quality RESEARCH Report · Web viewquality RESEARCH Report. MATERIALS II. SAXION UNIVERSITY OF APPLIED SCIENCE. Author: Isabel Created Date: 01/25/2018 11:46:00 Title: quality RESEARCH

quality RESEARCH Report

MATERIALS IISAXION UNIVERSITY OF APPLIED SCIENCE

Isabel Spielmeyer, Parth Modi, Liset Nienhuis, Cornelie Gons, Femke Visser

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Quality Research Report

Project Materials II

Group 20

Isabel Spielmeyer

Parth Modi

Liset Nienhuis

Femke Visser

Cornelie Gons

I

Table of Contents

List of figures IV

List of tables V

List of used abreviations VII

1 Introduction 1

2 Summary 2

3 Raw material research 4

3.1 Burn test 4

3.2 Microscopic image 4

3.3 Vapour test 5

3.4 Dye research: Test 1 6



4 Test description 9

4.1 Wash fastness (BS EN ISO 105 C10: 2007) 9

4.2 Spray-test method (ISO 4920-2010) 10

4.3 Du Pont water drop test (ISO 4920) 11

4.4 Oil repellency (AATC Test 11801983) 11

4.5 Perspiration fastness (ISO 105-E04: 1994) 12

4.6 Rubbing fastness (ISO 105-X12: 1993) 14

4.7 Dimensional stability after washing (ISO 5077) 15

4.8 Light fastness (ISO 105-B02: 1994) 16

4.9 Tensile Strength (ISO Standard 13934-1:1999) 17

4.10 Tearing resistance (EN-ISO- 13937-1: 2000) 18

4.11 Breathability (Out of the box) 18

5 Raw material research results 20

5.1 Blue (warp Zara denim yarn) 20

5.2 White (weft Zara denim yarn) 20

5.3 Blue (warp new denim yarn) 21

5.4 White (weft new denim yarn) 21

5.5 Grey fabric dyed with Isatis tinctoria extractum 22

5.6 Desized fabric dyed with Isatis tinctoria extractum 22

5.7 Scoured and bleached fabric dyed with Isatis tinctoria extractum 23

5.8 Mercerized fabric dyed with Isatis tinctoria extractum 23

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5.9 Grey fabric dyed with polygonum tinctorum extractum 24

5.10 Desized fabric dyed with polygonum tinctorum extractum 24

5.11 Scoured and bleached fabric dyed with polygonum tinctorum extractum 25

5.12 Mercerized fabric dyed with polygonum tinctorum extractum 25

6 Results 26

6.1 Dye research 26

6.2 Wash fastness (BS EN ISO 105 C10: 2007) 27

6.3 Spray test method (ISO 4920-2010) 29

6.4 Du Pont water drop test (ISO 4920) 29

6.5 Oil repellency (AATC Test 11801983) 29

6.6 Perspiration fastness (ISO 105-E04: 1994) 30

6.7 Rubbing fastness (ISO 105-X12: 1993) 31

6.8 Dimensional stability after washing (ISO 5077) 32

6.9 Light fastness (ISO 105-B02: 1994) 33

6.10 Tensile Strength (ISO 13934-1: 1999) 33

6.11 Tear Strength (EN ISO 13937-1: 2000) 33

6.12 Breathability 34

7 Conclusion and Recommendations 34

8 Reference List 35

9 Appendix 37

9.1 Templates 37

9.2 Microscopic images of additional materials of the Zara jeans 57

9.3 Additional fabrics of the new jeans 64

9.4 Requirements 65

III

List of figuresFigure 1: Microscop image of warp yarn...................................................................................................19Figure 2: Microscopic image of Weft yarn.................................................................................................19Figure 3: Microscopic Image of the warp Cotton thread of the new denim..............................................20Figure 4: Microscopic image of weft new denim yarn...............................................................................20Figure 5: Microscopic image of grey fabric dyed with isatis tinctoria extractum.......................................21Figure 6: Microscopic image of desized fabric dyed with isatis tinctoria extractum..................................21Figure 7: Microscopic image of scoured and bleached fabric dyed with isatis tinctoria extractum...........22Figure 8: Microscopic image of mercerized fabric dyed with isatis tinctoria extractum............................22Figure 9: Microscopic image of grey fabric dyed with polygonum tinctorum extractum..........................23figure 10: Microscopic image of desized fabric dyed with polygonum tinctorum extractum....................23figure 11: microscopic image of scoured and bleached fabric dyed with polygonum tinctorum extractum..................................................................................................................................................................24Figure 12: Microscopic image of mercerized fabric dyed with polygonum tinctorum extractum.............24figure 13: FST template of the zara denim................................................................................................39figure 14: fst template of the new dyed fabric..........................................................................................51Figure 15: FST template of the zara pocket fabric.....................................................................................52Figure 16: fst of new pocket fabric............................................................................................................53Figure 17: FST template of mesh fabric used in the Zara jeans as interlining............................................54Figure 18: Microscopic image of the weft yarn of the inside of the jeans pocket.....................................55Figure 19: Microscopic image of polyester sewing thread........................................................................55Figure 20: microscopic image of sewing thread of the pocket..................................................................56Figure 21: microscopic image of thread for attaching the labels...............................................................56Figure 22: microscopic image of warp yarn of the inside of the pocket....................................................57Figure 23: microscopic image of nonwoven..............................................................................................57Figure 24: microscopic image of attachement thread of the price tag......................................................58Figure 25: Picture of the care label of the zara jeans................................................................................58Figure 26: picture of the closure pocket of the zara jeans.........................................................................59Figure 27: picture of the rivet of the zara jeans.........................................................................................59figure 28: picture of the zipper of the zara jeans.......................................................................................60figure 29: picture of the price tag of the zara jeans...................................................................................60Figure 30: picture of the label of the zara jeans........................................................................................61Figure 31: microscopic image of the new pocket fabric............................................................................62Figure 32: microscopic image of the new sewing thread..........................................................................62Figure 33: requirements of trousers and shorts........................................................................................63

IV

List of tablesTable 1.......................................................................................................................................................19Table 2.......................................................................................................................................................19Table 3......................................................................................................................................................20Table 4......................................................................................................................................................20Table 5.......................................................................................................................................................21Table 6.......................................................................................................................................................21Table 7.......................................................................................................................................................22table 8.......................................................................................................................................................22table 9.......................................................................................................................................................23Table 10.....................................................................................................................................................23Table 11.....................................................................................................................................................24TabLE 12....................................................................................................................................................24TabLe 13....................................................................................................................................................25TabLE 14....................................................................................................................................................27TabLe 15....................................................................................................................................................28TabLE 16....................................................................................................................................................28TabLE 17....................................................................................................................................................29TabLE 18....................................................................................................................................................30TabLE 19....................................................................................................................................................31TabLE 20....................................................................................................................................................31TabLE 21....................................................................................................................................................32TabLE 22...................................................................................................................................................32TabLE 23....................................................................................................................................................33Table 24.....................................................................................................................................................33TabLE 25....................................................................................................................................................35TabLE 26....................................................................................................................................................40TabLE 27....................................................................................................................................................45Table 28.....................................................................................................................................................55Table 29.....................................................................................................................................................55Table 30.....................................................................................................................................................56Table 31.....................................................................................................................................................56Table 32.....................................................................................................................................................57Table 33.....................................................................................................................................................57Table 34.....................................................................................................................................................58Table 35.....................................................................................................................................................58Table 36.....................................................................................................................................................59Table 37.....................................................................................................................................................59Table 38.....................................................................................................................................................60Table 39.....................................................................................................................................................60Table 40.....................................................................................................................................................61

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Table 41.....................................................................................................................................................62Table 42.....................................................................................................................................................62

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List of used abreviations LCA- Life cycle analysis

PES- Polyester

Cm- Centimetre

Kg- Kilogram

g – Gramm

l – Litre

Min- Minimum

Max- Maximum

N- Newton

cN- Centinewton

VII

1 Introduction By choosing a Zara jeans as research product, the project Materials II was about to start. The chosen target group is a typical Zara customer between 15 and 30 who likes to be very trendy and is usually buying a pair of jeans for 30 to 50 Euros with the expectation of keeping the jeans for at least 6 months. The overall aim of the research was the special focus on an improved LCA and a new natural dyeing technique. Especially the denim industry calls for research development all over the world in terms of waste and water treatment. Therefore the two chosen implementation steps are inside the dyeing and recycling. For creating the blue color of denim mostly a synthetic dye is used, but a traditional natural indigo dye also exists and is considered as much more eco-friendly, because it is made of renewable resources. The natural indigo dye powder can be extracted by several dyeing plants; two of them are polygonum tinctorum and isatis tinctoria. To actually apply the dye onto the fabric a reducing agent is needed, which is in most cases the synthetic reducing agent sodium dihionite. Sodium dihionite is very harmful towards the environment, but there are already a lot of natural alternatives on the market, for example the use of glucose as reducing agent is one of those (Saikhao, Karpkird, Setthayanond, & Suwanruji, 2017). Although before one can start dyeing, different pre-treatment steps are needed to finally apply the color onto the fabric. These different pre-treatment steps are also causing water, heat and chemical use. Therefore it would be very useful of trying out of leaving one step out before dyeing. By taking the recycling part into account, there are already many techniques on the market to recycle fibers with the view of saving materials. The main fabric of jeans is cotton. The jeans chosen for the project consists of a cotton elastane mix, which makes it even more difficult to finally recycle the denim. Unfortunately cotton clothing is not simple to recycle in terms of receiving good quality at the end, because the chopping up process tends to lower the quality (Radhakrishnan, 2016). With the additional polyester yarn for the seams and elastane for the stretch a fast pure production of fiber bulk is not possible. By changing the raw material of the denim into 100% cotton and by leaving the polyester yarn for the seam, more possibilities of recycling are open, in terms of density differentiation and polymerization (Oelerich, Groeneveld, Bouwhuis, &Brinks, 2014) As quality manager it is the most important aspect of insuring the customer a good quality and taking care of all kinds of quality requirements, therefore the new natural dye and the new chosen fabric in terms of recycling needs to be compared with the Zara jeans and finally meet certain requirements. Apart from the research on the quality of the new steps, the quality report shows all additional materials of the Zara jeans, which are needed to take into account for a complete LCA analysis.

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2 SummaryThe quality report shows different realised quality tests at denim fabrics, with special focus on an improved LCA and a new dyeing technique. The denim industry is calling for a lot of changes and implementations; therefore a closer look at dyeing procedures and recycling procedures has been made during the project. The reason for the main quality research is based on the new eco-friendly natural dye. Therefore a Zara jeans was first of all compared with a 100% cotton denim fabric. The Zara jeans consist out of a cotton spandex mix, which would be very challenging in terms of recycling. Therefore the raw material of the main fabric was changed to 100% cotton, to actually have more options open of different recycling processes and to receive qualitative recycled fibers out of it. To assure that the new cotton fabric is meeting the requirements the testing of the materials and the comparison of the materials is necessary to ensure that they meet the technical and technological requirements. Jeans are worn very often and regular, therefore the wearing experience must be very good and the denim construction and weight needs to ensure that the fabric can resist tearing and hold up to surface abrasion. Therefore the main experiments of the two denim fabrics were: wash fastness, perspiration fastness, rubbing fastness, dimensional stability after washing, light fastness, tensile strength, tearing resistance and breathability. Apart from that several raw material researches has been made, like microscopic image, burn test, spray test, water drop, oil drop and dye research to have a proof of the used materials, finishes and the used dye. These informations are helping also in terms of a complete LCA analysis and one can better compare the different results based on the known components. By looking at the results of the two denim fabrics, it is visible that both fabrics nearly gained the same results in terms of quality standards. Although the new denim performed lot better at the wash fastness, which shows that the fabric are not losing a lot of colour during washing onto different other materials. In terms of perspiration fastness, tensile strength and tearing resistance both fabrics performed based on the requirements. At the rubbing fastness both fabrics did not performed very well and the new denim fabric is not meeting the requirement of the dimensional stability after washing, due to much shrinkage or lengthening. At last the new denim fabric is meeting nearly all requirements in terms of needed quality of jeans. Only the dimensional stability after washing and the rubbing fastness would not meet the requirements. Therefore the new 100% cotton fabric would be a good change for the Zara denim fabric also in terms of quality requirements. Apart from the tested cotton material the quality report is also dealing with fabrics dyed with natural indigo powder. As quality manager it is also good to know what kind of natural alternatives you have inside your life cycle and how these natural alternatives might can change the product in terms of quality. For implementing the natural powder, with the usage of glucose as reducing agent an unbleached cotton fabric was treated with a desizing, scouring and bleaching and mercerazation step. Afterwards each separate step was dyed with two natural powders of indigo, extracted from two different plants. Each pre-treatment step was dyed, to finally see the colour result and to have a look if there is a possibility of leaving one step out. The main experiments of the new dyed fabrics were the wash fastness test and the crocking fastness. These tests are most important in terms of colour bleeding and if the fabric has taken up the natural dye probably. At the wash fastness the new dyed fabrics performed very well, also compared to the other fabrics and the requirements. There was nearly no colour change visible. In terms of crocking fastness the new dyed fabrics performed very badly, mostly with the worst results possible. Other teste were not useful to perform with the new dyed fabrics, because the dyed fabrics are plain weaves and denim fabrics are mostly twill weaves. The plain weave was more taken to get an idea how the dye would look like at a cotton fabric. The end conclusion of the quality report is that the actual natural indigo dye process went wrong. Due to problems of chemical water ratio and differences of heat temperature the dyeing process did not worked out probably. Therefore the fabric was not able to take up the dye probably and even. The colour which can be seen at the end at the plain fabrics would not meet the requirement in terms of quality. It is not an equal dyed fabric and the blue colour is also to light in comparison to the jeans fabrics. The rubbing fastness would also not meet the requirements, only the wash fastness test. At the end the new dyed fabrics would not be an option in terms of quality. Maybe if the dyeing process have been worked out the qulity would have been better, but there

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was no possibility to test this with the samples. At the samples it can be also seen that the mercerized piece dyed the best, therefore in terms of quality it would not be possible to leave one pre-treatment step out.

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3 Raw material research

3.1 Burn test

Purpose

The burn test indicates which raw material is used in the fabric. Knowing the raw material of the product helps to make a clear analysis of the LCA. The raw material of a product also helps to define the clear characteristics of a fabric. The burn test is done for the first fast check, what might be the raw material. Afterwards one continues with the microscopic image and the vapour test. The burn test was made with all materials which were part of the project.

Apparatus and materials

Scissors

Tweezers

Lighter

Test specimens

Considerable amount of yarn or fibres of the test fabric for burning

Test procedure

The burn test indicates which kind of raw material is used inside the fabric. For conducting the burn test a yarn or fibres of the fabric needs to be taken out and burnt with a lighter, by holding the yarn/fibres with tweezers. One needs to pay attention to the following aspects: melting, self-extinguishing, smoke colour, smell, smoulders and yarn end. The observed results need to be compared with the burn test table at page 147 at the practice quality research reader, for finding out the possible raw material.

Safety precaution

Glasses and a work coat is required

3.2 Microscopic image

Purpose

The microscopic images are needed to identify the characteristics of a fiber. With having a look through the microscope, one can easily identify which kind of fiber type the fabric has got and can compare these images with the pictures inside the quality reader, to especially distinguish if it is a natural or synthetic fiber. After knowing the exact raw material of the fabric, the next step could be starting with testing’s or further researches on the distinguished raw material type. Knowing the exact type of raw material inside the jeans is very important concerning the LCA analysis, therefore the microscopic images were taken of all materials, which are part of the project.

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Microscope

Water drop

Tweezers

Microscope slide

Cover glass

Test specimens

Considerable amount of fibre from the test fabric for creating a microscopic image

Test procedure

The microscopic image is carried out, to look at the exterior appearance of a fiber and finally identify the raw material of it. The first step of performing the test is to take out a considerable amount of fiber, which needs to be identified. The best method for doing this is using tweezers. After the considerable amount is taken out, the fiber is going to be placed on top of a microscope slide. Now a water drop is placed on top of the fiber and finally closed with a cover glass. After finishing these steps the microscope slide can be placed inside the microscope. While looking at the fiber through the microscope one can easily adjust the objectives and the focus to see the fiber in a clear view.

Safety precaution

/

3.3 Vapour test

Purpose

The vapour test is only needed, if there is a distinguishing needed between PES and PAC. Therefore the vapour test needs to be performed after the burn test, to clearly identify the raw material of the test material. The vapour test was taken with all polyester yarns used for the project, to clearly identify the raw material and for a clear analysis of the LCA of the jeans.


Test tube

Red litmus paper

Blue litmus paper

Bunsen burner

Clamp

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Test specimens

Considerable amount of yarn or fibres of the test fabric for burning

Test procedure

For performing the vapour test one needs to put the yarn or fibres, which is going to be tested into a test tube. Now the red and blue litmus paper is going to be placed crossed on top of the test tube, fastened with a clamp. The litmus paper is going to be moistened by dropping one drop of water on top of the paper and the test tube is placed above the Bunsen burner. If the red paper turns blue, it means there is alkaline vapour (protein based fibre) and if the blue paper turns red, it means there is acidic vapour (cellulose based fibre).

Safety precaution

Glasses and a work coat is required

3.4 Dye research: Test 1

Purpose

Dyeing fibres is the process of adding colour to a material. The colouring material is applied to a solution and clings to a material surface. Different types of dyes are related to different kinds of raw materials, finding out what kind of dye was used for the test fabric, helps to further analyse the LCA and the impact on the whole supply chain. While performing the first dye test, the distinguishing between decomposing and going into the solution is determined. After all at least three dye tests have to be performed, to clearly distinguish between the different types of dyes. The first dye test was performed with the Zara denim fabric and the new denim fabric.


A piece of mercerized cotton (half as big as the sample)

Test tube

2ml sodium hydroxide 10%

Pinch of sodium hydrosulphite

Few drops of hydrogen peroxide

Heating plate

Test specimens

Piece of the sample or a bundle of threads that needs to be tested

Test procedure

The first step of performing the first dye test is wrapping a piece of mercerized cotton into the test sample. Afterwards the two pieces are going to be placed inside a test tube with 2ml sodium hydroxide 10% and a pinch of sodium hydrosulphite. After adding all the ingredients, everything needs to heat up at 60 degrees. Now the

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mixture is heating up for several minutes and a few drops of sodium hydrosulphite are going to be added in the test tube. After this the samples are going to be washed cold and dried. Finally the result is going to be assessed whether the dye has been decomposed or has gone into the solution. Finally the result is going to be assessed based on the table of outline for dye research inside the quality research reader.

Safety precaution

Glasses, work coat and gloves are required


Purpose

The second dye test is distinguishing if the dye has been affected by the treatment or not. The test needs to be performed to go on with the dye research and to find a clearer distinguishing of the used dye types. The test was performed with the Zara denim fabric and the new denim fabric.


Sodium hypochlorite solution

Test tube

Test specimens


Test procedure

After performing the first dye test, the second dye test needs to be performed to make a clearer distinguishing between the different types of dyes. The sample, which is going to be tested is treated at room temperature for 20 minutes with the solution sodium hypochlorite (contains 14 grams of active chlorine per litre). After 20 minutes the sample is going to be washed and assessed whether the sample has changed colour or lost its colour. Finally the result is going to be assessed based on the table of outline for dye research inside the quality research reader.

Safety precaution



Purpose

The third dye test is distinguishing if the dye has run on the mercerised cotton or not. The test needs to be performed to go on with the dye research and to find a clearer distinguishing of the used dye types. The test was performed with the Zara denim fabric and the new denim fabric.


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A piece of mercerised cotton

Water

2, 5% Marseille soap solution

Heating plate

Test specimens


Test procedure

After performing the previous dye tests, the third test is going to be performed. The sample and a piece of mercerized cotton are going to be placed inside a test tube and in a 2,5% Marseille soap solution. After 5 minutes boiling the sample is going to be washed and assessed whether the used dye has run on the mercerized cotton. Finally the result is going to be assessed based on the table of outline for dye research inside the quality research reader.

Safety precaution


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4 Test description

4.1 Wash fastness (BS EN ISO 105 C10: 2007)

Purpose

Washing fastness of a material is performed, to see changes of its colour characteristics during washing. Some fabrics hold the dye very well, while other fabrics start to bleed when they are washed. The washing fastness also shows how well the dye was performed. The washing fastness test was performed with the Zara denim, the new denim and the new dyed fabrics. The purpose of the test is to see which fabric starts to bleed during washing. Especially because a new dyeing method is carried out during the project, it is wise to see if the dye meets the required quality standards, compared to the other denim fabrics. Indigo dye has got a very strong blue colour; therefore it would be a shame if the blue colour starts bleeding during washing and attaches other garments inside the washing machine.


Multifiber fabric based on ISO 105-F10 with the dimensions of 4cm x 10cm

Soap solution with a concentration of 5 grams/liter

Labomat tester with a volume of at least 550ml and 40 rotations per minute

10 stainless steel balls of 6mm diameter

Greyscales, to determine the test results

Scissors for cutting the fabric

Stapler for attaching the multifiber with the test sample

Oven

Test specimens

Test sample with the dimensions of 4cm x 10cm

Test procedure

To determine the wash fastness of a certain fabric one need to cut out a piece of the tested fabric with the size of 4cm x 10cm. Afterwards there will be a multifibre fabric of the same size attached to it with a stapler. The two fabrics need to be attached to each other at the top of the short side of the two fabrics, approximately half a centimetre from the far end. Then the sample needs to be put in a container with 250ml water mixed with 5gr/l of synthetic soap and 10 stainless steel balls. Now the container needs to be closed with the red key and placed into the Labomat. In this case, it was done for 45 minutes on 40°C, with a liquid ratio of: 1:50. After washing the sample needs to be taken out of the Labomat and have to be washed afterwards with cold soft water at least for 2 minutes. Afterwards the sample needs to be dried, this can be done in an oven, but the drying temperature can’t be more than 60 degrees. While putting the sample into the oven one needs to take care that different samples do

not touch each other, to prevent dye migration. To finally determine the test results, the test samples need to be compared to the greyscale in case of bleeding or staining.

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Safety precautions

For performing the wash fastness safety glasses and a work coat is required.

4.2 Spray-test method (ISO 4920-2010)

Purpose

The spray-test method is carried out, to see if the denim fabrics have got any kind of water-repellent finishes applied. That information is useful regarding the characteristics and the life cycle steps of the fabrics. An applied finish could be another process step of the garment production, which needs harmful chemicals. The spray-test method was performed with the Zara denim and the new denim fabrics.


Spray-Tester

Standard spray test rating scale

250ml of water, heated up to 27 degrees

Test specimens

Test sample with the dimensions of 18cm by 18cm

Test procedure

To determine the resistancy of water repellent finished products one need to cut out a test sample with the dimensions of 18cm x 18 cm. Afterwards the unfolded sample is going to be attached to the spray tester with a clamp, which helps to attach the fabric to a 15cm round metal clip. Using a twill weave, the fabric needs to be clamped diagonally inside the clip, allowing the water flowing of the fabric. Now 250ml of water need to be heated up to a temperature of 27 degrees with the help of a beaker. Now the water is poured with the beaker into the funnel of the test machine. The shower head of the spray-tester needs to be 15cm above the centre of the test sample, assuring an equal spreading of water over the fabric. As soon as the water has gone through the funnel, grab the clip with the test material and hit the worktable with the other side of the clip. Then, turn the clip by 180 ° and hit with force as well the worktable. To finally determine the test results the sample is assessed based on the standard spray testing rating scale.

Safety precautions


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4.3 Du Pont water drop test (ISO 4920)

Purpose

As mentioned in the previous purpose for the spray-test method the Du Pont water drop test was performed to see if the fabrics have got any kinds of finishes applied, which could causes additional steps inside the life cycle of the product. The test was performed with the Zara denim and new denim fabrics.


Six test solutions, consisting of increased amount of alcohol

Test specimens


Test procedure

To investigate the degree of water-repellency, a sample with the dimension of 5cm x 20 cm needs to be cut out. Now the sample is placed on a table and going to be assessed by 6 different water solutions, containing different percentages of propanol. Starting with solution number one the assessor drops the test solution onto the fabric and waits for about 10 seconds if the water drop is absorbed by the fabric. If the water drop wasn’t absorbed by the fabric and still placed on top of the fabric, solution number two is going to be dropped onto the fabric. The second drop is placed next to the first drop. The assessor is going to repeat this, until one drop is going to be absorbed by the fabric. To finally determine the test result the repellency is indicated by the grade of water drop with the highest number in which the absorbing took place within 10 seconds. The higher the number of the test solution by which complete moistening takes place, the more water-repellent the fabric is.

Safety precautions


4.4 Oil repellency (AATC Test 11801983)

Purpose

As mentioned in the previous purposes for the spray-test method and the Du Pont water drop test, the oil drop test is performed to see if the denim fabrics have got any kinds of oil stains finishes applied, for example Teflon finish or Scotch-Guard. The application of this kind of finishes causes additional steps inside the life cycle of a denim fabric, which might uses harmful chemicals. Apart from that it is also useful to know what kind of characteristics the fabric has in terms of quality. The test was performed with the Zara denim and new denim fabrics.


Six test solutions consisting of different hydrocarbon compounds

Test specimens


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Test procedure

To investigate the sensitivity of the test sample with regard to oil stains, a sample with the dimension of 5cm x 20 cm needs to be cut out. Now the sample is placed on a table and going to be assessed by 6 different solutions, containing different percentages of hydrocarbon compounds. Starting with solution number one the assessor drops the test solution onto the fabric. Therefore the drop needs to have a diameter of approximately 5mm. Now the assessor is looking at the drop for about 30 seconds, if the oil drop is absorbed by the fabric, or the fabric turns darker. If the oil drop wasn’t absorbed by the fabric and still placed on top of the fabric, solution number two is going to be dropped onto the fabric. The second drop is placed next to the first drop. The assessor is going to repeat this, until one drop is going to be absorbed by the fabric. To finally determine the test result the repellency is indicated by the grade of oil drop with the highest number in which the absorbing took place within 30 seconds. The higher the number of the test solution by which complete moistening takes place, the more oil-repellent the fabric is.

Safety precautions


4.5 Perspiration fastness (ISO 105-E04: 1994)

Purpose

The perspiration fastness is carried out to determine what the influence is of human sweat on the colour of the denim fabrics. The test needs to be performed especially on garments/fabrics that will come in direct contact with the body, where perspiration can occur. Jeans are worn very regular and often by all kinds of people. Also in hot weather conditions jeans are worn and one can easily sweat inside, because for example skinny jeans are very close to the skin. The main purpose of the test is to determine the influence of sweat at the two denim fabrics and if the dye will change colour or starts to bleed, which will result in a low quality fabric and a low quality dye.


Perspirometer

5kg weight

50ml alkaline sweat solution for every gram of tested material

50ml acid sweat solution for every gram of tested material

Multifibers according to ISO 105-F10

4 Perspex plates (60mm x 120mm)

Kiln at a temperature of 37 degrees

Greyscales

Cylinders of 100ml

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Scissor

Stapler with stainless steel staples

Textile marker

Test specimens


Test procedure

To determine the influence of human sweat on dyed textile fabric the perspiration test is performed. Two test samples with the dimensions of 5cm x 20 cm need to be cut out and each sample needs to be attached to a multifiber with a stapler. For a better recognition of the samples it is wise to mark the samples with the initials Z for acid and A for alkaline. Knowing in what kind of solution the sample has to go next. The next step is pouring the sweat solution and the sample into the cylinder with a ratio of 50ml solution for every gram of tested material. Do this step for the alkaline solution and the acidic solution in separate cylinders.Now leave the wet compounds at room temperature for about 30 minutes. After 30 minutes the test samples need to be squeezed out between the fingers and afterwards placed between 2 perspex plates. Put the Perspex plates inside the perspirometer and put the 5kg weights on top of it. By finishing the preparation of the perspirometer the machine is going to be placed into the kiln at 37 degrees. Leave the samples over there for 4 hours. After 4 hours take the perspirometers out of the kile and the samples going dried in the air. Making sure the two different samples of the two sweat solutions do not touch each other. After drying, the colour change and the extent of staining is assessed with the help of greyscales. Several tests can be performed in one perspirometer at one. Therefore it is wise to use one perspirometer for the acidic solution and one for the alkaline solution, that several groups can use the machine at once.

Safety precautions


Notes

Alkaline sweat solution consists of:

0, 5 gram/liter L-Histidine Monohydrochloride Monohydrate

5 gram/liter sodium chloride

5 gram/liter Disodium phosphate

Acid sweat solution

Dissolve in a liter of distilled water and adjust to pH 8 with an 0,1 mol/l NaOH solution

Acidic sweat solution consists of:

0,5g/l L-Histidine Monohydrochloride Monohydrate

5g/l sodium chloride

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2,2g/l monosodium phosphate

Dissolve in a liter of distilled water and adjust to pH 5,5 with a 0,1 mol/l NaOH solution

4.6 Rubbing fastness (ISO 105-X12: 1993)

Purpose

The rubbing fastness is carried out to determine the influence of rubbing on the colour of a fabric with regard to staining on other materials. This test also partially determines the quality of the used dye, if the dye is well attached to the fabric or not. For jeans fabric the test is very important, because jeans are in direct contact with underwear and especially if one walks the two fabrics are getting in contact with each other. To prevent colour staining on jeans it is therefore important to perform the rubbing fastness. Especially because a new dye technique is performed during the project, it is useful to perform the rubbing fastness test, to compare the quality results with the two denim fabrics and if the new dye meets the required quality standards.


Crockmeter, with a finger that needs to rub a straight 10cm line at 9N

Demineralised water

4 pieces of desized, bleached cotton, with the dimensions of 5cm x 5cm

Greyscale

Scissor

Textile marker

Test specimens

Test sample with the dimensions of 5cm by 20cm in warp direction

Test samples with the dimensions of 5cm by 20cm in weft direction

Test procedure

4 pieces of fabric (2 in warp direction and 2 in weft direction) with the measurements of 22cm x 8cm have to be cut out. Starting with the weft direction, the next step is attaching one of the weft samples to the main surface of the crockmeter, so the test sample can’t move. Performing the dry rubbing method the dry cotton piece is going to be placed at the tip of the finger, with a flat surface. The finger now has to move 19 times back and forth over 10cm in 10 seconds. Next the cotton piece and textile sample are taken out of the crockmeter and going to be assessed by the greyscales, according to different colour changes. Same as dry rubbing, the wet rubbing method is going to be performed with a piece of cotton. In addition to the first method the cotton piece has to be moistening by demineralised water. By letting a drop of water falling onto the cotton piece and placing it into the finger of the crockmeter 19 repetitions of the finger are going to follow. After rubbing, the cotton piece has to dry at room temperature. To finally determine the colour change, the wet cotton piece and test samples are going to be assessed with the grey scales. The same test order is performed for the warp direction.

14

Safety precautions


Notes

For some of the new dyed fabrics it was not possible to do the rubbing fastness in both directions, because there was not enough dyed fabric available.

It is useful to mark the different samples with codes, to make sure the identification of the different samples is easier.

Use the following codes, for the different directions:

WED→ Weft dry

WAD→ Warp dry

WEW→ Weft wet

WAW→ Warp wet

4.7 Dimensional stability after washing (ISO 5077)

Purpose

The dimensional stability test after washing is carried out, to determine the shrinkage of a fabric, after the fabric has been washed. Especially for jeans one need to be sure about the fact that the jeans which fitted quite well is not going to shrink after washing. To make sure the jeans fabrics which were chosen for the project is meeting these kinds of requirements the Zara denim fabric and the new denim fabric was tested.


Washing machine (AEG Turnette SL laundry machine)

2 grams per liter household detergent

Measuring scale

Test specimens

A square with the dimensions of 25cm x 25cm, marked on a 30cm x 30cm piece of the test sample

Test procedure

The determination of the dimensional stability after washing was done at 40 ° C. For the preparation, a square of 25cm x 25cm is marked with a non washable marker, on a 30cm x 30cm big piece of the test sample. Then the square is remeasured at three spots in both warp and weft direction. After the preparation the test piece is washed after Saxion standards, according to the one of the washing programs of the AEG Turnette SL laundry machine with 2 grams per liter household detergent. After washing the test piece is dried flat. For indicating the average

15

shrinkage for the warp and weft direction in %, the test sample needs to be measured in the marked square in both directions and the percentage is calculated with the following formulas:

% shrinkage = final length – original length original length

% surface shrinkage = final surface – original surface original surface

Safety precautions


Notes

The test with the Zara denim fabric was performed with a sample with the dimensions 10cm x 10cm, marked on a 20cm x 20cm piece, because there was not enough fabric available.

4.8 Light fastness (ISO 105-B02: 1994)

Purpose

The light fastness test is carried out, to determine the impact of light on the colour of the dyed fabric. Because jeans are often in contact with sunlight, it is important to determine the fastness of the colour. No one wants to have jeans, which is going to lose its colour after some time in the sunlight. The test was performed with the Zara denim fabric, to see how strong the dye is, when it comes to permanent contact with light. It would have been also useful to perform this test with the other two fabrics, but it wasn’t possible, because the machine needs around 3 weeks to run until the test is performed.


Standard blue scale to assess colour change of light fastness

Xenon light tester

Test specimens

Test sample with the dimensions of 4,5cm x 0,5cm

Test procedure

To determine the impact of light on the colour of the dyed fabric, the light fastness test is performed. The first step is cutting out a piece of the test fabric with the dimensions of 4,5cm x 0,5cm. Next the fabric is going to be attached to an extra piece of paper for the light fastness samples, together with other samples of other groups. Now the light fastness samples are going to be placed inside the xenon light tester, which is faster and can imitate the effect of daylight. After three weeks the samples are taken out of the xenon light tester and assessed with the standard blue scale, to see if any colour changes occurred.

Safety precautions

16

4.9 Tensile Strength (ISO Standard 13934-1:1999)

Purpose

The tensile strength test is carried out, to determine the tensile strength and elasticity of a fabric. Especially garments in which is going to be moved a lot a good tensile strength is necessary. The test was performed with the Zara denim fabric and the new denim fabric, to assure a good quality of the fabrics.


Tensile testing machine

Test specimens

5 samples in weft direction with the dimensions of 6cm x 35cm

5 samples in warp direction with the dimensions of 6cm x 35cm

Test procedure

To determine the tensile strength of a fabric the first step is to weigh the test fabric. The sample for the determination of the weight per m2 needs to be a round sample with an 11,284cm diameter. After weighing the test sample, the weight needs to be multiplied by 100 to be able to use inside the tensile testing machine. One then cuts 5 samples in each warp and weft direction with a size of 6 cm x 35cm, which are finally frayed back 1cm to a width of 5cm. On the computer for the tensile machine the ISO standard, information about the fabric weight in square meters and the size of the samples needs to be chosen. With a pedal, the clamps inside the machine can be opened and one sample at a time needs to be put in. After pressing start the machine stretches the fabric on both ends until the first yarn starts breaking. The machine then calculates the maximum force that was needed to break the fabric and the elongation of the fabric in percentage. After receiving all the outcomes, one need to take the sum of the forces of the 5 samples in each direction and divide these by 5 to receive the average force needed for warp and weft direction.

Safety precautions

/

Notices

The test with the Zara denim fabric was performed with only warp samples, because there was not enough fabric available.

4.10 Tearing resistance (EN-ISO- 13937-1: 2000)

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Purpose

The tearing resistance test is carried out, to determine how a fabric can withstand the effect of tearing. If low resistance occur, it can also affect the resistance to abrasion and any little damage to such a material could cause quick failures. Therefore the test is required to see if certain standards of a denim fabric are fulfilled and the fabric withstands customer use. The tearing resistance was performed with the Zara denim fabric and the new denim fabric.


Elmatic machine

Test specimens

5 samples in weft direction with the dimensions of 10cm x 6,3cm using an iron mould

5 samples in warp direction with the dimensions of 10cm x 6,3cm using an iron mould

Test procedure

To determine the tearing resistance of a fabric the first step is to cut out 5 samples in warp direction and 5 samples in weft direction, based on the dimensions of the iron mould. After cutting out the samples one needs to place each sample at a time into the Elamatic machine. The samples need to be placed at the correct position into the machine and tightened with two clamps. Now the required weight needs to be determined, based on the properties of the fabric. After doing all these steps each sample at a time is placed into the machine.

Safety precautions

/

Notices

For the Zara denim fabric 30k has been used for the warp direction and 6,4k has been used for the weft direction. For the new denim fabric 6,4k has been used for both directions.

4.11 Breathability (Out of the box)

Purpose

The breathability test is carried out to determine the breathability of the two compared jeans fabrics. The test shows how long it takes for one water drop to evaporate due to heat influence. The main purpose of this test is to have a look at the breathability based on a better wear comfort ability and a breathable fabric is much nicer to wear. The test was performed with the Zara jeans fabric and the new denim fabric, to see the clear comparison of the two fabrics.

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Two pieces of paper, with the dimension of 10cm x 15cm

One hairdryer

Water

Timer

Test specimens

One sample of each fabric with the dimensions of a round sample with an 11,284 cm diameter

Test procedure

To perform the breathability test, the first step is to cut out one sample of each fabric with the dimensions of a round sample with an 11,284cm diameter. Once the samples are cut out two pieces of paper, with the dimensions of 10cm x 15cm are cut out. Next one water drop is going to be dropped with the finger onto the fabric; the best position for the water drop will be the middle of the paper. Next the fabric is placed on top of the paper and the hairdryer is placed in a distance of 10cm in front of the fabric. With starting the timer, the hairdryer is also going to start. Always keeping an eye on the wet spot of the paper and sometimes feels with the finger, if the position is still wet. If the water drop has gone and one can’t feel a wet spot anymore, one needs to turn of the timer. After performing the test with the two fabrics, both results are going to be compared.

Safety precaution

/

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5 Raw material research resultsAt this chapter the main fabrics, which have been tested are shown with their microscopic image, burn test and extra material information.

5.1 Blue (warp Zara denim yarn)

FIGURE 1: MICROSCOP IMAGE OF WARP YARN

Burn test Material informationMelting: No

Self-Extinguishing: NoSmoke Color: Gray

Smell: PaperSmoulder: YesYarn End: Soft

→Vegetable

Out of 3 YarnsZ-Twist

Yarn DyedRotor Spun

TABLE 1

5.2 White (weft Zara denim yarn)

FIGURE 2: MICROSCOPIC IMAGE OF WEFT YARN



Smell: PaperSmoulder: YesYarn End: Soft

→Vegetable

Out of 2 Materials Spandex in the Core

Core Spun Yarn Z-Twist

Ring Spun

TABLE 2

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5.3 Blue (warp new denim yarn)

FIGURE 3: MICROSCOPIC IMAGE OF THE WARP COTTON THREAD OF THE NEW DENIM



Smell: PaperSmoulder: YesYarn End: Soft→Vegetable

Yarn dyedZ-twist 2-Ply

Ring spun yarn

TABLE 3

5.4 White (weft new denim yarn)

FIGURE 4: MICROSCOPIC IMAGE OF WEFT NEW DENIM YARN




Z-twist 2-Ply

Rotor spun yarn

TABLE 4

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5.5 Grey fabric dyed with Isatis tinctoria extractum

FIGURE 5: MICROSCOPIC IMAGE OF GREY FABRIC DYED WITH ISATIS TINCTORIA EXTRACTUM




Grey fabricDyed with isatis tinctoria extractum

TABLE 5

5.6 Desized fabric dyed with Isatis tinctoria extractum

FIGURE 6: MICROSCOPIC IMAGE OF DESIZED FABRIC DYED WITH ISATIS TINCTORIA EXTRACTUM




Desized fabricDyed with isatis tinctoria extractum

TABLE 6

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5.7 Scoured and bleached fabric dyed with Isatis tinctoria extractum

FIGURE 7: MICROSCOPIC IMAGE OF SCOURED AND BLEACHED FABRIC DYED WITH ISATIS TINCTORIA EXTRACTUM




Treated with deszising, scouring and bleachingDyed with isatis tinctoria extractum

TABLE 7

5.8 Mercerized fabric dyed with Isatis tinctoria extractum

FIGURE 8: MICROSCOPIC IMAGE OF MERCERIZED FABRIC DYED WITH ISATIS TINCTORIA EXTRACTUM




Treated with deszising, scouring, bleaching and mercerization

Dyed with isatis tinctoria extractum

TABLE 8

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5.9 Grey fabric dyed with polygonum tinctorum extractum

FIGURE 9: MICROSCOPIC IMAGE OF GREY FABRIC DYED WITH POLYGONUM TINCTORUM EXTRACTUM




Grey fabricDyed with polygonum tinctorum extractum

TABLE 9

5.10 Desized fabric dyed with polygonum tinctorum extractum

FIGURE 10: MICROSCOPIC IMAGE OF DESIZED FABRIC DYED WITH POLYGONUM TINCTORUM EXTRACTUM




Desized fabric Dyed with polygonum tinctorum extractum

TABLE 10

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5.11 Scoured and bleached fabric dyed with polygonum tinctorum extractum

FIGURE 11: MICROSCOPIC IMAGE OF SCOURED AND BLEACHED FABRIC DYED WITH POLYGONUM TINCTORUM EXTRACTUM




Treated with deszising, scouring and bleachingDyed with polygonum tinctorum extractum

TABLE 11

5.12 Mercerized fabric dyed with polygonum tinctorum extractum

FIGURE 12: MICROSCOPIC IMAGE OF MERCERIZED FABRIC DYED WITH POLYGONUM TINCTORUM EXTRACTUM




Treated with deszising, scouring, bleaching and mercerisation

Dyed with polygonum tinctorum extractum

TABLE 12

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6 ResultsAt this chapter the results of the main fabrics are shown, followed by a short conclusion.

6.1 Dye research

Results

Material Requirements (Min/Max) ResultsZara denim Test 1

Dye goes into solution. A vat is formed. Colour of sample in vat is

usally darker. Average cotton is dyed lightly. After reoxydation,

original colour comes back (sometimes somewhat lighter). Blue

colours almost never turn in the vat!

Test 2High chlorine fastness!

Exception: several blue and green colours have a lower chlorine

fastness

Test 3High wash fastness!

Mercerised cotton does not dye.

New denim fabric Test 1Dye goes into solution. A vat is

formed. Colour of sample in vat is usally darker. Average cotton is dyed lightly. After reoxydation,

original colour comes back (sometimes somewhat lighter). Blue

colours almost never turn in the vat!

Test 2High chlorine fastness!

Exception: several blue and green colours have a lower chlorine

fastness

Test 3High wash fastness!

Mercerised cotton does not dye.

TABLE 13

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Conclusion

The results based on the dye research shows that the used dye which is applied at the denim fabrics is vat indigo dye. You can see it especially at the reoxydation and the original colour comes back, the high chlorine fastness and the high wash fastness of the test samples.

6.2 Wash fastness (BS EN ISO 105 C10: 2007)

Results

Material Requirements (Min/Max) ResultsZara denim Change: 4 Wool: 4

Acrylic: 4-5Polyester:3-4

Nylon:3Cotton:3

Secondary Cellulose Acetate:2-3

New denim fabric Change: 4 Wool: 5Acrylic: 5

Polyester:5 Nylon:4Cotton:3

Secondary Cellulose Acetate:5New dyed fabrics

Polygonum tinctorumGrey fabric

Desized fabric

Scoured and bleached fabric

Mercerised fabric

Change: 4

Change: 4

Change: 4

Change: 4

Wool: 5Acrylic: 5-4

Polyester:5 -4Nylon:5Cotton:5

Secondary Cellulose Acetate:5

Wool: 5Acrylic: 5

Polyester:4Nylon:4Cotton:5


Wool: 5Acrylic: 5

Polyester:4-5Nylon:4Cotton:5

Secondary Cellulose Acetate:4Wool: 5

Acrylic: 5Polyester:5

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Isatis tinctoriaGrey fabric

Desized fabric


Mercerised fabric

Change: 4

Change: 4

Change: 4

Change: 4

Nylon:3-4Cotton:5


Wool: 5Acrylic: 5

Polyester:4Nylon:4-5Cotton:5


Wool: 5Acrylic: 5

Polyester:5Nylon:4-5Cotton:4


Wool: 5Acrylic: 5

Polyester:4-5Nylon:4

Cotton:4-5Secondary Cellulose Acetate:5

Wool: 5Acrylic: 5

Polyester:4Nylon:5Cotton:5


TABLE 14

Conclusion

The wash fastness shows, that the Zara denim fabric only meets the requirement of 4 at the wool and acrylic part of the multifiber. The other fabrics are showing a bigger change than 4 and especially the secondary cellulose acetate performed badly with a change of 2-3. The new denim fabric in comparison performed better than the Zara denim. Only the cotton part is not meeting the requirement of 4. All the new dyed fabrics are meeting the requirement of 4, except the dyed mercerised fabric with polygonum tinctorum shows a change of 3-4 at the nylon part. In the end the new denim fabric and the new dyed fabrics are not losing a lot of colour during washing onto different other materials, the Zara denim fabric in comparison performed less good.

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6.3 Spray test method (ISO 4920-2010)

Results

Material Requirements (Min/Max) ResultsZara denim / 0

New denim fabric / 5OISO 1

TABLE 15

Conclusion

The spray method shows that both fabrics do not have been treated with a water repellent finish. 0 and 1 are the worst results possible; almost the complete surface of both fabrics absorbed the water.

6.4 Du Pont water drop test (ISO 4920)

Results


New denim fabric / 0

TABLE 16

Conclusion

The Du Pont water drop test shows that both denim fabrics do not have been treated with a water repellent finish. 0 is the worst result possible; the water drop has been absorbed directly into both fabrics.

6.5 Oil repellency (AATC Test 11801983)

Results


New denim fabric / 0

TABLE 17

Conclusion

The oil repellency test shows that both denim fabrics do not have been treated with an oil repellent finish. 0 is the worst result possible; the oil drop has been absorbed directly into both fabrics.

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6.6 Perspiration fastness (ISO 105-E04: 1994)

Results

Material Requirements (Min/Max) ResultsZara denim Perspiration Acid

Change: 4

Perspiration AlkalineChange: 4

AcidicWool: 5

Acrylic: 5Polyester:4/5

Nylon:4/5Bleached Cotton:4

Secondary CelluloseAcetate:4/5

AlkalineWool: 5

Acrylic: 4/5Polyester:4/5

Nylon:4Bleached Cotton:4


New denim fabric Perspiration AcidChange: 4

Perspiration AlkalineChange: 4

AcidicWool: 5

Acrylic: 5Polyester:5Nylon:4/5

Bleached Cotton:4/5SecondaryCelluloseAcetate:5

AlkalineWool: 3/4Acrylic:5

Polyester:4/5Nylon:4

Bleached Cotton:5Secondary Cellulose Acetate:4

TABLE 18

Conclusion

The perspiration fastness shows, that the Zara denim fabric and the new denim fabric are meeting the requirement of a max. change of 4. The Zara denim performed with the alkaline and acid solution always with a 4, 4/5 or 5. Which concludes there is no or only slightly colour bleeding in terms of human sweat. The new denim fabric also performed always a 4, 4/5 or 5 towards other materials. Only the wool part of the new denim fabric is having a change of 3-4, which would not meet the requirement of 4.

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6.7 Rubbing fastness (ISO 105-X12: 1993)

Results

Material Requirements (Min/Max) ResultsZara denim Rubbing dry

Staining: 4Rubbing wetStaining: 3-4

Warp Wet: 1Warp Dry: 3

Warp Fabric: 3/4 Weft Wet: 1Weft Dry: 4

Weft Fabric: 4/5

New denim fabric Rubbing dryStaining: 4

Rubbing wetStaining: 3-4

Warp Wet: 1/2Warp Dry: 3/4Warp Fabric: 5

Weft Wet: 3Weft Dry: 3/4Weft Fabric: 5

New dyed fabricsIsatis tinctoria

Grey fabric

Desized fabric


Mercerised fabric

Rubbing dryStaining: 4








Warp Wet: 4/5Warp Dry: 3-4

Warp Fabric: 3-4Weft Wet: 2Weft Dry: 2

Weft Fabric: 3-4

Warp Wet: 3Warp Dry: 3

Warp Fabric: 3Weft Wet: 3-4

Weft Dry: 3Weft Fabric: 3

Warp Wet: 3Warp Dry: 3-4

Warp Fabric: 3-4

Weft Wet: 2-3Weft Dry: 1-2

Weft Fabric: 1-2

TABLE 19

Conclusion

The rubbing fastness test shows the influence of rubbing on the influence of textile fabric. The Zara denim did not performed very well. Only the weft dry and weft fabric is meeting the requirement of 3-4. The new denim fabric is nearly the same, only the warp fabric, weft dry and weft fabric is meeting the requirements. Having a look at the new dyed fabrics you can also see, that nearly all of them do not meet the requirements. Therefore all fabrics did

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not performed very well in terms of rubbing fastness. The fabrics are staining a lot on other fabrics, which results in bad quality. Especially the new dyed fabrics performed badly.

6.8 Dimensional stability after washing (ISO 5077)

Results

Material Requirements (Min/Max) ResultsZara denim Max: -2,0% Length

Max: -2,0% Width% shrinkage or lengthening:

0%

Calculation((10-10)/10)*100=0

% surface shrinkage or lengthening:

0%

Calculation(((10*10)-10*10)/10*10))*100

=0

New denim fabric Max: -2,0% LengthMax: -2,0% Width

% shrinkage or lengthening:-4%

Calculation((24-25)/25)*100= -4%

% surface shrinkage or lengthening:

4%

Calculation(((24*25)-(25*25)/25*25))*100

= 4%

TABLE 20

Conclusion

The dimensional stability after washing shows the overall percentage of the surface shrinkage or lengthening. The test shows that the Zara denim has got the best result possible with a change of 0%. The new denim fabric in comparison has got a result of -4% in shrinkage and a result of 4% of surface change. These results do not meet the requirement of max. -2%. Therefore the Zara denim performed very well at the dimensional stability test and the new denim fabric is not meeting the requirement.

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6.9 Light fastness (ISO 105-B02: 1994)

Results

Material Requirements (Min/Max) ResultsZara denim Max: Change 5 7

TABLE 21

Conclusion

The light fastness test shows the influence of light on the colour of the dyed fabric. The Zara denim is assessed with a 7, which is nearly the best result based on the blue scale. The fabric meets clearly the requirement of 5. Therefore light had nearly no influence on the colour of the dyed fabric. There was no possibility to compare this result with the other fabrics, because the light fastness machine runs for nearly 3 weeks and there was no possibility to do it with the new fabrics.

6.10 Tensile Strength (ISO 13934-1: 1999)

Results

Material Requirements (Min/Max) ResultsZara denim 300N Warp:540,172N

New denim fabric 300N Warp:692,016NWeft:246,322N

TABLE 22

Conclusion

The tensile strength shows how much force is needed to finally rib the fabrics apart. The warp of the Zara denim fabric ribbed apart at 540,172 N which meeting the requirement of 300N. The warp of the new denim fabric is ripped apart at 692,016N and the weft at 246,322N. The warp is meeting the requirement of 300N and it also shows that the new denim fabric needs more force to rib apart, so it has got a higher tensile strength. The weft in comparison ripped apart at a force of 246,322N, which is not meeting the requirement of 300N. There is no comparison between the two weft fabrics possible, because there was not enough fabric available of the Zara denim.

6.11 Tear Strength (EN ISO 13937-1: 2000)

Results

Material Requirements (Min/Max) ResultsZara denim 1600cN Warp:6807,28cN

Weft:3078,264cNNew denim fabric 1600cN Warp:2922,814cN

Weft:2157,446cN

TABLE 23

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Conclusion

The tear strength test shows how much fabric is needed to finally tear the fabrics. The Zara denim needs a force of 6807, 28 cN in warp direction and 3078, 264 cN in weft direction to finally tear apart. Both results are meeting the requirement of 1600cN. Also the new denim fabric meets the requirement with a force needed of 2922, 814 cN in warp and 2157, 446 cN in weft. By comparing these two fabrics the test shows that the Zara denim fabric needs more force to actually tear apart.

6.12 Breathability

Results

Material Requirements (Min/Max) ResultsZara denim Max: 3min 1,02 min

New denim fabric Max: 3min 1,11 min

TABLE 24

Conclusion

The breathability test shows how breathable the two denim fabrics were in terms of water evaporating with the influence of heat. Both fabrics are meeting the requirement of max: 3min. The test also shows that both fabrics are having nearly the same result in terms of breathability. After all you could consider both fabrics as very breathable.

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7 Conclusion and Recommendations Looking back at the gained results based on quality perspectives a clear outcome is visible. The overall aim of the research, the special focus on an improved LCA and a new natural dyeing technique was gained and implemented. By using the natural indigo powder with glucose as reducing agent and changing the denim fabric from cotton spandex to 100% cotton in terms of recycling a new improved LCA has been created. Because of the usage of natural indigo powder it was very important to have a look at how these natural alternatives can change the product in terms of quality. The outcome clearly showed that the dyeing technique with the natural indigo powder was not about to work. The fabric was not dyed equally and also in very light blue colours, which can not be really compared to the other colours of the two denim fabrics. In terms of quality the new dyed fabrics failed at the rubbing fastness, but performed quite well at the wash fastness. Also there was no possibility of leaving out one pre-treatment step, because the mercerized fabric dyed with the best result. At the end the natural dyed fabrics would not be an option in terms of quality for creating jeans. There is a lot of literature existing, which shows that the method with natural indigo powder and glucoseas reducing agent is about to work, therefore one recommendation for the future would be of trying out the dyeing process one more time with the right amount of chemical and water ratio and the right dyeing temperature. After that the quality could be checked one more time in terms of wash fastness and rubbing fastness. If the dye is taking up better from the fabric the rubbing fastness is also increasing and the fabric won’t give up so much dye to the other fabric in terms of rubbing. Because of the wrong dye procedure it was very difficult to really compare the samples in terms of quality with the normal denim fabrics. Also by applying the natural indigo dye at large quantities at jeans one needs to make sure to use always the same extraction of the same plant type and also grown in the same light environment, to always get the same colour and quality standards. Apart from that the dyeing method is very environmental friendly, due to biodegradeable components. The 100% cotton fabric in comparison performed very well based on the quality standards and is therefore meeting all requirements in terms of a good wearability. There are also 100% cotton jeans existing, due to no loss in quality it would be a good change in terms of more possibilities in recycling. The obtained progress after the project is that especially the dyeing method and dyeing result of the jeans is very important in terms of quality. Especially different kinds of fastnesses are most important in terms of quality and to make the customer satisfied. The dyeing techniques all around the world are producing mostly a large amount of waste water; to change that natural indigo with glucose would be one step further towards a more biofriendly environment. Also the change from spandex and cotton to 100% cotton is only a small step, but very useful in terms of recycling.

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8 Reference ListOelerich, J., Groeneveld, R., Bouwhuis, G., & Brinks, G. (2014). Separation and recycling of cotton from cotton/ PET blends by depolymerization of PET catalyzed by bases and ionic liquids. Enschede: Saxion university of applied science.

Radhakrishnan, S. (2016). Denim recycling. In S. Radhakrishnan, Textiles and Clothing Sustainability (S. 79-125). Springer.

Saikhao, L., Karpkird, T., Setthayanond, J., & Suwanruji, P. (january 2017). Comparison of sodium dithionite and glucose as a reducing agent for natural indigo dyeing on cotton fabrics. S. 1-4.

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9 Appendix The Appendix provides extra information of the different test fabrics. It concludes the quality profile test templates and the FST templates of the main fabrics, to provide a much clearer overview of the quality tests which has been performed. Furthermore additional materials and attachements are shown which were needed for a complete LCA analysis of the Zara denim jeans. At the end the requirement based on the ISO standards can be found, especially for trousers and shorts.

9.1 Templates

Zara denim quality profile

TABLE 25

Fabric quality profile

General fabric/yarn information

Construction (knitted/woven)

3/1 Twill

Paste original

sample in here

Content (%)98% Cotton

2% Elastan

Weight (g/m2) 388,29g/m2

Cut width (cm) /

Density Warp x weft

(yrns/cm)

Warp:390yarns/10cm

Weft:220yarns/ 10cm

Gauge (ndls/inch)

Yarnnumber (Tex)Warp: 64.67 Tex

Weft: 45.99 Tex

Coloring (dyed, printed)

Warp yarns are dyed

Special finishes Chemical /

Mechanical /

37

Standard testsImportant (yes/no)

Testing standard (ISO/BS/ASTM)

Rating (scale/value)

Requirement (Min./max.) Results

Tensile Strength Yes ISO 13934-1:1999 300N Warp:540,172N

Tear strength

Yes ISO 13937-1:2000 1600cN Warp:6807,28cN

Weft:3078,264cN

Pilling Yes Machine was broken

Abrasion Yes Machine was broken

Seam strength Yes Not enough fabric

available

Stretch/Recovery No

Wrinkle recovery No

Dimension stability

Yes ISO 5077 Max:

-2,0% Length

Max:

-2,0% Width

Shrinkage or lenghtening

0%

Surface shrinkage or lengthening

0%

Color fastness tests

Light fastness Yes ISO 105-02:1994 Blue scale: 1-8 Change: 5 7

Wash fastness Yes ISO 105 10:2007 Grey scale:1-5 Change: 4

Staining: 4

Wool: 4

Acrylic: 4/5

Polyester:3/4 Nylon:3

Cotton:3

Secondary Cellulose

Acetate:2/3

38

Dry cleaning fastness No

Water fasteness No

Seawater fastness No

Perspiration fastness

Yes ISO 105 E04 1994 Grey scale:1-5 Acid

Change: 4

Staining: 4

Alkaline

Change: 4

Staining: 4

Acidic

Wool: 5

Acrylic: 5

Polyester:4/5

Nylon:4/5

Bleached Cotton:4

Secondary Cellulose

Acetate:4/5

Alkaline

Wool: 5

Acrylic: 4/5

Polyester:4/5

Nylon:4

Bleached Cotton:4

Secondary

Cellulose

Acetate:4

Chlorine fastness No

Crocking fastness Yes ISO 105 X12 Grey scale:1-5 Rubbing dry Warp Wet: 1

39

Staining: 4

Rubbing wet

Staining: 3-4

Warp Dry: 3

Warp Fabric: 3-4

Weft Wet: 1

Weft Dry: 4

Weft Fabric: 4/5

Extra Tests

Wicking No

Waterrepplent Yes ISO 4920-2010 0

Waterproof No

Breathability (out of the box) Yes Max: 3min 1,02 min

Oil drop Yes AATC Test 801983 0

Du Pont water drop Yes ISO 4920 0

40

Zara denim FST

Fabric Specification Template Woven NAME STUDENT AND NUMBER: Isabel Spielmeyer (440894)CLASS: ETE2VCFABRIC CHARACHTERISTICS (fill in as complete as possible): SPECIAL FABRIC PROPERTIES:PRODUCT: Jeans

FABRIC NAME: DenimEFFECTIVE FABRIC WIDTH (in cm): /TYPE OF WEAVE 3/1 Twill SHAFTS 4 (Design) + 2 (Selvedge) = 6 Shafts

RAW MATERIAL COMPOSITION 98% Cotton2% Elastane

FABRIC WEIGHT (in g/m2): 388,29(in g/m2)DENSITY (PER 10 cm) warp and weft Warp: 390 ends/10cm

Weft: 220 picks/ 10cmYARN NUMBER (in Tex): Warp: 64.67 Tex

Weft: 45.99 TexFABRIC THICKNESS (In mm): 1,13 mmDYEING: Fibre dyed Yarn dyed Fabric dyed Garment dyed PRINTING: Direct printing Discharge printing Resist printing SPECIAL FINISHES: Chemical:

Mechanical: Weave Structure

Attach the fabric sample of

5 cm x 10 cm only at the upper edge to enable feeling of a sample.Sample must be cut

on-grain!

FIGURE 13: FST TEMPLATE OF THE ZARA DENIM

New denim quality profile

TABLE 26



41


3/1 Twill

Paste original

sample in here

Content (%) 100% Cotton

Weight (g/m2) 341,13 g/m2

Cut width (cm) 100cm

Density Warp x weft

(yrns/cm)

Wa: 410 yarns/10cm

We: 250 yarns/10cm

Gauge (ndls/inch)

Yarnnumber (Tex)Warp: 64,19 Tex

Weft: 56,52 Tex

Coloring (dyed, printed)

Warp yarns are printed


Mechanical /





Tensile Strength Yes ISO13934-1:1999 300N Warp:692,016N

42

Weft:246,322N

Tear strength

Yes ISO 13937-1:2000 1600cN Warp:2922,814cN

Weft:2157,446cN

PillingYes Machine was

broken

Seam strength Yes Not enough fabric

available

Stretch/Recovery No

Wrinkle recovery No

Dimension stability

Yes ISO 5077 Max:

-2,0% Length

Max:

-2,0% Width

Shrinkage or lenghtening

-4%

Surface shrinkage or lenghtening

+4%


Light fastness Yes ISO 105-02:1994 Blue scale: 1-8 Change: 5

Wash fastness

Yes ISO 105 C10 2007 Grey scale:1-5 Change: 4

Staining: 4

Wool: 5

Acrylic: 5

Polyester:5 Nylon:4

Cotton:3



Water fasteness No


43

Perspiration fastness

Yes ISO 105-E04:1994(E)

Acid

Change: 4

Staining: 4

Alkaline

Change: 4

Staining: 4

Acidic

Wool: 5

Acrylic: 5

Polyester:5

Nylon:4/5

Bleached Cotton:4/5

Secondary

Cellulose

Acetate:5

Alkaline

Wool: 3/4

Acrylic:5

Polyester:4/5

Nylon:4

Bleached Cotton:5

Secondary

Cellulose Acetate:4


Crocking fastness Yes ISO 105 X12 Rubbing dry

Staining: 4

Rubbing wet

Staining: 3-4

Warp Wet: 1/2

Warp Dry: 3/4

Warp Fabric:5

Weft Wet: 3

Weft Dry: 3/4

44

Weft Fabric: 5

Extra Tests

Wicking No

Waterrepplent Yes ISO 4920-2010 50ISO 1

Waterproof No

Breathability (out of the box) Yes Max: 3min 1,11min

Du Pont water drop Yes ISO 4920 3

Oil/water repplent Yes AATC 801983 0

45

New denim FST

New denim FSTFABRIC CHARACHTERISTICS (fill in as complete as possible): SPECIAL FABRIC PROPERTIES:

PRODUCT: Jeans

FABRIC NAME: Denim

EFFECTIVE FABRIC WIDTH (in cm): 100cm

TYPE OF WEAVE: 3/1 Twill

SHAFTS4 (Design) + 2 (Selvedge) = 6 Shafts

RAW MATERIAL COMPOSITION 100% Cotton

FABRIC WEIGHT (in g/m2) 341,13 in g/m2

DENSITY (PER 10 cm) warp and weft Warp: 410 yarns

Weft: 250 yarns

YARN NUMBER (in Tex) Warp: 64,19 Tex

Weft: 56,52 Tex

FABRIC THICKNESS (In mm) 0,93 mm

DYEING: Fibre dyed Yarn dyed Fabric dyed Garment dyed

PRINTING: Direct printing Discharge printing Resist printing

SPECIAL FINISHES: Chemical:

Mechanical:

WEAVE STRUCTURE

Sample

New dyed fabric quality profile

TABLE 27

46




Plain Weave 1 by 1

Paste original

sample in here

Content (%) 100% unbleached Cotton (Grey fabric)

Weight (g/m2) 1,3688 g/m2

Cut width (cm) 100cm

Density Warp x weft

(yrns/cm)

Wa:320yarn/10cm

We:250yarns/10cmGauge (ndls/inch)

Yarnnumber (Tex) Warp: 33,61 Tex, Weft: 28,19 Tex

Coloring (dyed, printed) No Coloring


Mechanical





47

Tensile Strength No

Tear strength No

Pilling No

Seam strength No

Dimension stability No


Light fastness No

Wash fastness Yes ISO 105 C10 2007 Grey Scale Change: 4

Staining: 4

Polygonum tinctorum

Grey fabric

Wool: 5

Acrylic: 5-4

Polyester:5 -4

Nylon:5

Cotton:5


Desized fabric

Wool: 5

Acrylic: 5

Polyester:4

Nylon:4

Cotton:5


48

Scoured and bleached

Wool: 5

Acrylic: 5

Polyester:4-5

Nylon:4

Cotton:5


Mercerization

Wool: 5

Acrylic: 5

Polyester:5

Nylon:3-4

Cotton:5

Secondary Cellulose

Acetate:4-5

Isatis tinctoria

Grey fabric

Wool: 5

Acrylic: 5

Polyester:4

Nylon:4-5

49

Cotton:5


Desized fabric

Wool: 5

Acrylic: 5

Polyester:5

Nylon:4-5

Cotton:4

Secondary Cellulose

Acetate:4-5

Scouring and bleaching

Wool: 5

Acrylic: 5

Polyester:4-5

Nylon:4

Cotton:4-5


Mercerization

Wool: 5

Acrylic: 5

50

Polyester:4

Nylon:5

Cotton:5



Water fasteness No


Perspiration fastnessNo


Crocking fastness performed with the isatis

tinctoria dyed fabrics

Yes ISO 105-X12:1993€ Grey scale:1-5 Rubbing dry

Staining: 4

Rubbing wet

Staining: 3-4

Grey fabric

Warp Wet: 4/5

Warp

Dry: 3-4

Warp

Fabric: 3-4

Weft Wet: 2

Weft Dry: 2

Weft Fabric: 3-4

Desized

Warp Wet: 3

Warp Dry: 3

Warp Fabric:

51

3

Weft Wet: 3-4

Weft Dry: 3

Weft Fabric: 3

Scouring and Bleaching

Warp Wet: 3

Warp Dry: 3-4

Warp Fabric: 3-4

Mercerisation

Weft Wet: 2-3

Weft Dry: 1-2

Weft Fabric: 1-2

New dyed fabrics FSTFABRIC CHARACHTERISTICS (fill in as complete as possible): SPECIAL FABRIC PROPERTIES:

PRODUCT: Jeans

FABRIC NAME: /

EFFECTIVE FABRIC WIDTH (in cm): 100cm

TYPE OF WEAVE: 1 by 1 Plain Weave

SHAFTS 2 Shafts

RAW MATERIAL COMPOSITION 100% unbleached Cotton

(Grey fabric)

52

FABRIC WEIGHT (in g/m2) 1,3688 in g/m2

DENSITY (PER 10 cm) warp and weft 320/10, 250/10

YARN NUMBER (in Tex) Warp: 33,61 Tex

Weft: 28,19 Tex

FABRIC THICKNESS (In mm) 0,47 mm

DYEING: Fibre dyed Yarn dyed Fabric dyed Garment dyed

PRINTING: Direct printing Discharge printing Resist printing

SPECIAL FINISHES: Chemical:

Mechanical:

WEAVE STRUCTURE

Sample must be cut

New dyed fabric FST

FIGURE 14: FST TEMPLATE OF THE NEW DYED FABRIC

Zara pocket FST

Pocket FSTNAME STUDENT AND NUMBER:CLASS:FABRIC CHARACHTERISTICS (fill in as complete as possible): SPECIAL FABRIC PROPERTIES:PRODUCT: Zara Jeans Pocket

Place here a knitted swatch in the right direction

at the right side.

FABRIC NAME: /EFFECTIVE FABRIC WIDTH (in cm): /TYPE OF WEAVE: 1 by 1

Plain WeaveSHAFTS 4 shaftsRAW MATERIAL COMPOSITION Co/Pes or Wool/Acril etc.

Weft Yarn:

Cotton

Warp Yarn:

Polyamide

FABRIC WEIGHT (in g/m2): Not enough fabric

53

DENSITY (PER 10 cm) warp and weft Warp: 300/10Weft: 230/10

YARN NUMBER in Tex: Warp: 1,9 Tex

Weft: 1,69 TexFABRIC THICKNESS (In mm): 1,35mmDYEING: Fibre dyed Yarn dyed Fabric dyed Garment dyed PRINTING: Direct printing Discharge printing Resist printing WEAVE STRUCTURE woven fabric

FIGURE 15: FST TEMPLATE OF THE ZARA POCKET FABRIC

54

New pocket fabric FST

FABRIC SPECIFICATION TEMPLATE_KNIT [FST_K]NAME STUDENT AND NUMBER:CLASS:FABRIC CHARACHTERISTICS (fill in as complete as possible): SPECIAL FABRIC PROPERTIES:PRODUCT: Jeans pocket

Place here a knitted swatch in the right direction

at the right side.

FABRIC NAME: /EFFECTIVE FABRIC WIDTH (in cm): 100 cmTYPE OF WARP Plain WeaveShafts 2 shaftsRAW MATERIAL COMPOSITION 100% Cotton

FABRIC WEIGHT (in g/m2): 18,29 g/m2DENSITY (PER 10 cm): Warp 310/10

Weft 240/10YARN NUMBER in Tex: Warp: 2,1 Tex

Weft: 1,71 TexFABRIC THICKNESS (In mm): 0,26 mmDYEING: Fibre dyed Yarn dyed Fabric dyed Garment dyed PRINTING: Direct printing Discharge printing Resist printing SPECIAL FINISHES: Chemical:

Mechanical:KNIT STRUCTURE knitted fabric

FIGURE 16: FST OF NEW POCKET FABRIC

55

Nonwoven FST template used as interlining in the Zara jeans

FIGURE 17: FST TEMPLATE OF MESH FABRIC USED IN THE ZARA JEANS AS INTERLINING

56

9.2 Microscopic images of additional materials of the Zara jeans

Weft yarn of the inside of the Jeans pocket

FIGURE 18: MICROSCOPIC IMAGE OF THE WEFT YARN OF THE INSIDE OF THE JEANS POCKET




S-TwistRing Spun

TABLE 28

Sewing Thread

FIGURE 19: MICROSCOPIC IMAGE OF POLYESTER SEWING THREAD

Burn test Material informationMelting: Yes,

Self-extinguishing: No,Smoke color: Black,

Smell: Stinks,Smoulder: No,Yarn end: Hard

PES/PAC

Vapour Test: Acidic VapourMultifilament yarn

Z-twist2 slightly twisted

Fiber dyed

TABLE 29

Sewing Thread of the Pocket

57

FIGURE 20: MICROSCOPIC IMAGE OF SEWING THREAD OF THE POCKET




PES/PAC

Vapour Test: Acidic VapourZ-Twist

2-Ply Yarn Yarn dyed

TABLE 30

Thread for attaching the labels

FIGURE 21: MICROSCOPIC IMAGE OF THREAD FOR ATTACHING THE LABELS




PES/PAC

Vapour Test: Acidic VapourStaple Fibers

Z-Twist 2 Ply Yarn Yarn dyed Ring-Spun

TABLE 31

Warp yarn of the inside of the pocket

58

FIGURE 22: MICROSCOPIC IMAGE OF WARP YARN OF THE INSIDE OF THE POCKET


Self-extinguishing: No,Smoke color: Gray/White,


Polyamide

Filament Continuous Filament

Without twist

TABLE 32

Nonwoven used as interlining in the belt region

FIGURE 23: MICROSCOPIC IMAGE OF NONWOVEN


Self-extinguishing: Yes, Smoke color: Gray,

Smell: Stinks, Smoulder: No, Yarn end: Hard

Modacryl

Thermal bonding

TABLE 33

Attachment thread of the price tag

59

FIGURE 24: MICROSCOPIC IMAGE OF ATTACHEMENT THREAD OF THE PRICE TAG


Self-extinguishing: No Smoke color: Gray

Smell: PaperSmoulder: YesYarn end: Soft

Vegetable

Staple Fiber 3 plied yarn (each yarn consist of 8 separate yarns)

Yarn dyedS twist

TABLE 34

Care Labels

FIGURE 25: PICTURE OF THE CARE LABEL OF THE ZARA JEANS

Burn test Material informationMelting: Yes

Self-extinguishing: YesSmoke color: Gray

Smell: StinksSmoulder: No

Yarn end: HardModacryl

/

TABLE 35

Closure Pocket

60

FIGURE 26: PICTURE OF THE CLOSURE POCKET OF THE ZARA JEANS

Burn test Material informationButton Type: Jeans Button

Material: MetalStyle: ShankShape: Round

Metal Type: Brass

TABLE 36

Rivet

FIGURE 27: PICTURE OF THE RIVET OF THE ZARA JEANS

Burn test Material informationMaterial: Metal,

Metal Type: Brass,Techniques: Plating,

Machine used: Foot rachet machine

TABLE 37

61

Zipper

FIGURE 28: PICTURE OF THE ZIPPER OF THE ZARA JEANS

Burn test Material informationSize: 4YG/5YG

Material: Golden BrassLength: 15cmWidth: 4mm

Length Slider: 2cm

TABLE 38

Price Tags/Paper Tags

FIGURE 29: PICTURE OF THE PRICE TAG OF THE ZARA JEANS

Burn test Material informationWhite Carton Paper/ Cardstock Matte

Optical White effectDigital PrintingCoating on Top

TABLE 39

62

Label

FIGURE 30: PICTURE OF THE LABEL OF THE ZARA JEANS


Self-extinguishing: NoSmoke color: Black


Yarn end: HardPES/PAC

Vapour test: Acidic VapourPolyester yarns

Yarn dyed Satin weave

Information stitched on top

TABLE 40

63

9.3 Additional fabrics of the new jeans

Warp and weft yarn of the inside of the pocket

FIGURE 31: MICROSCOPIC IMAGE OF THE NEW POCKET FABRIC

Burn test Material informationMelting: No,

Self-Extinguishing: No,Smoke Color: Gray,

Smell: Paper,Smoulder: Yes,Yarn End: Soft

Vegetable

Z-twist 2-Ply

Ring spun yarn

TABLE 41

Sewing thread

FIGURE 32: MICROSCOPIC IMAGE OF THE NEW SEWING THREAD


Self-extinguishing: NoSmoke color: Black


Yarn end: HardPES/PAC

Vapour test: Acidic Vapour2-Ply YarnFibre dyed

Z-Twist

TABLE 42

64

9.4 Requirements

FIGURE 33: REQUIREMENTS OF TROUSERS AND SHORTS

65

Documents

quality RESEARCH Report · Web viewquality RESEARCH Report. MATERIALS II. SAXION UNIVERSITY OF APPLIED SCIENCE. Author: Isabel Created Date: 01/25/2018 11:46:00 Title: quality RESEARCH