training needs were identified.

To design behavioural competencies framework, model

for assessment, firstly, a list of competencies were identified

with the help of review of related literature and discussions with

all participants during the national level workshop “Development

of performance management tools for MGNREGS Functionaries”

conducted at NIRD by the research team leader (25 Jan 11 to

27 Jan 11) including TNA workshops. Behavioural competency

model and competency related behavioural descriptors were

adopted from the earlier study conducted by the team leader

(NIRD Research Study on Competency Mapping for RD

Functionaries, 2008). Focus group discussions technique was

adopted to derive role specific functional competencies model

because to a large extent the roles, competencies and problems

have to be identified, reviewed, ratified and prioritised with the

help of reporting and reviewing officers during workshop.

Study Area

The selection of the three States for the present study

locations - Andhra Pradesh, Orissa and Rajasthan - were

specifically identified with the purpose of accommodating three

different situations that existed which will invariably influence the

status of implementation of MGNREGS. In each of the three

States chosen for the study viz, Andhra Pradesh, Rajasthan

and Orissa, two districts (High performed and Low performed)

were selected – Anantapur and Guntur in Andhra Pradesh,

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Cuttack and Nayagarh in Orissa and Ajmeer and Dausa in

Rajasthan. Selection of districts was based on the performance

of MGNREGS in the districts, in terms of expenditure incurred,

number of households provided employment and number of job

cards issued to scheduled caste households. Based on district

level Monitoring and Information System (MIS) information, all

level functionaries were selected randomly and a semi-structured

schedule was canvassed. Discussions were also held with

functionaries at the village, Gram Panchayat, block and district

levels to assess the difficulties in implementation of the scheme

on the ground.

Findings

Functional Competencies

As far as role-specific functional competencies are

concerned, some of the functional competencies (i.e. Behavioural

Descriptors) were found more important to be trained in a

given role, since these are viewed as more often required during

job and the same could hamper the work due to “below

confidence level and significantly below confidence level” as per

sample response. In this study, whichever competency was

opted by more than 15 per cent of the sample respondents is

considered for training input. It is observed that there is a variance

among the required competencies from state to state which

means that there is no common prescription of behavioural

training inputs for all states.

Behavioural Competencies

There is no single Behavioural Competency among 26

competencies which emerged as an independent module in all

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levels for conducting exclusive training. Some of the competency

components (i.e. Behavioural Descriptors) were found more

important to be trained since these are viewed as more often

required during job and the same could not be displayed at work

due to “below confidence level and significantly below confidence

level” as per sample response. In this study, whichever

competency component was opted by more than 15 per cent of

the sample respondents is considered for training input. It is

observed that there is a variance among the required

competencies from state to state which means that there is no

common prescription of behavioural training inputs for all states.

Hence, level-wise behaviour descriptors are given below for

training implications.

Non-Training Initiatives (Supporting Factors)

Since training alone could not ensure solution for any

performance problem, all non-trainable issues that emerged

during the TNA Workshop were thoroughly analysed and role-

specific issues were prepared and circulated in the form of

structured schedule among sample respondents. Whichever

factor was opted by more than 80 per cent of the sample

respondents is considered as required support for the given

role towards demonstrating better performance. It is observed

that there is a variance among the required support from state

to state which means that there is no common prescription of

supporting inputs for all states.

Recommendations

* Focused capacity building is possible only through Training

Needs Analysis

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* Role-specific content requirements need to be gathered

through trainable problems

* Role-specific supporting factors (non-trainable issues)

should be verified simultaneously while competency

mapping need to be addressed

* It is essential to run stress management lab for block

level and district level MGNREGS Functionaries

* It is recommended to develop separate training module

(functional skills) role-wise and training modules

(behavioural skills) level-wise for every district through

competency mapping.

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Introduction

MGNREGS, the national level flagship programme

commencing since 2006, has already completed five years of

its implementation. With RTI act coming into force during the

same time, there has been unprecedented interest, curiosity,

findings, allegations and counter allegations about MGNREGS.

Different aspects of this programme have interesting findings

apart from the usual pilferages of funds on various pretexts at

various levels. The finest thing about this rights based approach

is that apart from the primary stakeholders (the wage seekers),

the involvement of secondary and tertiary stakeholders (officials

of different departments of Central and State governments, the

PRI members, bank/postal staff, civil society organisations, social

audit groups, CBOs, media persons, international civil society

organisations, people of different walks of life, etc.) is

extraordinarily high for which there is continuous upscaling in

rules and executive instructions, even amendments. The

experience of five years of implementation of MGNREGS and

the findings from different nook and corners of the country have

opened up new vistas for a different mode of governance based

on transparency and accountability.

EFFECT OF FINANCIAL INCLUSION ON SAVING ANDEXPENDITURE PATTERN OF ST WAGE SEEKERS

IN MGNREGS

Dr. B.C. Das

Dr. P.K. Nath

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One of the criticisms of MGNREGS on the very first year

of its implementation was that it would end up as relief

programme without having much impact on poverty alleviation.

It needs to be noted that MGNREGS is only one of the

instruments in alleviating poverty. Factors like labour intensive

or pro-poor economic growth such as agricultural growth and

promotion of rural non-farm employment are equally important

for poverty alleviation. Apart from direct benefit of employment,

MGNREGS has not only fulfilled the function of unemployment

insurance but also it has addressed the core issues of poverty

gap. It has been validated by the fact that the MGNREGS wages

constitute a big portion of the household income. There may be

a debate about the productivity of assets created and skill

development in works which is mainly in the form of “digging

holes and filling them”, but in a country where a large percentage

of total population are BPL, the short-term impact and insurance

function of MGNREGS in reducing the vulnerability are equally

important.

The impact of MGNREGS on one of the most vulnerable

sections, that is ST, is no less encouraging. This is due to the

fact that for the first time a large section of ST people have

been brought under the financial inclusion umbrella by opening

account to receive the MGNREGS wages. Financial inclusion is

one of the important parameters of new economic policy. It

entails a country’s population to have tie-up with any of the

financial institutions dealing with the provision of different financial

products. In the absence of any sort of linkage of financial

institutions with a majority of ST population, the opening up of

account to pay MGNREGS wages has acted as the first building

block towards realising the goal of financial inclusion.

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Though a majority of the studies on MGNREGS focus on

its process and fault finding with the system or departure from

prescribed norm, few have come out with short term effects of

the same on different MGNREGS groups. Most of the studies

speak about the overall performance of MGNREGS starting from

payment mode, worksite facilities, involvement of different

disadvantaged groups like STs, SCs and women, payment/non-

payment of unemployment allowance and interest payment for

delayed payments, etc. These studies are specific to small

sample size with specific time duration of one financial year. In

sharp contrast to those studies, the present study was taken up

with well defined objectives with specific primary stakeholders

in mind. The study focuses on ST population and the effects

MGNREGS has on their income and expenditure pattern.

Objectives

1. To find the effect of Financial Inclusion on the saving

patterns of ST wage seekers

2. To assess the effect of Financial Inclusion on expenditure

patterns of ST wage seekers

3. To assess the perception of the implementing agencies

on institutional wage payment

Methodology

The study examined empirical data collected from six

states with regard to several variables associated with the saving

and expenditure pattern of MGNREGS workers, perception of

implanting officials towards the financial inclusion of ST workers

and constraints associated with the implementation of

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MGNREGS. Data on these variables were obtained through

structured interview schedules specially designed for MGNREGS

workers, programme officers, assistant programme officers, bank

officers, post office officers, gram rozgar sahayak, panchayat

secretary and PRI members responsible for implementation of

MGNREGS. In all, six different sets of schedules were used for

the study. Six States selected for the study were namely

Jharkhand (26.30 per cent), Chhattisgarh (31.76 per cent), MP

(20.27 per cent), Rajasthan (12.56 per cent), AP (6.5 per cent)

and Nagaland (cent per cent) on the basis higher percentage of

tribal population (Figures in the parentheses show the percentage

of tribal population). Also these six States represent different

zones of India i.e. Eastern, Central, Western, Southern and

North Eastern. AP was selected to study the process of financial

inclusion as it has started making payments of NREGS wages

through passbook from the very inception of this flagship

programme. From each State two districts were selected based

on high percentage of tribal population, and from each district,

two blocks / mandals were selected on the same basis. From

each block, two to three GPs were selected based upon the

availability of MGNREGS workers completed 100 days or nearer

to 100 days of wage earnings either in 2009-10 or 2010-11.Then

from these GPs, 100 respondents were selected randomly.

In some of the blocks, due to non-availability of adequate

number of respondents, more GPs were selected for the study.

Other than MGNREGS workers, programme officers and

assistant programme officers at block level, bank and post office

officials of the block, GRS, Panchayat secretary and PRI

members were also interviewed to know their perception about

the financial inclusion of ST wage seekers under MGNREGS.

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However, due to various problems, data from 200 respondents

could not be collected from Zunheboto district of Nagaland and

Dantewada district of Chhattisgarh, and in both of these districts

data collection from the MGNREGS workers was limited to 100

each. Similarly, some of the officials at block and Gram

Panchayat level could not be contacted in spite of the best effort

of the study team. So, finally data collected from 2412

respondents (MGNREGS worker-2200, Programme Officer and

Assistant Programme Officer- 24, PRI members- 84, GRS- 29.

Panchayat Secretary-34, Post office officials- 23 and Bank

Officials-18 ) were analysed by applying various descriptive tools

like mean, frequency and percentage to draw meaningful

conclusions for the study.

Study Area

Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh, Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan,

Andhra Pradesh and Nagaland

Findings

1. Agriculture is the main stay of livelihood in the sample

area, but MGNREGS work has also contributed

substantially to their rise in income. MGNREGS wages

constitute more than 30 per cent of the total income of the

HHs per annum. It varies from a minimum of 29 per cent

in Rajasthan up to 49 per cent in Chhattisgarh. Even

among the six sample States studied, MP and Chhattisgarh

have higher contribution of MGNREGS income than the

income from agriculture.

2. In the sample area studied, only Nagaland continues the

practice of MGNREGS wage payment through cash and

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in other five States the same is through either PO or bank.On an average, the wage seekers travel 900 meters in APto collect his/her wage from the PO which is the lowestin the sample areas studied. The longest distance to becovered by the wage seekers to collect his wage is in MP(6.8 kms).

3. Amongst the 2200 households in the entire sample studyarea, more than 97 per cent of the wage seekers withdrawmoney immediately, the moment it is deposited in theaccount. The system of deposit of wages and withdrawalis such that the wage seekers are constrained to withdrawthe entire deposited amount immediately having no scopeto earn a single pie as interest. The postal and bank staffalso encourage the wage seekers to take away the entiredeposits without having any liability to pay the interest.The entire institutional set-up (including the GRS, PRImembers and others involved) also support immediatewithdrawal of wages in the account leaving very little scopefor furtherance of financial inclusion.

4. In AP and Nagaland, prevailing market wage is higher thanthe MGNREGS wages, but market wage is far low in Stateslike Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand and MP.

5. In States like AP, Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand and MP, mostlythe GRS help the wage seekers. In Rajasthan, it is thePanchayat secretary who has been instrumental in openingthe account and renders useful services to the MGNREGSwage seekers.

6. Even though MGNREGS wages provided some kind ofrelief to the poor rural HHs, their dependence on rural

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moneylenders have not decreased to meet their credit

needs. Moneylenders continue to be the most reliable

source for credit for these ST MGNREGS wage seekers

even if they are to pay an exorbitant rate of interest i.e

more than 7 per cent per month in all sample areas studied.

It remains the highest at 8.63 per cent in AP. The

penetration of formal FIs among these ST wage seekers

is the highest in AP i.e. 44.5 per cent of the ST wage

seekers avail of some forms of credit from FFIs. Other

States have a dismal performance with a minor success

of 23.5 per cent of penetration in Rajasthan.

7. Agricultural sector continues to predominate in the credit

requirement of the ST wage seekers like any other rural

population. One of the important findings of the study is

that in spite of 92 per cent of pucca houses in AP, 42 per

cent of MGNREGS wage seekers also seek credit for

housing. One significant feature is the lowest percentage

of ST MGNREGS wage seekers (20.75 per cent) taking

loan for social function in AP. It goes up to 33.25 per cent

in Chhattisgarh which is highest in the sample study. While

credit requirement for education is very low in States like

Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand, Rajasthan and MP, it stands very

highest at 22.5 per cent amongst the MGNREGS wage

seekers in AP.

8. The incremental MGNREGS income is mostly utilised for

increased food expenditure. Increased expenditure is

observed for purchase of clothes, expenditure on dwelling

structure, education and health. Higher percentage of

respondents in Nagaland spend on health and education

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out of increased MGNREGS income in comparison to other

States. AP and Nagaland also spend more on housing.

9. MGNREGS wages also have contributed for acquiring

productive assets like livestock, poultry bird, sewing

machine, agricultural implements, mobile handsets, by-

cycle, etc. On this count, the percentage of respondents

in Nagaland is the highest and Jharkhand is the lowest.

Suggestions

1. Timely payment of MGNREGS wages

2. Payment of interest in MGNREGS savings account

3. Provision to allow deposits in MGNREGS account

4. Tie-up of insurance benefit with MGNREGS wage account

5. Special incentives to postal staff in Maoist affected area

6. Job card and MGNREGS passbook as collateral for loan

7. Formation of SHGs based on MGNREGS wages

8. Payment of wages through other financial institutions

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Following observations have been made in the field as

regards the above mentioned study conducted in the sample

States of Maharashtra, Rajasthan and Goa.

1. Primary membership and affiliation to political party is

essential and the Elected Women Representatives (EWR)

seek membership of political party after their successful

inception into their positions.

2. Most of the EWRs wished to help people in the society

and to work for the development of the village which has

been their basic reason for joining politics. However,

pressure from the family especially from their husbands

and fathers-in-law to enter into politics and hold power

since there was no other woman member available has

been an obvious reason for her contesting the elections.

3. Freedom of expression in the meetings was available to

most of the EWRs as they usually raised their point of

view and enforced them in the Panchayat meetings.

4. Gender disparity was found to be a major hurdle in putting

their view point as the views of the male panchayat or the

male participants were preferred in male headed

PROBLEMS AND PERCEPTION OF WOMENELECTED REPRESENTATIVES ON PLANNING AND

IMPLEMENTATION OF RURAL DEVELOPMENTPROGRAMMES AT THE GRASSROOTS LEVEL

Dr. G. Valentina

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Panchayats. Consequently they felt hesitant to present

their views before the male members.

5. Some EWRs face opposition from other panches due to

their self-motive who are exclusively guided by their

personal interest. There is also non-cooperation which is

again based on gender discrimination and male domination.

6. The EWRs also faced constraints from the family. Where

the family lacked progressive thoughts on the social issues

and were ridden in culture, superstition and guided by

traditional norms, EWRs received no help from their family

members which stood in their way in taking up the social

works. The EWRs expressed their need to be free from

such hassels to make them perform as better leaders.

7. Additionally ability to speak, literacy, self-confidence, lack

of skill, knowledge on rural development programmes etc.

further inhibited their performance.

8. Men’s attitude towards women’s entry into politics has

begun to change from that of total rejection to limited

encouragement and in some cases even to active

encouragement. This trend needs to be strengthened

through orientation courses, capacity building programmes

and training programmes for officials and elected

representatives, both men and women. Besides there is

a need to train the women leaders at regular intervals to

enable them to manage the responsibilities assigned to

them in the Panchayats at all the levels.

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9. Most of the women elected representatives at the grassroot

level also work as labourers and they find it difficult to

forego their wages while attending training programmes,

therefore, these training programmes must be organised

at their doorstep and some of the articulate Panchayat

leaders should be involved as the trainers.

10. Another important effort required for real empowerment of

rural women is to bring about an attitudinal change in both

men and women. The feeling that women are meant for

household activities and rearing children needs to be

transformed into a feeling of equal partnership of women

and men. To inculcate this they should be imparted gender

education for bringing about social and political awareness

among both.

11. Contact with outside world makes women more alert and

also active in the political process which can be gained

through interactions with enlightened rural women and the

EWRs should be encouraged to be involved in discussion

and take them as role models. The EWRs can also be

taken out to the urban areas and organise their interaction

with educated urban elected women representatives as is

done in the case of the panchayat federations formed in

States like Rajasthan and Maharashtra.

12. There is a need to utilise the services of the Mahila Mandals

in the village to mobilise the EWRs and also stand out as

support organisations enabling the women elected

representatives in participating in the political processes.

Some successful women’s organisations can also act as

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catalytic agents for encouraging the women’s participation

in social and political activities. The Government should

provide finances and infrastructure to some of the

deserving and successful women organisations/ NGOs to

take up the responsibility. The leaders of women’s

movement like the women commissions, reputed

organisations like UN Women in the country could also

take up this task.

13. The media both print as well as electronic, play an important

role in creating awareness in the rural society and act as

an agent of political socialisation for inculcating the values

of gender equality and gender justice.

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Migration, especially from rural areas, has mostly been

in search of wage employment. Of late, the guaranteed

employment provided through Mahatma Gandhi NREGS at

minimum wages has been widely considered as yielding positive

results in (distress) reducing migration from rural to urban areas.

Studies conducted in recent past have been pointing out that

Mahatma Gandhi NREGS is creating encouraging environment

for better ‘wage employment’ opportunities in rural areas due to

guaranteed 100 days employment and also sequel effects of

creation of durable assets. Hence the study on ‘Impact of

MGNREGS on migration” was taken up in two States viz.,

Rajasthan and Madhya Pradesh.

Objectives

* To examine the qualitative and quantitative changes in

socio-economic conditions of MGNREGS worker

households

* To study factors contributing to changes in trends of

migration among MGNREGS worker households

* To identify factors leading to qualitative and quantitative

changes in pattern of migration among MGNREGS worker

households

STUDY ON “IMPACT OF MGNREGS ON MIGRATION”

Ms. P. Leelavathi

Dr. G. Valentina

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Main Issues of the Study

* Socio-economic and demographic conditions of

MGNREGS worker households (pre-MGNREGS period and

2010-11)

* Gainful employment opportunities and assets created

through MGNREGS

* Changes in the trends and pattern of migration, especially

distress migration of rural households (between pre-

MGNREGS period and 2010-11)

* Benefits and problems experienced by migrant households;

and

* Factors contributing to reduction in migration of MGNREGS

workers/ beneficiaries

Study Area

The districts with high per cent of migration (Census

2001) and high performance in MGNREGS (percentage of

amount spent on wages) implementation were selected from

among the 1st and 2nd phase MGNREGS districts in the study

states. From these districts blocks and GPs were selected based

on the development.

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Table 1.1 : Details of Study Area

District Block GPs No. ofsample

HHs

Rajasthan Banswara Gatol Bhungada 101(Agriculturally anddeveloped) Kandavu

Anandapuri Bhaler 99(backward) Bhodar

and Phalwa

Kushalgad Kalinjara and 100(Developed) Patan

Nagaur Naguar Balwa and 150(Developed) Chila

Jayal Awliyasar 100(Backward) and Katauti

Kuchaman Marot and 100(Agriculturally Mindadeveloped)

Madhya Meghnagar Malkhandwi 100Pradesh (Developed) and Dedla

Jhabua Petlawad Bawdi and 100(Agriculturally Amargarhdeveloped)

Thandla Madalda 100(Backward) and Miyati

Tikhamgarh Jatara Manchi and 100Muhara

Niwari Mudara and 100

Prithvipur Madiya Khas 100and Chomo Khas

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Major Findings of the Study in Rajasthan

* MGNREGS workers belonging to ST community have

distinct socio-economic features in Banswara with high

rate of illiteracy and poverty and economic dependency

compared to such workers belonging to socially diversified

communities in Nagaur.

* The sample households have received on average 60 days

of employment and ` 4250 wage income under MGNREGS

in 2009-10 in Rajasthan.

* Households with ` 120 - ` 250 were the model income

among the poor households. But it has been shifted to

` 251 - ` 350 among the poor households due to additional

income from MGNREGS in the study area.

* About 793 migrants, who form 90 per cent of the migrants

reduced to 74 per cent who belong to the poor households

after MGNREGS implementation indicates a decline of 16

per cent migrants among the poor households.

* 793 migrants, who form 90 per cent of the migrants, belong

to the poor households. It has been considerably changed

since the implementation of MGNREGS.

* Household migration has declined to 6.5 per cent in

Rajasthan due to MGNREGS implementation.

* Female migration has been increased by 9.37 per cent in

Rajasthan after MGNREGS mostly among younger

generation.

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* Migration from non-poor households increased to 303 per

cent in Rajasthan and attributed to pull migration.

* Duration of migration has come down, for instance,

migration of 1-3 months has been reduced.

* Migration to outside states and bigger cities has been

decreased after MGNREGS by about 13.8 and 6.6 per

cent, respectively.

* Because of restriction of 100 days of employment, delay

in providing work and wage payment under MGNREGS

are the causes of migration even after implementation of

MGNREGS.

Major Findings of the Study in Madhya Pradesh

MGNREGS workers belonging to ST community have

distinct socio-economic features such as high rate of illiteracy

and economic dependency and poverty in Jhabua compared to

such workers belonging to socially diversified communities in

Tikamgarh.

* The sample households have received on average 40 days

of employment and ` 3400 wage income under MGNREGS

in 2009-10 in MP.

* Migration has declined 26 per cent in MP since the

intervention of NREGS.

* Female migration has declined around 26 per cent in MP

after the intervention of NREGS.

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* Migration from the poor households declined 30.6 per cent

in MP.

* Migration from non-poor households increased to 330 per

cent in MP.

* Migration of only one couple of family has come down in

MP.

* Duration of migration has come down, for instance,

migration of 1-3 months has been reduced.

* Migration to outside states and bigger cities has

decreased.

* It has been noticed that there is lack of undertaking asset

creation works under NREGS; and

* There is a delay in providing work and wage payment

under NREGS in the sample districts.

Recommendations

1. Farmers and labourers should be organised into common

interest groups and actively participate in MGNREGS

planning and implementation to reap the intended benefits

and also make the programme demand driven. The

Information, Education and Communication (IEC) efforts

are found to be inadequate and these need to be

strengthened to enable workers demand 100 days of work

and payment of full wages in time;

2. The number of days of work under MGNREGS should be

increased to 150-200 days to every household. In other

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words, NREGS should provide at least 75 days of

employment to two adults in a household in every financial

year in the backward blocks in each district.

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Introduction

The provision of shelter to all the needy people, which is

a basic need, has become a big challenge especially to the

rural poor. Owning a house provides significant economic

security and social status in the village community. The total

shortage of housing is estimated at about 35 million as per the

2001 Census, while the Working Group for 11th Five Year Plan

(2007-12) estimates at 43 million. Considering the need and

importance, Government of India has initiated several initiatives

right from the First Five Year Plan. Indira Awaas Yojana is an

important programme of housing primarily for the members of

Below Poverty Line (BPL) population. Scheduled castes and

scheduled tribes form major part of the BPL as the majority live

either in thatched house or kutcha houses. The objective of

constructing a house for the habitants is to create an organic

link between house and its surroundings with various needs of

people who live over there. However, in the implementation of

IAY even the basic facilities are also not being ensured. Further,

the implementation of IAY is not uniform in integrating the felt

needs of the poor especially tribals. Each occupational group

or households depend on different livelihood activities, which

are very essential and integral part of living of poor people.

STUDY ON INDIRA AWAAS YOJANA (IAY) :INTEGRATION OF FELT NEEDS OF TRIBALS

Dr. Y. GangiReddy,

Dr. P. SivaRam,

Dr. S. Venkatadri

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Traditional housing systems and designs are in tune with the

customs and cultures of different sections of the poor especially

tribals. The National Rural Housing and Habitat Policy (2008)

focuses on the various needs of adequate housing as every

citizen is to live with dignity. Adequate housing entails provision

of minimum services such as water, electricity, sanitation,

ventilation/healthcare, education, livelihood and security of tenure

– all of which are essential for dignified living, personal growth

and social well-being in a productive society. Making these

services available as a part of habitat development can be

ensured through the convergence of schemes and mutual efforts

of the government, the private sector and the people themselves.

Besides, it is essential to promote the creation of habitats which

are sustainable and inclusive. This will ensure balanced utilisation

of available resources and cater to the special needs of the

vulnerable sections of society. The concerns of affordability,

credit support, space for livelihood and education and durability

will have to be addressed by harnessing appropriate technology.

Hence there is an urgent need to observe, understand and

analyse the implementation of IAY and its impact of integrating

the basic felt needs with the house provided to the rural poor in

general and tribal families in particular. Understanding the specific

felt needs of these families is essential as they are the most

vulnerable sections of the society.

Objectives

* To understand and trace out the various felt needs of

housing and rural community with special focus on SCs

and STs across the regions vis-à-vis the provisions under

IAY programme.

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* To analyse the implementation process and institutional

interventions in realisation of the felt needs of the Rural

households under IAY.

* To come out with possible actionable points that could

facilitate better integration of these felt needs into present

housing and habitation.

Study Area

Considering the need and importance of the theme, study

was conducted in two States namely Chhattisgarh and Orissa.

The criteria adopted for the selection of these two States are

the share of tribal population and number of IAY houses

constructed during 2005-06 and 2009-10. Two districts from

each State namely Mayurbhanj and Sambalpur from Orissa and

Raipur and Dhamthari from Chhattisgarh were selected based

on the same criteria. Number of villages from each district varied

based on the availability of number of sufficient tribal households.

Methodology and Sampling

Data were collected from both primary as well as

secondary sources. In-depth study is based on data collected

from the primary stakeholders of IAY tribal households. Interviews

were held with all those associated with the planning and

implementation of IAY including PRIs and NGOs. Focus group

discussions were also held with the primary stakeholders apart

from the questainnaire. In all, total sample of 400 IAY respondents

were selected from all the four districts at the rate of 100

respondents from each district.

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Findings

The following are the major study findings :

* Literacy levels of IAY beneficiaries are low in all the four

districts except in Raipur and Sambalpur (60 per cent),

which have determined their awareness and interest in

completing the house with reasonable facilities.

* Occupational background of the respondents appear to

be uniform as majority of them are labourers (agriculture

and non-agriculture) except in Mayurbhanj district, which

is predominantly cultivators.

* The annual average income of these families is about

` 8,000 to the tune of 80 per cent of sample in all the

three districts, whereas 57 per cent of them in Sambalpur

district are able to earn more than ` 8,000.

* The average size of earning members is three persons in

Mayurbhanj district while in all other three districts it is 2.5

persons.

* About 30 per cent of the respondents are the members of

SHGs in the entire study area except in Sambalpur district

(49 per cent).

* IAY beneficiaries could not avail of the benefit of other RD

programmes except PDS (86 per cent) and MG-NREGS

(90 per cent).

* The proportion of IAY assistance in the construction of

houses was quite significant in all the districts except in

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Sambalpur. However, it is observed that every respondent

could match with their own funding in all the districts. The

average of own funding comes to ` 20,000 in Raipur and

Sambalpur districts while it is ` 7,500 (Dhamthari) and

` 2,500 (Mayurbhanj), respectively.

* The percentage of houses completed with all the facilities

vary from 56 (Dhamthari) to 6 (Mayurbhanj) with an

average of 20 while the percentage of houses constructed

without facilities vary from 89 (Mayurbhanj), 73 (Raipur),

48 (Sambalpur) to 38 (Dhamthari).

* The average size of the house (plinth area) is about 200

sq.feet except in Raipur.

* Majority of respondents have used local technologies

(materials) in all the stages of construction and they were

of the opinion that the local material could meet their

housing needs. The reasons include local availability, cost

of the material, good and no transport costs.

* The choice of the material appears to be of the

beneficiaries.

* In terms of the ownership of house site, majority had their

own land except in Raipur (19 per cent) and Dhamthari

(7 per cent), where the state government has provided

house sites.

* It is observed that the type designs are suggested by the

local officials including junior engineer and other local

officials and it is as per the choice of beneficiary.

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* Suitability of the type design appears to be matching with

their beliefs and values. The suitability ranges from 90 per

cent (Mayurbhanj), 73 per cent (Sambalpur), 87 per cent

(Raipur) to 54 per cent (Dhamthari).

* Satisfaction levels appear to be high for the following

reasons;

* Based on own tradition

* Fulfilment of their desire

* Availability of sufficient living space

* Suitable for livelihood activities

* Suitable for living in comforts

* Ownership of the house facilitating the recognition in

the society

* Satisfaction is measured in terms of the type design, size

of house, availability of facilities including drinking water,

sanitation, electricity, smokeless chulha, backyard space,

bathroom, drainage, access to market, school, anganwadi

and health centre.

* Availability of drinking water appears to be very good in

Mayurbhanj (99 per cent),followed by Dhamthari (92 per

cent), Raipur (52 per cent) and Sambalpur (41 per cent).

* In spite of mandatory tie-up of IHHL with IAY house, nearly

90 per cent of them are not provided with IHHL in

Mayurbhanj followed by 67 per cent in Raipur, 63 per cent

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in Dhamthari and 62 per cent in Sambalpur. The reasons

cited for not having IHHL include lack of space, finance,

material, not interested and layout across all the four

districts. The usage position of IHHL appears to be all the

more serious in all these districts. Lack of water, lack of

awareness, not habituated are some of the reasons why

they are not in a position to use the same.

* The condition of other needs such as electricity, smokeless

chulha and bathroom facility is all the more discouraging.

Access to backyard facility such as kitchen garden, fruit

plants and livestock is seen in Dhamthari (38 per cent)

and Mayurbhanj (51 per cent).

* Since majority of the respondents are within the village

layout, their access to school, market, health and drainage

facilities could not be determined by having a new house

under IAY.

* It is observed that the support received from GP, village

officials, BDO and DRDA is significant while the involvement

of NGO, Bank, ZP and MLA/MP is not noticed in majority

of the places. However, the support of SHG is noticed in

Sambalpur district only.

* Satisfaction levels of respondents vary from place to place

as well as the issues such as the type design,

infrastructural facilities, financial and general support of all

those who are associated with the implementation of IAY

programme.

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Conclusion

The overall objective of having one’s own house is to

lead a safe, secure, comfortable and healthy life. The objectives

of IAY remain the same as to assist the poor families in realising

their dream of having own house to fulfill their desire of

comfortable living. The study observes that the programme of

IAY could not succeed in integrating the felt needs of housing of

tribal families in almost all the four districts. However, there are

several instances, where an attempt is made either by the

implementing agencies or the local leaders across all the four

districts. It is suggested that the flexibility of IAY guidelines would

alone ensure better integration of different social and occupational

groups especially tribal families. The proposed National Rural

Housing and Habitat Policy is likely to ensure the effective

implementation of IAY programme in integrating different felt

needs of poor in general and tribal households in particular.

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In 1999, as part of the sectoral reforms initiatives, Central

Rural Sanitation Programme (CRSP) was restructured from

allocation mode to a demand-driven and community-based

programme as Total Sanitation Campaign (TSC). The whole

concept of Nirmal Gram Puraskar (NGP) is to reward those

districts, blocks, and GPs, which have achieved 100 per cent

sanitation coverage. During 2007-2008, the whole State of Sikkim

was awarded as Nirmal State by the President of India. An

attempt was made on the factors that helped for award,

sustainability of higher levels of sanitation and hygiene in NGP

awarded GPs in Sikkim. In addition, TSC impact on reduction of

incidence of diseases like diarrhea, cholera, malaria, enteric

fever etc. was studied.

Objectives

* To identify the factors contributing to the success of NGP

status and its sustainability, and also its impact on the

incidence of diseases

* To study the behavioural changes among the community

including school children

SUSTAINABILITY OF TOTAL SANITATION CAMPAIGN(TSC) IN NIRMAL GRAM PURASKAR (NGP)AWARDED GRAM PANCHAYATS IN SIKKIM

Dr. P.SivaRam

Dr. Y. Gangi Reddy

Dr. S. Venkatadri

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Study Area, Methodology and Sampling

Sikkim was purposively selected for the study as the

only State which had received NGP award for the whole State.

In the State, two districts, namely, East and South Sikkim districts

were selected for the study. The selection of the sample districts

was done based on the highest number of NGP awards received

by GPs in a district during 2006-2007.

From each district, two blocks were selected. From each

block, two NGP awarded GPs were selected for in-depth study.

About 675 respondents were interviewed with structured interview

schedule in eight NGP awarded GPs. A stratified random

sampling method for NGP awarded GPs was adopted.

Besides, Participatory Rural Appraisal tools like semi-

structured interviews, Focus Group Discussions (FGDs),

transect, time lines etc., were used to collect qualitative data

from various stakeholders. Secondary data were collected from

the concerned departments of the sample block as well as

districts. Also, the data were downloaded from the website of

Ministry of Rural Development, Government of India.

Major Findings

* TSC has brought a significant change in the sample GPs

for improving sanitation facilities including other institutions

like schools, anganwadies, health centres etc. This change

has led to winning of NGP awards in the sample districts.

* TSC sustains in the sample GPs because the people

have changed mindset towards open defecation and more

than 99 per cent of the respondents are using the IHHLs.

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School children have marvellously been using the toilets

and no doubt the children have influenced the parents for

adopting IHHLs in their homes. However, PRIs, concerned

officials, NGOs, CBOs should watch the villagers for some

more time, not to go to open defecation.

* Awareness responses about TSC showed that more than

82 per cent were having awareness but remaining were

unaware as they belonged to the category of illiterates.

* Responses on ‘source of knowledge about IHHLs’ revealed

that nearly 89 per cent of the respondents got the

knowledge from awareness public meetings, motivators,

personal contacts, TSC rallies etc. In addition, TV, posters/

wall paintings and pamphlets also played a role in imparting

knowledge about IHHLs.

* Usage of IHHLs by the respondents showed that 100 per

cent were using the IHHLs.

* More than 89 per cent of the respondents had adopted

single pit lined IHHLs, but 6.6 per cent of respondents had

unlined single line pit. The rich and the forward

communities (4.5 per cent) had double pit lined IHHLs.

* Nearly 64 per cent of respondents had procured the sanitary

materials like sanitary structure including pan etc., from

open market and the rest had purchased sanitary materials

from rural sanitary markets.

* The cleansing personnel for IHHLs are categorised into

men, women and servants. The analysis revealed that

mostly women were cleaning the IHHLs by using locally

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made phenyl and acid. A few men were also doing the

cleaning. In APL houses, western latrines were also seen,

which were largely cleaned by the servants. It is noticed

that a small bucket and a mug were kept inside IHHLs.

* Water supply for IHHLs is categorised into four. They are

tap inside (66 per cent), tap outside (12 per cent),water

storage inside (9 per cent) and water storage outside (13

per cent). Respondents did not experience water problem.

* More than 75 per cent of respondents adopted the method

of composting the household garbage within the

compound. Respondents said that it was their traditional

method to prepare manure, which was used for their

vegetable garden within the compound. Another 22 per

cent were handing over their household garbage to the

garbage collector arranged by the village panchayats. This

person daily visits each house and collects the garbage.

Remaining were using community dustbins for disposing

the garbage, which were arranged by the village

panchayats in street corners.

* 95 per cent of respondents were highly satisfied with the

IHHLs. Degree of satisfaction was more among BPL than

APL respondents. The reason is that the BPL had received

more subsidy than the APL.

* School Sanitation and Health Education Programme

(SSHE) had a positive impact on the sanitation behaviour

of students in terms of regular use of toilets and zero

open urination and defecation. Use of dustbins for waste

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disposal both in the classroom and the school compound

was consistent. Student sanitation committees were active.

Teachers too have played their SSHE role with visible

commitment. Personal hygiene habits of the students were

noteworthy. Keeping themselves and their uniform clean

was a noticeable practice witnessed during our field visits

to the sample study schools.

* All the sample Anganwadi centres were functioning in the

sample GPs. And they were having sanitary latrines, which

were being used by the children with the help of Anganwadi

staff. All the centres were having water facility with piped

water supply.

* Data of Primary Health Centres (PHCs) in the sample

blocks revealed that water-borne diseases like cholera;

enteric-fever; gastroenteritis and jaundice were totally nil.

Respondents mentioned in FGDs with us that the negligible

sickness and subsequent wage loss, a number of visits to

PHCs were declined in the sample block. Reduction in

expenditure on health and more participation in labour

market would increase the earnings and overall welfare of

good sanitation practices and economic gains.

* The NGP cash incentives were utilised properly for

improving and maintaining sanitation facilities in all sample

GPs. The focus was on drainage pipelines, borewells,

streetlights, connectivity bridges etc. GDs with the people’s

representatives revealed that the said works were

discussed and finalised in the Gram Sabha. Further, they

said that this incentive gave a positive boost to the

sanitation drive in sample GPs. It is observed that the

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elected body and the governing body were having a good

coordination, which brought them a grand success in TSC.

After receiving the NGP, concerned State, sample district

officials, Block Administrative Units seemed to be

energetic along with the people’s representatives of PRIs.

Conclusions

The concerted efforts of the government’s machinery

starting at the state level to the village combined with the elected

representatives in ensuring the awareness and involvement on

a continuous basis created very good impact on the sustainability

of NGP awarded state and on the health condition of the people.

The study found that the health status of rural people has

increased significantly and the same could facilitate their ability

to work on fulltime basis so as to enhance the overall living

standards of people. Apart from all other efforts, the approach

of Community Lead Total Sanitation (CLTS) and its effective

adoption in drawing the attention of community and their

involvement in the entire exercise would go a long way for

sustainability of NGP awards not only in Sikkim but also in any

other state or district or a village.

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Importance of the Study

The Ministry of Rural Development is constantly

endeavouring to empower the PRIs as well as representatives

in terms of functions, powers and finance. The Gram Sabha

being potentially the most significant institution for participatory

democracy and decentralisation, it is a vibrant unit at the village

level to participate liberally by SC/ST and women community

and there are more possibilities to take decision on their own for

the benefit of their village development so that it was decided to

observe 1999 – 2000 as the year of gram sabha, at the same

time the 73rd Amendment Act gives constitutional status to gram

sabha. The provisions of the panchayats (Extension to the

Scheduled Areas) Act, 1996 to the tribal areas, has come into

force on 24 December 1996 for the benefit of entire tribal

population in eight states.

With a view to making the PRIs truly representative of

the weaker sections of society, the 73rd Constitution Amendment

Act (1992) has provided reservation of seats for SCs and STs

according to their population in the three tiers of PR system, 33

per cent will be given to women in PRIs. The Act has made the

Panchayati Raj mandatory functionary through Article 243G of

EMPOWERMENT OF DISADVANTAGED GROUPSTHROUGH THE INITIATIVES OF PRIs : A STUDY IN

ORISSA AND JHARKHAND

Dr. Y. Bhaskar Rao

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the Constitution (1992), it deals with the powers, authority and

responsibilities of Panchayats. However, still there are certain

grey areas with regard to social justice, where the PRIs can

and should be very effective, if the 243G is followed: These are

(a) Empowerment of rural people in general and the weaker

sections; (b) Implementation of land reforms alongside various

poverty alleviation programmes; and (c) Institutionalisation of

Nyaya Panchayats by energising them for providing inexpensive

justice expeditiously at the doorstep of the villagers. A set of 29

items in the 11th Schedule to the Constitution has been added,

and these items pertaining to the development and welfare are

to be entrusted to the Panchayat. Item in the 11th Schedule

deals with the welfare of the weaker sections.

Objectives

* Socio-economic and political background of the SC/ST

and women representatives of the PRIs.

* To assess the level of awareness among the elected

members about the roles, responsibilities and various

developmental programmes.

* To analyse participation of weaker sections in decision

making process of PRIs.

* To study about the orientation training for the members of

PRIs.

* To suggest suitable measures to ensure their effective

participation in the decision making process and

development.

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Methodology

The study was taken up in two States (Orissa and

Jharkhand) with the help of officials and elected representatives,

State governments, and keeping in view implementation of

empowering policies in favour of PRIs in both States. The

Jharkhand State does not have PR System till 2010. The PR

elections were held recently and elected their representatives at

the grassroot institutions. However, Orissa State has long history

of panchayats. Both States have long way to go socially and

economically and also has pockets that are predominantly tribals.

After discussion with the officials of state level, the researcher

has decided to take up one district in each State.

Study Area and Sample Size

Further, for indepth investigation, two blocks were

selected from each district. These blocks are being covered

predominantly by SC, ST and women population. The elected

representatives of PRIs are also taken into view to elicit

information. Two gram panchayats were selected from each

block. In all eight gram panchayat sarpanches, chairpersons of

standing committees and elected members of PRIs from SC/

ST and women were interviewed. Apart from the above, the

research had touched upon and interviewed the officials at three

levels. In each State 96 respondents were interviewed. The total

sample size is 192 in both States.

Data Collection and Processing

Primary data on socio-economic, demographic and

political profile of the respondents of the study area were obtained

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through structured interview schedule. Empowerment scale was

designed and used to measure the level of awareness.

Participation in PRIs, decision-making process in development

and PRIs, in addition, the perception on empowerment of weaker

sections were also obtained from the SC/ST and women elected

representatives of PRIs. Besides the individual interviews, Focus

Group Discussions (FGDs) were conducted at three levels with

elected representatives of SC/ST and women officials of PRIs

and elites of the village level to understand the potential

opportunities as well as limitation bottlenecks etc.

Secondary data were collected to get better

understanding of the location and situation of the study area,

that covered the various developmental programmes and new

initiatives regarding empowering of the panchayats and

disadvantaged groups. The relevant state data, district, zilla

parishad, block and villages were collected on socio-demographic

profile to get clarity and matching in dates with primary data.

Data Analysis

The quantitative on socio-economic variables of the

sample respondents were analysed. For the purpose of identifying

Socio-Economic Status (SES) groups/SGS index was measured

based on information collected on certain socio – economic

variables from each of the respondents. The SPS package was

used for analysing the socio-economic index from the variables

selected namely, age, caste, educational level, occupation and

annual income of respondents.

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Field Findings

The present study revealed several problems and issues

in both States. Jharkhand State do not have past experience of

panchayat structures, their newly elected representatives have

awareness which is much lesser than Orissa State.

* The sample respondents are basically from two

communities, SCs are 49 per cent and STs are 33.3 per

cent including women in both States. However, Orissa

State consists of more literates among the elected

representatives of PRIs than Jharkhand State.

* About 72.9 per cent of the respondents were aware about

the Panchayati Raj 73rd Constitutional Amendment Act in

both States. There is no much variation of awareness

among the people and elected representatives of PRIs.

Jharkhand people are active and eager to participate in

panchayati raj activities.

* In the decision making process it was found that nearly

74 per cent expressed their satisfaction in Orissa State.

However, only 34 per cent respondents said that they have

participated in decision making process of their village

development. It indicates that the empowerment of

disadvantaged group is significantly less.

* According to field situation, after recent panchayat elections

in Jharkhand, the Aam Sabha was held in April or June

and December. The Aam Sabhas are held in the presence

of Block Development Officer (BDO), Panchayat

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Supervisor and Panchayat Sevak. The Aam Sabha

approves plans, programmes and projects that include

Tribal Sub-Plan. Selection of beneficiaries and contractors

for the schemes to be undertaken is decided at the Gram

Sabha. However, the field reality is completely different in

both States. But in Jharkhand the Aam Sabha and Gram

Sabhas are not being properly organised because, the

panchayat elections were held very recently, it certainly

gets empowered gradually step by step.

* In connection with the cooperation from PR officials

towards SC/ST/women representatives, it is not

encouraging trend in both States. However, in Jharkhand,

the capacity is to be developed among the elected

representatives.

* In Jharkhand State, bureaucracy and line departments also

interfere in the functioning of PRIs. Because there is no

PRI structure as such for 30 years, for this purpose the

bureaucracy and line departments have developed the

habit of interference in the panchayati raj administration

for the benefit of the development. At this juncture there is

a possibility to create much more awareness among the

elected representatives of the PRIs, then only they will

cope up and mould towards running of their own grassroot

institutions.

* In view of devolution process in Orissa 21 subjects have

been already devolved, 11 departments were transferred

to panchayati raj institutions. Out of that 9 departments

have already prepared an activity mapping. This will help

officials and elected representatives to go through and get

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acquaintance with the financial matters, responsibilities

and implementation of developmental activities. In this

connection several Central and State governments are

being provided funds for the development. The activity

mapping can provide insight to follow further proper action.

Conclusion

Several studies have revealed that the SC/ST elected

representatives of PRIs were not able to articulate group specific

interest or exercise their own judgement in decision making.

They did not take part in deliberations or contribute to major

decisions. However, the gram sabha is also not positively

reacting towards weaker sections. The gram sabha has become

nominal and proxy. It is because of the absence of entry of the

dalits and women into the framework of gram sabha.

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Introduction

The problem of improving the educational scenario in

India can be understood as consisting of two challenges. The

first challenge is to get a child enumerated, enrolled and be kept

in the rolls in the school while the second is to provide quality

education to the children who show up in school. Despite

numerous initiatives by the government and NGOs specifically

targeting the problem, enrolling and retaining the children in

school has remained a challenge. The most important reason

for failure of these programmes is the poor socio-economic

state of affairs prevailing in the society. Improvement in school

enrolment rates cannot be expected without any betterment in

the socio–economic condition and vice-versa. Any effort to break

this stalemate between education and socio-economics should

start with thoroughly understanding the factors that result in a

parent putting a child at work instead of at school.

Lack of livelihood is probably the greatest impediment to

an improvement in school enrolment and retention rate and

instigator for child labour. From a parental perspective the basic

necessities of life like food, shelter and clothing largely precede

the necessity for education. According to the latest data of

National Health Survey in 2005-06, the all India average for

EFFECT OF MGNREGS ON SCHOOL ENROLMENTAND ATTENDANCE AMONG THE CHILDREN OF

BELOW POVERTY LINE (BPL) FAMILIES

Dr. T Vijaya Kumar

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malnourished children is 47 per cent. Migration is another major

issue that leads to an already enrolled child dropping out of

school. Lack of sustainable livelihood resources in villages

results in parents seasonally migrating to urban areas leading

to school dropouts.

In this context, the National Rural Employment Guarantee

Act (NREGA) can be used as an effective tool to address both

the challenges. NREGA is legislation enacted by the Indian

Parliament in 2005 that provides a legal guarantee of one hundred

days of employment every year to every member of a rural

household who is willing to do unskilled manual work. This act

was introduced with an aim to improve the purchasing power of

the rural populace by leveraging the enormous amount of human

resource that is left untapped in rural India to create/ improve

the much needed rural infrastructure. This scheme has eased

the parental burden and income to send their children to schools.

The standard status attainment model which incorporated

parental socio-economic status, parental income to predict

educational attainment and early labour market out comes often

reports significant effects of parental SES and household

income. The explanations for income effects on children

achievement focus on differences in home environment between

the high and low income households (Smith et al.1997) and the

effects of economic pressures on children’s self-confidence

and achievement in the low income families (Conger et al. 1993).

Adding middle childhood family income variable in the regression

model, Duncan et.al. (1998) report that income in the early

childhood had stronger impacts on high school completion than

the effects of the middle childhood income. Increase in family

income would have greater effects for children’s educational

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attainment in the very low income households than the other

income groups. So far the studies taken up in this area mainly

focused on entitlements, rights and the processes involved in

the implementation of National Rural Employment Guarantee

Scheme but not on the effects on social aspects such as health,

education etc. In view of this the present investigation is proposed

to study the effects of NREGS on school enrolment and

attendance among the children of Below Poverty Line (BPL)

families.

Objectives of the Study

* To study the effects of NREGS on school enrolment and

attendance among the children of wage earners.

* To identify appropriate intervention to leverage the NREGS

towards improvement of school enrolment and attendance

among the children of wage earner households under the

NREGS.

Methodology

Research Design

The study was carried out in two selected States i.e

Orissa and Uttar Pradesh and from these states four districts

i.e Khurda and Kandhamal districts in Orissa and Sitapur and

Jhansi districts in Uttar Pradesh were included in the sample.

From each district, 50 NREGS worker households @ 25

households per block were selected to cover a sample of 400

households (50 per cent each in two districts).

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The study was conducted by following survey research

methods and the sample selected for the study is as follows:

* NREGS worker households with school going age children

in two States is as follows.

* 100 households with 100 days work during the preceding

one year;

* 100 households with 50-60 days (national average) work

during the preceding one year;

* 100 households with 20-30 days work during the

preceding one year;

* 100 households, cardholders but not at all benefited by

any work during the preceding one year.

Thus the present study covers 400 NREGS cardholder

households with 6-14 year school age children, who were

benefited by varied days of employment under NREGS and also

those who were not at all benefited by the scheme despite

holding the card for employment under the NREGS.

Findings and Conclusions of the Study

* In Orissa State it is observed that 92.5 per cent of the

respondents are males and 7.5 per cent are females.

Whereas in Uttar Pradesh State 94.5 per cent are males

and 5 per cent are females.

* Caste-wise distribution of the respondents indicates that

in Orissa 75 per cent belong to scheduled caste followed

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by 15 per cent from backward class and the remaining

are from the minority communities i.e 5 per cent.

* Caste-wise distribution of the respondents indicates that

in Uttar Pradesh State 54.5 per cent respondents are from

scheduled caste followed by 42 per cent from backward

communities, 3 per cent from scheduled caste and 5 per

cent are from other communties.

* The sample households in two States indicates the positive

and significant coefficients on the causal and agricultural

variables and suggest that households who have variable

incomes and and are prone to seasonal shocks and lean

agricultural periods seem to be more likely to register for

the scheme.

* Households whose primary occupation is agriculture are

15 per cent more likely to register.

* Households whose primary occupation is casual work are

16.7 per cent more likely to register for the scheme.

* The programme has positive impact on males and females.

Increased insurance or safety perceived by registering for

the programme seems to provide encouragement for

enrolling the children in schools and sending regularly to

the school.

* The programme has positive impact through the income

transfer that it generates, with households taking up work

up to 100 days are less likely to participate in child labour

and increases children attendance.

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Introduction

The 73rd constitutional amendment has given a prime

place to District Planning Committees (DPCs) with a twin

responsibility of preparing the draft development plan converging

interests of both Panchayats and Municipalities by addressing

the issue of physical and natural resources, integrated

development of infrastructure and other related developmental

needs. Even after two to three rounds of elections to PRIs

across states, DPCs seem to be still in a state of dormancy

with no active involvement of the desired stakeholders.

Meanwhile, the identification of backward districts and launching

of an exclusive programme clearly put forth that DPCs need to

be a channel for funnelling the funds and as a ‘critical gap filling’

fund. Obviously this paved way for constituting DPCs across

states but with a stamp of strong political climate prevailing in

the state. In the process DPCs still remain to be under the

grappling hold of in charge District Ministers rather than with the

District Panchayat chairman. Hence, a study was proposed to

look into the functioning of this unit of planning in its varied

forms.

DISTRICT PLANNING COMMITTEES:PERFORMANCEIN BRGF AND NON - BRGF DISTRICTS

Dr. K. Jayalakshmi

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Objectives

a. To study the existing organisational structure and

functioning of District Planning Committees, and analyse

the process adopted in DPCs,

b. To assess the plans prepared and implemented with

reference to objectives, and examine the initiatives taken

to reach the goals.

c. To suggest measures, and various capacity building

requirements of DPCs including training functionaries, and

evolve policy and professional interventions for effective

formulation and implementation of plans and projects by

the DPCs.

Methodology

The sample for the study includes one BRGF and the

other non-BRGF district from each State, identified on the basis

of discussions with respective State government functionaries.

Hence, we identified in total six districts. We have prepared a

tentative matrix to capture the several facets of DPC : a) present

functions and powers of DPC as provided by the government;

b) constitution of DPC, awareness levels among members about

their roles and responsibilities; c) constituting special committees

for core subjects such as poverty alleviation, health and

sanitation, education, social justice, administration etc. d) review

the progress of plans prepared by the officers of different

departments working in the district; e) Municipalities normally

send their annual budgets to the directorate of municipal

administration/government even before they are placed before

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the DPC; f) adequate training of the members of the DPC

including the district level officers of different departments in the

district; g)The role of special invitees etc.

Study Area

The rationale for selecting these three States, a) To cover

three regions central, western and southern regions. and

accordingly state selection was taken up on the basis of three

indicators’ i) functioning of DPCs, ii) activity mapping and

devolution of 3Fs.-Functions, Funds and Functionaries; and Tamil

Nadu has town panchayats. iii) In two States viz., Rajasthan

and Tamil Nadu, the District Panchayat President is the Chairman

of DPC but in Chhattisgarh Minister is the chairman of the DPC.

In Chhattisgarh we identified Dhamtari (BRGF) and Raipur

(Non-BRGF), Rajasthan Tonk (BRGF) Jaipur (Non-BRGF) and

in Tamil Nadu we identified, Villipuram (BRGF) and Kanchipuram

(Non-BRGF).

Findings

The composition of DPC varies across States viz., in

Chhattisgarh four-fifths of the members are elected from among

the elected representatives of Zilla Panchayat and Municipalities;

In Rajasthan as envisaged in Section 121 of the Rajasthan

Panchayati Raj Act, 1994, DPC has in all 25 members, out of

whom 20 members are elected from amongst and by the elected

representatives of Zilla Parishad and Municipal Bodies in

proportion to ratio of population of rural areas and urban areas

in the district. DPC also includes five nominated members viz.,

Collector of the District; Chief Executive Officer, Zilla Parishad;

Additional Chief Executive Officer, Zilla Parishad; and two persons

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from MPs / MLAs or persons representing voluntary agencies

nominated by the State Government.

In Tamil Nadu, at least four-fifths of the members shall

be elected by the elected members of the district level Panchayat

and of the Municipalities in the district from amongst themselves.

Their proportion would be in accordance with the ratio of urban

and rural population of the district. Also, members of house of

people, Council of State and Legislative Assembly are members

and District Collector as Vice-Chairman of DPC.

States have activated DPCs merely to garner BRGF

funds, but although a component of capacity development for

elected representatives exists, a majority of them lack planning

skills. No dialogue across three tiers while finalising the plan.

Conclusions

A. In three study States the composition, membership,

functioning of DPCs vary across States as per the

prevailing political will and the devolution status in the

respective State, especially where Minister is Chairman of

DPC. As the functioning of DPCs was also linked to the

issue of BRGF and the works taken up were according to

the guidelines. Decentralised Planning is to be arrived at

by an integrated participatory and coordinated idea of

development of local areas. Each Gram Panchayat or

Municipality is treated as a planning unit and district plans

are prepared through consolidation and integration of these

plans as well as by considering the development of district

as a whole and to be implemented by the respective

municipalities or the gram sabhas. This aspect seems to

be largely missing in all the three States.

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B. All the Panchayat members clearly stated that DPCs’ role

is visible only in BRGF districts whereas in other districts

their counterparts have informed that it is more notional.

At present, very little coordination is visible across

departments implementing RD programmes in two States

Chhattisgarh and Rajasthan, totally nil in Tamil Nadu. To

ensure the use of resources available at the local level

and resources made available under various schemes in

a batter way, that the development needs as desired of

the whole district may be achieved.

C. It has been observed that the DPC members across state

need a serious and sincere capacity development

programme. A quick Training Need Assessment revealed

that they need to be oriented in basics related to planning

concepts, preparation of plans, identification of needs and

preparation of shelf of projects by integrating from other

schemes/departments. Similarly, elected members need

to be trained at other levels too.

D. It is quite clear that elected representatives are quite

interested to access BRGF funds as it is a critical gap

filling component. However, big or small amount is being

booked to the BRGF and they stated that it is handier to

complete the projects which were pending for want of

very little money. They also stated that they need training

in all flagship programmes giving them details pertaining

to the programme per se and also the financial resources

available to the state, district, blocks and GPs.

Documents

R. Highlights 2010-11nird.org.in/nird_docs/rsh/rs_11r.pdf · R. Highlights 2010-11 ... Effect of Financial Inclusion on Saving Dr. B.C. Das 47 ... Integration of felt needs of Tribals