Quality and assessment in secondary education: A ... · Web view... of science Countries Science not compulsory but available IE Science compulsory but not necessarily every year

Secondary education across Europe:Curricula and school examination systems

by

Anne West, Ann Edge and Eleanor Stokes

Centre for Educational Research

Clare Market Papers No. 14

Funded by DGXXII of the European Commissionunder Socrates Programme Action III.3.1 and the

London School of Economics and Political Science

© Centre for Educational Research 1999

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Preface

The research reported here was funded by the European Commission (DGXXII) under the Socrates Programme Action III.3.1 and by the London School of Economics and Political Science. It was originally entitled: ‘Quality and assessment in secondary education’. Because of differing conceptions of the term ‘assessment’ we have changed the title of this report to avoid misunderstanding.

We are indebted to the officials in the Ministries of Education (and others) who provided us with information and verified details (see Acknowledgements). The report was finalised in August 1998 and was checked with Member States for accuracy prior to that. Reforms of the secondary education system continue across the EU/EEA and some of the information reported here may now be out-of-date.

The views expressed are our own and do not reflect the views of the European Commission. Any errors or omissions are our responsibility.

Anne West, Ann Edge and Eleanor StokesCentre for Educational ResearchLondon School of Economics and Political ScienceJuly 1999

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Chapter 1

School structures, curricula, assessment and examinations

Introduction

The aim of this chapter is provide an overview of the school structures, curricula, school assessment and external examinations in the 15 countries of the European Union1 and Iceland, Liechtenstein and Norway in the framework of the European Economic Area agreement. Information is provided on a country-by-country basis. The focus in the study is on the curriculum, school assessment and examination systems at the end of lower/compulsory secondary general/academic education and upper secondary general education2.

Structures, curriculum, assessment and examinations

Austria

School structures

There are two parallel types of school for pupils between 10 and 14 years of age, the Allgemeinbildende Hohere Schule (AHS) and the Hauptschule. Approximately 30 per cent of pupils attend an AHS and 70 per cent a Hauptschule; in Vienna and other large towns up to 60 or 70 per cent attend an AHS. Compulsory education lasts until the age of 15 years. The last year of compulsory schooling can be spent in pre-vocational education, followed by an apprenticeship (and part-time compulsory vocational school); in a medium level secondary technical and vocational college (full-time, 1 to 4 years); in a kindergarten teacher training college (5 years, the final examination leads to university entrance); in a higher level secondary technical and vocational college (5 years, the final examination leads to university entrance); or in the upper cycle of an academic secondary school.

It should be noted that there are about 100 per cent more pupils in technical and vocational colleges than in the upper level of academic secondary schools (Kern, 1998). However, the focus here is on the academic secondary schools. These are subdivided into three main categories: Gymnasium, Realgymnasium and Wirtschaftskundliches Realgymnasium.

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Curriculum

Compulsory subjects in lower secondary education (theoretical ages 10 to 14 years) include amongst others German, a modern foreign language, mathematics, biology & environmental education, physics and chemistry. In upper secondary academic education, programmes in all three categories of school (Gymnasium, Realgymnasium and Wirtschaftskundliches Realgymnasium) are constructed around the same basic curriculum but a degree of specialisation is introduced in each one by the time allocated to subjects and the choice of elective or alternative subjects. German, a foreign language and mathematics are core subjects for each year in all three school categories. From 1993, schools have been able to opt for a degree of autonomy in the allocation of periods - so as to cater for pupils’ preferences and aptitudes. In recent years, the development of curricula for general and academic secondary schools has been a priority for school development (Kern, 1998). Significant changes to the curriculum were proposed in a paper issued by the Ministry of Education in 1995 (Gruber, 1996a, 1996b). In October 1996, the Federal Ministry of Education and Cultural Affairs published the Draft White Paper on the Curriculum ’99, in which the objectives and guidelines of the reform as well as new elements of the curriculum were presented. ‘Curriculum 99’ involves a broader curriculum with core and extension areas; new curricula are to be introduced in the autumn of 1999.

Assessment and examinations

There are general and specific rules regarding the internal assessment of pupils. Performance assessment is spread over the school year and is determined by: assessing the active participation of pupils in class work; oral assessment; written assessment (class assignments, tests, dictation); practical assessment; and graphic assessment (e.g. in subjects like descriptive geometry). Teachers are responsible for all assessments. These assessments determine whether or not pupils are entitled to enter the next year. There is no external assessment at the end of compulsory education.

Matriculation examination certificates are offered in the academic secondary schools and in the higher technical and vocational colleges. The matriculation examination is called the Reifeprhfung (more popularly known as the Matura). All pupils who have completed the last year of post-compulsory secondary education are entitled to sit the matriculation examination (theoretical age 18 to 19 years).

Reforms of the examination system took place in 1992/93. The matriculation examination now comprises two equivalent Matura options: seven examinations (some written, some oral) in at least four different subjects; or the submission of a piece of written project work in a specialised field of study instead of one of the written examinations.

Outputs

The proportion of pupils gaining the Matura is more than 36 per cent of the age cohort. Of these about 43 per cent are from academic secondary schools, 53 per cent from higher technical and vocational colleges and the remainder from higher teacher training colleges. In 1994/95, there were 130 female graduates of upper secondary general education (ISCED 3) compared with 100 males (Eurostat, 1998).

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Belgium

Belgium is a federal state, composed of three Communities (Flemish, French and German) and three regions (Flanders, Wallonia and Brussels). Each Community is responsible for education within its linguistic area and, as concerns the French and Flemish Communities, with regard to French or Dutch-speaking schools in the bilingual area of Brussels (Eurybase, 1998). We have restricted our analysis to the two largest Communities, namely the Flemish and the French.

Schools in all three areas are run by one of three networks: the Community network (run by the appropriate Community); the official network (run by the provincial or municipal authorities) and the ‘free network’ (the majority run by Catholic organisations). The organising bodies of each type of school vary between networks and between Communities. The Community and Catholic networks are attended by around 85 per cent of pupils in Belgium and it is these that are the focus in this study.

School structures

In the French Community, the vast majority of pupils (96%) are in ‘Type 1’ secondary education. This is made up of three two yearly ‘degrees’. The first degree starts at the theoretical age of 12 years. Secondary education is the same for all pupils in the first two years, although in the first year there are ‘A’ and ‘B’ streams with the A stream catering for pupils destined for general as opposed to vocational education. There are four different types of full-time secondary education: general, technical, vocational and artistic. There are two main tracks within these types of education, the ‘transition’ and the ‘qualification’. The ‘transition track’ prepares pupils for higher education and is provided in general, technical and artistic education (years 3 to 6). The main aim of the ‘qualification track’ is to prepare pupils to enter employment and is provided in technical and artistic education (years 3 to 6) and in vocational education (years 2 to 7). Several types of establishment exist alongside one another: the athJnJe (second and third or all three degrees), the lycJe (first or first and second degrees) and technical institutes (second and third degrees or all three degrees).

Likewise in the Flemish Community, there are three two yearly ‘degrees’ in secondary education, starting at the theoretical age of 12 years. There are also two streams, ‘A’ and ‘B’ in the first year of the first cycle, with the A stream catering for pupils who will follow general as opposed to vocational education. From the second grade onwards, pupils enter different ‘tracks’ or ‘lines’. General secondary education (ASO) prepares pupils for higher education. Technical secondary education (TSO) consists of general and technical subjects and prepares the pupil for employment or higher education. Artistic secondary education (KSO) also provides general education combined with an artistic education; it too prepares pupils for employment or higher education. Vocational secondary education (BSO) is practically-based, preparing pupils for a specific occupation.

Curriculum

In each Community the curriculum must meet legal requirements. On condition that a legally stipulated minimum curriculum and timetable are observed, each organising body can plan the curricula for its own network and for each school. Syllabuses for each subject area thus differ according to the network. As noted above, in all three Communities secondary schools comprise three consecutive two-year ‘degrees’. The compulsory subjects for the first cycle include the language of instruction (which may be French, Dutch or German), a second language (in the bilingual region of Brussels this must be either French or Dutch, depending on the language of instruction), mathematics and science. For pupils who go on to the general education stream (as opposed to the vocational) these subjects continue to be compulsory. However, a wide range of options are offered

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and pupils’ choices orient them progressively towards particular curriculum areas such as classical humanities (with Latin and Greek), modern humanities, mathematics, economics, sciences or languages.

Concern about standards together with the devolution of educational responsibility has led to the development and introduction of ‘socles de compJtences’ in the first degree of the French Community and ‘attainment targets’ in the Flemish Community in the first cycle.

In the Flemish Community these are compulsory. They are minimum aims that ‘must be strived for and reached by the majority of pupils in the level and the discipline they are in’ (Ministry of the Flemish Community Education Department, 1997). They are drawn up by the Education Development Service (DVO) and ratified by the Parliament of Flanders. The attainment targets for the first degree came into effect on 1 September 1997; attainment targets and developmental objectives will also be introduced for the second and third degrees. These must be incorporated into the curricula. A curriculum is ‘a systematised inventory of the aims and contents that an ‘organising power’ intends to achieve in a subject’ (Ministry of the Flemish Community Education Department, 1997). The Inspectorate makes checks to ensure that the syllabuses conform to the final objectives and that the teaching in schools conforms to the law (including the appropriate syllabus).

Assessment

There are no external examinations in Belgium. In relation to school-based assessment, the three Communities all have similar procedures. There is a class council consisting primarily of teachers responsible for teaching a specific group of pupils. This assesses pupils’ progress in a formative manner and makes the decision as to whether pupils should move on to a higher class; it also issues certificates where appropriate. Results of assessments carried out during the year are taken into account in the end of year assessment, which also takes account of any test or examination results.

In relation to certification in the three Communities, the procedures differ. In the French Community, a lower secondary school certificate (certificat d’enseignement secondaire infJrieur) is awarded to successful pupils at the end of the third year of general or technical studies, and an upper secondary school certificate (certificat d’enseignement secondaire supJrieur) is awarded when the third degree of general or technical education has been successfully completed. In the Flemish Community, an upper secondary school certificate (Diploma van secundair onderwijs) is awarded at the end of the third degree of general education. This certificate gives access to university studies in all disciplines (except engineering). The upper secondary certificates are ratified by an ‘homologation committee’ which ensures that schools comply with regulations on the organisation of studies.

Outputs

In 1995, in the Flemish Community, the ratio of upper secondary general education graduates to the population at the typical age of graduation was 33:100 (OECD, 1997). Across Belgium, there were more female than male graduates from upper secondary general education (ISCED 3) in 1992/93; the ratio of females to males was 121:100 (Eurostat, 1997).

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Denmark

School structures

In Denmark, there are nine years of full-time compulsory education for children between the ages of 7 and 16 years. Eighty-five per cent of pupils attend the Folkeskole, which provides primary and lower secondary education. In the Folkeskole pupils are taught in mixed ability groups that often stay together for the entire nine years. About 50 per cent of the pupils stay on for an optional tenth year (Danish Ministry of Education, 1998).

At upper secondary level (which 95 per cent of pupils go on to), there are three main types of education available: general upper secondary school (‘Gymnasium’ and ‘HF’), vocational upper secondary school (‘HHX’ and ‘HTX’) and other types of vocational education. Just over half of a given age cohort go on to vocational schools; the remainder go to schools providing general upper secondary education. Entrance to the latter depends on the pupil’s results in the Folkeskole Leaving Examination. This route is the usual entrance qualification for universities and is thus the focus in this study.

Curriculum

The Folkeskole Act states the main objectives of the education that is provided in the Folkeskole and also provides a list of the subjects to be taught and the minimum number of lessons. A supplementary text contains the objectives and central knowledge and proficiency areas for all compulsory subjects and optional topics referred to in the Act. ‘These texts are of a prescriptive nature towards the schools and local school authorities’ (Aaes, 1998); this means that they make up the individual teacher’s basis for planning his or her classes. ‘It is up to the school owner to satisfy the requirements, and very often more activities are undertaken than prescribed by law’ (Aaes, 1998). There is a tradition of involving as many interested bodies as possible in the formulation of the areas to be taught within a subject (parents (at the lower levels), pupils, teachers, policy makers, political parties, higher education institutions and labour market representatives).

Amongst the compulsory subjects taught during compulsory schooling are Danish, mathematics, English (from years 4 to 9), science in years 1 to 6, biology and geography in years 7 and 8 and physics/chemistry in years 7 to 9. (German or French must be offered as a non-compulsory subject from years 7 to 9.)

Upper secondary general education is provided primarily in Gymnasia. These schools provide a three-year course for pupils between the ages of 16 and 19 years and lead to the upper secondary school leaving examination (the Studentereksamen). Teaching is provided in two ‘lines’ (tracks), the language line and the science line. A core curriculum is common to both lines and all pupils study a common core of humanities as well as the natural sciences. There is a fixed number of lessons per week/year, and an offer of various optional subjects at two levels: intermediate level and higher level. The offer varies from school to school. At least two of the subjects studied by a pupil must be at a higher level. The Department for Upper Secondary Education issues framework curricula for all subjects/levels that must be taught, but individual teachers and classes jointly decide on the details (e.g. texts, special studies).

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No marks are given in the first seven years but schools are required to inform pupils and parents regularly (at least twice a year) of the pupils’ progress on the basis of oral and written work during the year. In the eighth to tenth years, marks from 0 to 13 are given for the year’s work in those subjects in which a leaving examination may be taken. Examinations may be taken on a single-subject basis. The pupils themselves decide whether they want to sit an examination and in which subjects. The Leaving Examination of the Folkeskole (Folkeskolens afgangsprove) may be taken in 11 subjects. The Advanced Leaving Examination (Folkeskolens udvidede afgangsprove) may be taken in five subjects, and only at the end of the tenth year.

To successfully complete a course of study at the upper secondary Gymnasium, pupils must sit the 10 end of year external examinations leading to the Studentereksamen. Each pupil must sit written examinations in Danish and all higher level subjects and compulsory English (language line) or compulsory mathematics (science line). In addition to these, there are five or six oral examinations to make up the total of ten examinations during the three years of study. A major assignment in Danish, history or one of the subjects chosen at higher level also has to be prepared. This is assessed by the subject teacher and an external examiner appointed by the Ministry. The mark counts towards the overall examination result.

In addition to these examinations, pupils’ work is assessed by the teachers twice during the school year and at the end of the year. There are various school examinations that take place yearly and termly. In subjects in which there are written external examinations, two marks are given for the year's work: one for written work and the other for oral work. In other subjects, only one mark is given for the year's work. The mark for the year's work is given by the subject teacher. During the third year, written mock examinations are held locally; the results of these are taken into account when teachers determine the final assessment.

Outputs

In 1995, the ratio of upper secondary general education graduates to the population at the typical age of graduation was 46:100 (OECD, 1997). In 1994/95 there were more female than male graduates from upper secondary general education (ISCED 3); the ratio of females to males was 137:100 (Eurostat, 1998).

Finland

School structures

Pupils attend comprehensive school (Peruskoulu/Grundskola) from the age of 7 to 16 years. The upper stage of comprehensive school lasts from 13 to 16. After completion of compulsory education, pupils may continue with upper secondary general education provided in the Lukio/Gymnasium or go into a course of basic vocational education and training.

Curriculum

The Finnish curricular system comprises not only the national core curricula, the distribution of classroom hours, specifying the minimum syllabus prescribed by the government, but also the school-specific curricula. The municipality or other owner of the school has a major say in how work is

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organised at school level. The curriculum is very flexible - indeed too flexible according to some (Salmio, 1998).

Compulsory subjects in the comprehensive school include mother tongue (Finnish or Swedish), the second official language and a foreign language, mathematics, biology, physics and chemistry. Studies in post-compulsory upper secondary school (Lukio/Gymnasium) consist of compulsory studies, advanced and applied studies. Compulsory studies include mother tongue, the second official language, a foreign language, mathematics, biology, physics and chemistry.


Assessment in Finland is primarily formative and continuous. Authentic evaluation is also important. It is mainly carried out internally by individual schools, based on coursework, homework and tests devised by the teacher. In comprehensive school each pupil receives a school report (one interim and one annual) in which subjects are graded from 4 (fail) to 10 (excellent); the grade is based on classwork, homework and tests organised by teachers. There is no external examination at the end of compulsory secondary education, but on completion of comprehensive school the pupil is given a leaving certificate.

The purpose of school-based assessment in the Lukio/Gymnasium is to give pupils feedback on the progress of their studies and on their achievement. Assessment is based on the aims defined in the curriculum; it is carried out by means of written tests where applicable and by the continuous assessment of pupils’ work. Results can be assessed by numerical marks (4 to 10) or, for example, by pass/fail or by a description. The assessment method is laid down in the school curriculum. Once upper secondary school has been completed, pupils are awarded a leaving certificate. The scale of marks is changing to 1 to 5. All marks will be pass marks; a note will be made of a fail. Towards the end of upper secondary education, pupils take the matriculation examination. Success in this examination enables the pupil to apply to enter university or another institution of higher education. A new matriculation examination was introduced in 1996. The purpose of the examination is to determine ‘whether pupils have acquired the knowledge and skills required by the curriculum and the maturity aimed for in the upper secondary school’ (Finnish Ministry of Education, 1996). There has been a move towards a modular system of studies and this means that pupils can take parts of the matriculation at different times and different ages. Now, if they prefer, pupils can take it in three consecutive examinations.

Candidates must take four compulsory tests: mother tongue (Finnish, Swedish or Sámi), the second official language (Finnish or Swedish), one foreign language (generally English, German, French or Russian) and either mathematics or general studies. The general studies test includes questions on religion, ethics, psychology, philosophy, history, social sciences, physics, chemistry, biology and geography and also some questions on less specific subjects. A candidate may choose a maximum of eight questions. Since 1996, candidates can take any number of optional tests. However, each examination may include only one test in a single subject.

There are two levels of test in mathematics, the second official language and foreign languages, with the exception of English, which had in 1996/97 three levels. In the matriculation certificate, the levels are identified as ‘long course’, ‘intermediate course’ and ‘short course’. Candidates may choose which level of test to take irrespective of the length of the course they took at school. However, they must take the test prescribed for the long course in at least one of the compulsory subjects with a choice of levels. The matriculation examination is set and assessed nationally by a committee appointed by the Ministry of Education. A separate certificate is given for passing the matriculation examination. A special upper secondary school diploma is being developed to be

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awarded in subjects that are not part of the matriculation examination (art, craft, physical education, home economics etc.).

Extensive revisions to the Finnish school legislation are currently under way. The reform puts emphasis on the self-evaluation of the school. In Finland, evaluation is the assessment of the goals set by the curricula (Salmio, 1998). Reforms to the curriculum are also under way, with new curricula for the comprehensive school and vocational education due to be completed in 2001 and the new core curriculum for the upper secondary school due to be completed by 2002.

Outputs


France

School structures

Between the theoretical ages of 11 and 15, pupils attend the collPge which lasts for four years (6th, 5th, 4th and 3rd classes – i.e. years 1 to 4 respectively). The collPge provides general secondary education. Pupils’ education continues in a general or technological lycJe or in a vocational lycJe. General or technological lycJes prepare pupils in three years (2nd, 1st and terminale classes) for the general BaccalaurJat, the technological BaccalaurJat and the technical certificate (brevet de technicien). Vocational lycJes prepare pupils for examinations for which the following certificates are awarded: the certificat d’aptitude professionnelle (CAP), the brevet d’Jtudes professionnelles and the vocational BaccalaurJat. The focus in this study is on collPge education and general lycJes that prepare pupils for a general BaccalaurJat (this qualification enables pupils to enter university).

Curriculum and examinations

Compulsory subjects between the theoretical ages of 11 and 15 include, amongst others, French, mathematics, sciences and a modern foreign language. The national certificate (dipl^me national du brevet) is a general education certificate awarded in the year before the end of compulsory education, at the end of lower secondary education. It does not determine the pupil's future direction. The brevet de collPge includes examinations in mathematics, French and history/geography and course results. Both course results and examinations are graded on a 20 point scale, with pupils rarely scoring above 15. In the three subject areas that are examined, marks in examinations are doubleweighted, then averaged with course results to achieve a combined score. For other subjects, course grades alone serve as the final scores. To gain the diploma the average of a pupil’s scores from all subjects must equal at least 10 (American Federation of Teachers, 1995).

Compulsory subjects in the first year of the lycJe include, amongst others, French, mathematics, sciences and a modern foreign language. Studies completed in lycJes of general education in the last year of post-compulsory education lead to a general BaccalaurJat examination. This is required for admission to higher education, and includes both compulsory and optional subjects for examination. The examinations relate to the official curricula of the terminal classes (final year) in lycJes. There are three general BaccalaurJat examinations - L (literary), ES (economic and social) and S

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(scientific). These all cover several subject areas although there are different weightings given to the various subjects in the different types of examination (ONISEP, 1995).

For the BaccalaurJat L, compulsory courses include amongst other subjects French, French literature (‘lettres’), two foreign languages and a general scientific course (mathematics, physics/chemistry, life and earth sciences). In addition, pupils may take a separate mathematics course. For the BaccalaurJat ES, obligatory courses include amongst others French, mathematics and two foreign languages; a general science course may be taken as an additional option. For the BaccalaurJat S, compulsory courses include amongst others mathematics, physics/chemistry, French and a modern foreign language and either human and earth sciences or industrial technology or biology-ecology-agronomy must be studied (ONISEP, 1995). In the final year, pupils taking the Bac S must take an additional compulsory module in one of the following: mathematics, physics and chemistry, human and earth sciences, biology and ecology; this effectively allows them to specialise in one of these areas. In the penultimate year an optional module is available in experimental science (essentially a practical course based around experiments and project work).

Assessment

During lower secondary education, pupils’ results and teachers’ comments in each subject area are noted in a termly report to parents. The marks relate to class work or personal work. Pupils’ results from years 4 and 3 are taken into account for the award of the dipl^me national du brevet. During upper secondary education, pupils are required to carry out independent and written work at home and in class. The teachers’ council determines the importance of these assignments and adjusts their length; in class, pupils take timed tests. At the beginning of the second year pupils are assessed in French, mathematics and a modern foreign language. Decisions as to which types of courses the pupil will take are determined on the basis of the school results, other assessments and the pupil and his or her parents’ wishes. The class council takes the decision about which types of courses the pupil should take (although there is a right of appeal).

Outputs

In 1996, 56 per cent of those gaining the BaccalaurJat achieved a general BaccalaurJat, with the remainder achieving the BaccalaurJat technologique (28%) or BaccalaurJat professionnel (16%). In relation to the general BaccalaurJat, the percentage of the cohort achieving this type of BaccalaurJat has increased from 20 per cent in 1985 to 34 per cent in 1996. In 1996, more girls than boys were candidates (56.5% versus 43.5%) and more were successful. The percentage of ‘mentions’ in 1996 was ‘assez bien’, 21 per cent, ‘bien’, 7.4 per cent and ‘trPs bien’ 1.6 per cent (DEP, 1997).


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Germany

School structures

The entire school system in Germany comes under the supervision and responsibility of the 16 L@nder. The L@nder are in charge of organising the school structure and determining the content of courses and teaching objectives. In order to guarantee a comparable structure of the school system in Germany, the L@nder co-operate in the Standing Conference of Ministers of Education and Cultural Affairs. The agreements address such issues as the duration of full-time compulsory education, the dates for the beginning and end of the school year, the length of the holidays and ‘especially the standards of achievement in the different subjects, the designation of the various educational institutions and their organisation and the mutual recognition of qualifications and certificates’ (Hinke, 1998). Within these limits, the L@nder are free to issue their own guidelines - for example, each Land has its own subject syllabuses.

Compulsory schooling begins for all children at the age of 6 years. It usually lasts 12 years, consisting of nine years of full-time schooling (in Berlin, Brandenburg, Bremen and North Rhine Westphalia, 10 years) and three years of full-time or three or more years of part-time schooling, according to the duration of training in a recognised trainee occupation.

The secondary school system is characterised by division into various educational tracks which have their own leaving certificates and qualifications. The majority of Länder have the following types of school: the Hauptschule, the Realschule and the Gymnasium. In some L@nder there are also Gesamtschule. In recent years, some Länder have introduced new types of school with different names depending on the Land3.

The focus in this project is on the Gymnasien which provide academic secondary education and normally cover the years 5 to 13 (or in some cases years 7 to 13). In four Länder (Mecklenburg-West Pomerania, Saxony, Saxony-Anhalt, and Thuringia), the Gymnasien cover years 5 to 12. Pupils at Gymnasien or at Gesamtschulen who have followed a Gymnasium-type course are entitled to proceed to the gymnasiale Oberstufe if they attain a certain standard in all subjects at the end of year 10 of the Gymnasium (or, in two of the Länder, at the end of year 9 at the Gymnasium) or of the Gesamtschule. In most Länder this lasts from year 11 to year 13. (There is also the possibility of transfer from other types of lower secondary school through comparable qualifications).

Regional differences

There are important regional differences in terms of school structures. In Bavaria, for example, there is a differentiated school structure and there are ‘clearly defined entrance requirements for different types of secondary schools, to compulsory, centrally developed syllabuses and to centrally-set exams for important certificates’ (Hinke, 1998).

This situation is in marked contrast to that in a number of other L@nder. For example, in North Rhine Westphalia, which differs politically from Bavaria, school types include comprehensive-type schools (Integrierte Gesamtschulen). Additionally, the examinations at the end of upper secondary general education are not set centrally – rather they are set at the level of the individual school and approved externally (see below for more details).

Curriculum

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Across Germany, text books are used to implement the curricula for the various subjects in the different types of school. These must be approved by the Ministries of Education and Cultural Affairs; a list of approved books is published regularly (Hinke, 1998).

Subjects in all main types of secondary school include, amongst others, German, a foreign language (two in the Gymnasium), mathematics, physics, chemistry and biology. In the Gymnasiale oberstufe school subjects are grouped together into three main areas: language, literature, arts; social sciences; and mathematics, natural science, technology. Each of these subject areas must be represented in the school record of every secondary school pupil to the end of the upper level of the Gymnasium, including the Abitur examination. Courses are offered at two different levels in terms of academic standard and teaching time, namely basic and advanced courses. Whilst the basic courses (usually three periods of 45 minutes a week) are intended to ensure that all pupils acquire a broad general education, the advanced courses (five or six periods a week) are meant to provide additional, intensified knowledge and serve as an in-depth introduction to academic study. Pupils must select at least two advanced courses, one of which must be German, the continuation of a foreign language, mathematics or a science subject.

In order to guarantee standards the federal Standing Conference has agreed on nation-wide examination requirements. For each subject that is taught (and can be examined) in years 11 to 13, the required contents of the examination are described. The curriculum and syllabuses of each Land have to meet the described nation-wide standards.


The upper level of the Gymnasium ends with the Abiturprhfung which is taken in four subjects. Written and in some cases oral examinations are given in the two advanced course subjects as well as in one other subject. The fourth subject is only examined orally. All subject areas mentioned above must be represented in the examination. Pupils who pass the Abitur examination are awarded a general higher education entrance qualification (allgemeine Hochschulreife). The allgemeine Hochschulreife also entitles the holder to commence any course of study at an institution of higher education.

The procedures for the Abitur vary between the L@nder. Baden-Whrttemburg and Bavaria, for example, have centralised the Abitur examination procedure, whilst in North-Rhine Westphalia the Abitur is decentralised (Jacob, 1998). The class teacher sends a number of proposals to the educational boards. The regulations for this procedure and the required number of proposals are described in the syllabus for each subject.

Subject experts at the educational boards choose the proposals which the pupils get. If a proposal is not acceptable or does not meet the requirements the experts request changes or ask for a new proposal to be sent. This is carried out in February or March each year. Pupils’ written work is marked and graded by the classroom teacher first and then by another competent teacher of the same subject within the school. If there is no agreement, a third teacher is involved. The three teachers decide which of the two proposed marks is given on a majority vote.

After the Abitur examination, the experts at the education board select some of the Abitur examination papers and check them. Sometimes only selected subjects are sent to the board and sometimes all the work of the pupils of one school is required. The schools do not, in general, know in advance whether their scripts are to be selected for moderation. Each expert is also a school inspector and when the Abitur is taking place, the experts take on the role of school inspectors and head the examination committee. As they cannot be at all the schools for which they have

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responsibility (10 to 12) they choose two or three which they visit during the examination period; they take part in and inspect the oral examinations.

Outputs


Greece

School structures

Lower secondary education (Gymnasio) covers three years from 12 to 15 and provides general as opposed to vocational education. Attendance at a Gymnasio is compulsory. Upper secondary education is provided in Lykeia and Technical-Vocational Schools. Pupils who have completed the Gymnasio can enrol in any upper secondary institution; there are no entrance examinations.

The course of study in the Lykeia is three years (four in the case of working pupils who attend in the evening). There are several types of Lykeia – the General, the Technical-Vocational, the Comprehensive, the Classical, the Ecclesiastical and the Music. The General Lykeio is the school that prepares pupils for university education and is thus the focus in this study (certain other types of Lykeia also prepare pupils for university – for example, the Comprehensive Lykeio).

Curriculum

In Gymnasio, the curriculum includes, amongst other subjects, modern Greek language and literature, mathematics, physics-chemistry, biology and modern foreign languages (English/French and German). In the first two years of Lykeio, pupils follow a common curriculum including amongst other subjects, modern Greek, mathematics, physics, chemistry, geology, biology and modern foreign languages. In the third year, the common core includes foreign languages plus four other subjects in different combinations according to which of the four option streams or tracks the pupil has chosen to follow. Modern Greek language and literature is common to all tracks.


In lower secondary education, assessment is carried out at the end of terms one and two by an hour-long written and oral paper and at the end of term three by a ‘revision examination’ that takes place in June. There are also shorter, written tests throughout the year to assess whether pupils have understood a specific lesson. The final mark for each pupil is based on his or her average mark for oral assessment and the marks in the written examinations at the end of the year. To progress to a higher class at the end of each year, pupils must have a final mark in all subjects on average of at least 10 out of a possible 20. If this mark is below 10 in one to four subjects, the pupil resits the examinations in September. If the mark is below 10 in more than four subjects, the pupil has to repeat the class. The pupil’s attendance record can also affect progression to the following year (see Eurybase, 1996 for details).

At the end of lower secondary education, pupils are awarded a leaving certificate (Apolytirio Gymnasiou) provided they have obtained an average of 10 out of a possible 20 in all subjects and

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have not been frequently absent. The decision as to whether a pupil moves up to the next class or is awarded the leaving certificate is taken by the teachers’ association within the school.

The tracks in the General Lykeia are designed to prepare pupils for particular university courses. Assessment at upper secondary level consists of termly, internal oral and written tests and an official written examination in all subjects in June of each year. Pupils must pass this examination in order to progress to the next year. The Leaving Certificate (Apolytirio Lykeiou) is awarded at the end of the final year, provided that pupils have achieved a sufficient standard based on an average of all their marks in both oral assessment and the written exams. The Leaving Certificate is a prerequisite to taking the university entrance exams. (There is an examination set by the Ministry of Education for pupils who wish to enter university. This examination is in the four subjects that the pupil has studied in the last year at Lykeio.)

Outputs

In 1995, the ratio of upper secondary general education graduates to the population at the typical age of graduation was 51:100 (OECD, 1997).

Iceland

School structures

There is no division between primary and lower secondary education in Iceland. Education at this level takes place in the same school, the grunnsk\li. There are four main types of upper secondary schools; grammar-type, comprehensive, industrial-vocational type and specialised vocational. Grammar schools (menntask\lar) offer a four year programme of study leading to matriculation; pupils who complete the course satisfactorily can apply for admission to university. Comprehensive schools combine academic courses and vocational training. The focus in this study is on academic courses provided in grammar and comprehensive schools.

Curriculum

The law on compulsory education makes attendance compulsory for all children from 6 to 16 years of age (10 years). During this period compulsory subjects include amongst others Icelandic, mathematics and natural sciences. Danish is studied from year 6 (11 years of age) onwards and English from year 7. In the final year, the study of Icelandic, mathematics, English and Danish are all compulsory. In upper secondary education, a number of courses lead to the matriculation (university entrance) examination. All share a common core of subjects including Icelandic, foreign languages, sciences and mathematics (see EURYDICE & CEDEFOP, 1995). The curriculum is now being revised. National objectives will be made more precise in order to make instruction more focused and assessment more valid and reliable.


During compulsory education, examinations and other forms of assessment, usually written, are carried out by individual teachers and schools. The purpose of the assessment is primarily to back up study and teaching and to provide pupils and their parents with information about how their studies are progressing.

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In 1995, nationally co-ordinated examinations (SamrFmd pr\f) in the core subjects were introduced in grades 4 and 7. In the last year of compulsory education, all pupils sit the same compulsory written examinations in Icelandic, mathematics, English and Danish. These examinations are set, graded and organised by the Institute for Educational Research. The purpose of these nationally co-ordinated examinations is primarily to provide an indication of each pupil’s standing at the end of compulsory schooling and assist him or her in choosing a course in upper secondary education. At the end of compulsory schooling, all pupils receive certificates (grunnsk\lapr\f) stating their grades in both the nationally co-ordinated examinations and other studies completed at the schools they attended.

In upper secondary education where units/modules are used the assessment consists of examinations and pupils cannot continue without passing them. Pupils who are successful in the compulsory examinations, held at the end of each term (autumn and spring) in each subject, have completed the relevant course units. The grades for the examination are 1 to 10. The minimum grade to qualify for the next course unit is 5. Pupils may repeat course units. To follow a course of study leading to matriculation takes four years and a total of 140 study units must be completed.

Not all schools are unit based - some are class based. These pupils are examined at the end of each term like in the unit credit system, and the aggregate marks of all subjects determine whether or not the pupil has passed. The pupil has to repeat the class if the minimum aggregate mark is not attained or if he or she fails individual courses. The minimum grade is 4. Examinations are usually written but may be oral. There are no standardised examinations at the end of upper secondary education; examinations are set and graded in each school by the individual teacher.

Legislation passed in May 1996 has proposed that nationally co-ordinated examinations in selected subjects should be introduced in 2000/1 at the end of every branch of study at upper secondary level. It is not yet known how many subjects will be examined, but this will be stipulated at a later date (Icelandic Ministry of Education, 1998). On completion of a course of study, pupils are awarded a certificate listing all the course units completed, the grades awarded and the number of credits taken in each subject area. This certificate entitles pupils to apply for admission to institutions of higher education. In recent legislation at both compulsory and upper secondary school level, a strong emphasis is placed on regular self-evaluation by schools.

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Ireland

School structures

The last three years of compulsory education (for pupils aged 12 to 15 years) usually take place in the Junior Cycle of one of the main types of second-level schools: secondary, vocational, comprehensive, community schools or community college. Sixty per cent of pupils attend secondary schools, 30 per cent attend vocational schools, 2 per cent attend comprehensive schools and 6 per cent attend community schools. (Community schools and community colleges are similar in many ways to comprehensive schools but differ in management structure.) At the end of compulsory schooling, pupils may follow a two-year senior cycle at a second-level school leading to the Leaving Certificate examination.

Curriculum

Recognised schools, public and private, must conform to state requirements with regard to educational standards and the general structure of the system. The courses prescribed for the Certificate Examinations, that are centrally devised and administered by the Department of Education, are followed by most pupils. The programme for secondary schools must include amongst other subjects: Irish, English, mathematics, science and languages (classical and modern European). The curricula of the other state schools tend to approximate to those in secondary schools, though with differences of emphasis. As a rule, pupils in the Junior Cycle study from eight to ten subjects for the Junior Certificate Examinations. In order to allow for differences in the needs, abilities and aptitudes of young people within the Junior Certificate programme, subjects are offered at two or three levels. Mathematics, Irish and English are compulsory subjects.

At the end of compulsory schooling, pupils may follow a two-year course (senior cycle) at a second-level school leading to the Leaving Certificate Examination. This is used for a variety of purposes, in particular as an entry qualification for a range of third-level institutions, including the universities. In upper secondary general education the approved course must include not less than five subjects of which one should be Irish. The subjects approved are grouped into the language group; science group; business studies group; applied science group; and social studies group. It is recommended that each pupil should take at least three subjects from the group of subjects for which he or she is best fitted, and at least two subjects from outside that group.


The Junior Certificate Examination is taken at the end of the third year of second-level education (age 15 years). Each subject is examined individually by means of a written examination. Account is not taken of assessments carried out during the year. In addition, all schools organise tests, usually pre-Christmas and in May and towards the end of the school year. These school-based examinations are usually formal and set by the subject teachers. Many teachers also give regular tests within class periods. The majority of schools also organise formal tests a few months prior to the Junior Certificate examinations to assess the performance levels of pupils. At the end of upper secondary general education separate Ordinary Level and Higher Level Leaving Certificate papers are set in all subjects. The assessment and certification procedures are the same as for the Junior Certificate examination.

Outputs

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Italy

School structures

Lower secondary education is currently provided in the scuola media that caters for pupils aged 11 to 14 years. Upper secondary education is intended for pupils aged 14 to 19 years and comprises: classical and scientific (classical type) schools; and artistic; technical and vocational schools. The focus in this study is on classical education provided in the classical, linguistic and scientific liceo. These schools prepare pupils for university and other types of higher education.

Reforms are currently underway and the government is proposing to extend compulsory education to 15 years. Secondary school would begin at 12 and extend to 18 years. Upper secondary education would be provided in a variety of different school types.

Curriculum

There are national curriculum documents for both lower and upper secondary schooling. Those for upper secondary education were introduced in 1991. In the past there were many different curricula for different types of schools; although different schools continue to offer different courses, there is a core of disciplines common to all. The aims and objectives are clearly defined ‘but attainment expectations are not so clearly ‘measured’ because of lacking national standards’ (Croce, 1996).

In compulsory secondary education (theoretical ages 11 to 14), Italian, a foreign language, mathematics and science (physics, chemistry and natural sciences) are all compulsory. In the upper cycle (age 16 to 19) of the classical liceo, compulsory subjects (not necessarily in each year) include amongst others Italian, one modern foreign language, mathematics, biology and physics. In the scientific liceo, Italian, a modern foreign language, earth sciences, biology, chemistry, physics and mathematics are amongst the compulsory subjects. In the linguistic liceo, compulsory subjects include Italian, three modern foreign languages, mathematics, biology and physics.

Assessment and examinations During lower secondary education teachers make systematic comments in a ‘personal record’ on the learning progress and level of maturity of each pupil based on all oral and written classwork, homework, attitudes and behaviour. For the purposes of assessment the school year is divided into three or four-month periods. At the end of each period, an analytical written assessment based on the teachers’ comments is submitted by each subject teacher to the class council (consisting of all teachers) which then produces an overall written assessment. At its final overall meeting of the year the class council decides whether pupils should be permitted to be promoted to the following year.

At the end of the third year of compulsory secondary schooling pupils take the examination of the lower secondary school leaving certificate (Diploma di Licenza Media) which is necessary for entrance to upper secondary schools. This is administered by teachers and an outside ‘chairman’. The examination consists of three written tests (Italian, mathematics, foreign language) and a multidisciplinary oral test. Whilst the general criteria and types of examinations at this level are established at the national level, each school determines the content of the examinations.

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Assessment in upper secondary education is similar to that in lower secondary education. At the meeting of the class council that takes place at the end of the final period of the year, a final assessment of the commitment and progress of each pupil throughout the school year is given. This is expressed as a mark out of 10. Pupils must achieve at least 6 out of 10 in each subject to enter the next year.

At the end of upper secondary school, pupils take the examination for the upper secondary school leaving certificate (MaturitB). This comprises two compulsory written papers. One of these is an Italian language paper (Prima Prova Scritta or first written paper). The second written paper (Seconda Prova Scritta) relates to the content of a subject studied during the final year; this paper differs according to the different types of education (modern foreign languages, mathematics or sciences). The examination papers are set by the Ministry of Education. Pupils also take a multidisciplinary oral examination that covers two subjects selected respectively by the candidate and the examining board and includes discussion of the written papers. The certificate is specific to the type of school (Diploma di MaturitB classica, scientifica etc.). Reforms to the examinations at the end of upper secondary education were approved by the government in December 1997.

Whilst 94 per cent of all pupils go on to post-compulsory education, between 15 and 30 per cent drop out before taking the MaturitB. Of those taking the examination (approximately 65 per cent of all those who entered post-compulsory education) there is a 98 per cent pass rate (Croce, 1997).

Outputs

In 1994/95 there were more female than male graduates from upper secondary general education (ISCED 3); the ratio of females to males was 128:100 (Eurostat, 1998).

Liechtenstein

School structures, curriculum and examinations

There is only one academic secondary (grammar-type) school or Gymnasium in Liechtenstein providing both lower and upper secondary education. At present, the Gymnasium offers two different Matura courses – type B (Literature and History) and type E (Economics).

The lower secondary phase is known as Sekundarstufe I, or Untergymnasium. It consists of four years (theoretical ages 12 to 16). The curriculum is currently undergoing reforms, to reduce the compulsory 12 individual subjects to 5 subject-areas which are to be taught on an interdisciplinary basis. These proposed subject areas are languages, social sciences and humanities, natural sciences and mathematics, arts and sports plus the recently-introduced computer studies.

Upper secondary education - Sekundarstufe II or Obergymnasium - covers the years 16 to 20. As with the lower secondary level, the curriculum is in the process of change. At present, all pupils, whether they are following type B or type E course, study German, French, English, mathematics and either Latin or Economics, plus history, philosophy, chemistry, physics, biology and geography. Pupils are examined in the majority of subjects by either written or oral examination or both. There is some limited choice of oral examination subject. Pupils study twelve subjects altogether to qualify for the Matura, but only those subjects described above are examined externally. A new, general Matura (instead of the present, subject-based Matura) is in the process of being introduced.

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Luxembourg

School structures

There are two types of secondary education in Luxembourg, general secondary education (enseignement secondaire) and technical secondary education (enseignement secondaire technique). General secondary education leads to university level education. It is divided into three cycles, a lower division (classes 7, 6 and 5 (years 1, 2 and 3)), a general cycle of the higher division (classes 4 and 3) and a specialisation cycle (classes 2 and 1). After the second year, pupils have the choice between a classical section (with Latin) and a modern section (which allocates more time to modern foreign languages). Secondary technical education provides preparation, in close co-operation with the business world for working life. Pupils are given general, social, technical and vocational training. The focus in this study is on the education provided in general secondary schools.

Curriculum

Subjects in the lower cycle of general secondary education (theoretical ages 12 to 15 years) include French, German, English, mathematics and biology. There is no external assessment at the end of compulsory secondary schooling (class 5, theoretical age 15). Compulsory subjects studied in the upper cycle of general secondary education include French language and literature, German language and literature, English language and literature, mathematics, biology, physics and chemistry for all branches up until the end of class 3 (16 to 17 years). In class 2, of these, only mathematics and biology and a minimum of two languages, remain compulsory for all pupils. Increasing choice and specialisation mean that only the minimum language requirement remains compulsory for all pupils in the final year (class 1) although the choice of individual languages can vary between pupils. It should be noted that some subjects, such as sport, history of art and ethics are studied but not examined.


There are no end of year examinations during the lower cycle. Pupils are regularly assessed by teachers on the basis of continuous assessment throughout the three years. There are periodic tests (devoirs en classe) in each subject. There are termly reports; at the end of each year the pupil receives a report card that indicates whether he or she can progress to the next year (this decision is taken by the class council). To move up a class, pupils must achieve a general average mark of 30 out of 60. Pupils who have successfully completed class 5 may continue to the four years of the upper cycle leading to a secondary school leaving certificate.

The assessment at the end of each year is similar to that in the lower cycle. However, at the end of the final year of upper secondary schooling pupils have to take the secondary school leaving examination (examen de fin d’Jtudes secondaires). Candidates take examinations in all the subjects studied during their final year in the secondary school. These are nationally organised. Successful candidates are awarded the secondary school leaving certificate (dipl^me de fin d'Jtudes secondaires). Three recent reforms have resulted in first, a ‘compensatory system for grades within the examination subjects’ (EURYDICE & CEDEFOP, 1995, p. 24); second, for the weighting to be two-thirds on the examination results and one-third on continuous assessment; and third, the introduction of an oral examination. The school leaving certificate permits students to enrol in higher education in Luxembourg and neighbouring countries (e.g. French Community in Belgium). (Higher education is very limited in Luxembourg and university education is restricted to the first year of study.)

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Outputs

In 1990/91 there was an 82 per cent success rate in the secondary school leaving examination; by 1995/96 this had increased to 88 per cent (LJvy, 1997). There have been no changes in gender differences over this period. In 1994/95, the ratio of female to male graduates from upper secondary general education (ISCED 3) was 122:100 (Eurostat, 1998). More recent data (LJvy, 1997) adds that girls have continued to achieve slightly higher pass rates than boys (52% versus 48%).

The Netherlands

School structures

Secondary education starts at the age of 12 and lasts from 5 to 8 years full-time and/or part-time. All types of secondary education begin with a 3 year period of ‘basic education’ (basisvorming), offering broad-based general teaching. This is provided in three main types of school: pre-vocational (Voorbereidend Beroepsonderwijs - VBO) for 12 to 16 year-olds, junior general secondary education (Middelbaar Algemeen Voortgezet Onderwijs - MAVO) for 12 to 16 year-olds; and pre-higher education (lasting three years).

Lower secondary education is followed by upper secondary education that is divided into two types - general and vocational. General education consists of two years leading to higher education (senior general secondary education (Hoger Algemeen Voortgezet Onderwijs - HAVO)) or three years leading to university (pre-university education (Voorbereidend Wetenschappelijk Onderwijs - VWO)). These types of education are a continuation of the pre-higher type of education in lower secondary education. Vocational education consists of 2 to 4 years full-time or part-time education.

The focus in this research is on pre-university education (VWO) which lasts six years and prepares pupils for university education or higher professional education. In lower secondary education, 17 per cent of the cohort is in VWO. It is provided at three types of schools: the Atheneum (no classical languages), the Gymnasium (classical languages are compulsory) and the Lyceum (classical languages are optional). Pupils are admitted to secondary education if they have completed primary education (at an average age of 12 years). Entry is decided by an admissions committee on the basis of the report from the pupil’s primary school. For admission to MAVO, HAVO and VWO, pupils must have been assessed to establish their suitability.

Curriculum

The school board and the competent authority are required to establish a school plan giving an overview of the organisation and content of teaching and a lesson timetable, and submit it for approval by the inspectorate. No requirements are laid down for subject matter, methodology or teaching methods, but examinations are subject to certain conditions.

The recommended timetable for basic education contains 15 compulsory subjects amongst them: Dutch, English, a second foreign language (French or German), mathematics, biology, physics and chemistry. The Ministry of Education, through the national foundation for curriculum development, develops core objectives that the school should adopt as education goals.

In upper secondary general education, provided in HAVO and VWO schools, the curriculum varies. In this study we are focusing on VWO schools. There are currently ten subjects in the first year and at least seven subjects are studied in the following two years for the final examination.

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Curricular reforms are being implemented beginning in 1998 or 1999 (the choice is that of the school). More coherent programmes (‘profiles’) will be introduced in HAVO and VWO education. There will be four profiles - social-cultural, economic, nature & health and nature & technical education (Melissen, 1998). All programmes have a common core including Dutch, English, and one (HAVO) or two (VWO) other foreign languages. The common core accounts for 50 per cent of the time. Each profile has specific subjects that take up 30 per cent of the time. Mathematics, although not in the common core of subjects is a specific subject in each of the four profiles. Finally, there is also a free choice for the final 20 per cent of study hours. The examination system will not change as a system but the school part of the examination will be based on a portfolio (dossier of tests (40 per cent of marks) and practical work (60 per cent)).


The assessment of pupils’ academic performance in all subjects is continuous; it is carried out at regular intervals by the teacher. Marks are awarded on a scale of 1 to 10; a score of 1 is extremely poor, 10 is given for excellence, and 6 is the pass mark. Pupils move up to the next class if they have received the mark ‘sufficient’ (6) at the end of the year for the majority of subjects. Pupils can repeat the year once; if their marks are not deemed sufficient at the end of this year, they must change to another type of education. The 15 compulsory subjects studied during the basic education period culminate in final tests for each subject, with the exception of physical education. The tests are determined by the attainment targets and are taken in each subject or combination of subjects. Pupils successfully completing basic education are awarded a certificate (Getuigschrift basisvorming). At the end of the second year, the relevant authority provides pupils with a recommendation as to their further course of study.

VWO, HAVO, MAVO and VBO courses culminate in a final examination comprising a school examination and a national examination. Examinations are taken in individual subjects and there are programmes for each subject, determined by the Ministry of Education. Apart from the core objectives and the examination programmes there are no official regulations and no ‘national curriculum’.

The school examination, which determines 50 per cent of the final result, is prepared by the individual school and is taken in the final school year. Tests are written, oral and practical. The national examination is the same for all schools of a certain type and is taken at the same time. The final grade is the average of the marks for the school and national examinations.

The VWO final examination contains at least seven subjects. Dutch and one other modern language (French, German or English) are compulsory subjects. At a Gymnasium, Latin and Greek are also compulsory subjects. The other subjects are of the candidate’s own choice. It is possible to sit examinations in more than seven subjects. The VWO certificate distinguishes between an Atheneum and a Gymnasium certificate. Pupils who pass one of the different leaving examinations are awarded a certificate which takes the same form throughout the country for the different types of school.

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Outputs

In 1995, the ratio of upper secondary general education graduates (VWO and HAVO combined) to the population at the typical age of graduation was 32:100 (OECD, 1997).

Norway

School structures

Compulsory education extends from the ages of 6 to 16 years and is provided in the comprehensive Grunskole. The aim is to provide all pupils with an education adapted to their individual abilities. Upper secondary education normally covers pupils aged 16 to 19 years. The majority of upper secondary schools (Videregående skole) offer both general studies and vocational training.

Curriculum

Compulsory school is divided into two main stages, the primary (Barneskoler) (ages 6 to 13 years) and the lower secondary stage (Ungdomsskoler) (ages 13 to 16). During this time the common compulsory curriculum includes, amongst other subjects, Norwegian, mathematics and English. Since 1992, English has been compulsory from the third year. Schools may also choose to introduce English as a compulsory subject from the first year. At the lower secondary stage, natural sciences and social sciences are introduced.

Upper secondary education normally covers the 16 to 19 age group. In principle, upper secondary education is available to all pupils who have successfully completed their compulsory education. There is only one type of school at this level of education: the upper secondary school (Videregående skole) and the majority of schools offer both general studies and vocational training. In this study we are focusing on pupils taking the ‘General Area of Study’ preparing them for higher education. In the first year, there is no opportunity to specialise; compulsory subjects include amongst others Norwegian, English, mathematics and science. In the second year, the pupil can opt for certain specialisms. At least one foreign language, other than English, must be studied for at least three years (but this can include one year in lower secondary education). Norwegian remains compulsory in both the second and the third year.


At the lower secondary stage, pupils are awarded marks for compulsory subjects at least twice a year. The teachers are responsible for giving these marks, and they are usually based on both written tests and pupils’ work in class. The marks are on a scale including the letters S, M, G, NG and LG, where S represents the best mark and LG the worst. Pupils are also given marks from this scale for their final examination.

A final written examination is organised by the public authorities in the tenth year. All pupils sit a written examination in at least one subject from Norwegian, mathematics and English. Most pupils also take an oral examination in one or more subjects, including religion, social sciences and natural sciences. The central authorities decide which pupils take this examination, but the examination is set by each school. The pupils’ teacher sets the questions but the marks are awarded by a teacher from another school. On leaving school, all pupils receive a leaving certificate (Vitnemål) indicating the subjects taken, the latest marks for the years’ work and the examination results. The marks are used as

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one of the more important criteria for selecting the area of study in upper secondary school. At the end of compulsory education approximately 95 per cent enter general or vocational upper secondary education, and about 5 per cent enter employment or unemployment.

Most of the grades awarded in the upper secondary school are grades for overall achievement (standpunktkarakterer). These are based on the pupils’ work during the school year. Grades are awarded by the subject teacher each term. The grades are awarded on a scale from 0 (lowest) to 6 (highest). The same grading system is used for compulsory end-of-year examinations. Most examinations in written subjects are organised by public examination boards. Examinations are either written, oral, a combination of the two or practical. Written examinations in Norwegian composition are compulsory. In addition, pupils normally take at least two written examinations. At the end of their studies, pupils are awarded a certificate (Vitnemål) listing the subjects they have taken - general subjects, subjects related to their chosen area of study and electives. Marks recorded on certificates are those awarded by the subject teacher indicating the pupil’s level of achievement in the subject, with the addition, in some cases, of external examination marks.

Outputs


Portugal

School structures

Basic education (ensino b<sico) is compulsory between 6 and 15 years of age. Basic education is divided into three consecutive cycles. The first cycle lasts four years (6 to 10 years), the second cycle lasts two years (10 to 12 years) and the third cycle lasts three years (12 to 15 years). On completion of basic education, pupils may proceed to secondary education. This comprises three types of courses: secondary school courses that are part of the general (regular) education system, vocational school courses or art education courses. Pupils who have successfully completed basic education have access to any secondary school course. Secondary school courses last between the ages of 15 and 18 years. Within the secondary school, two different types of courses are provided – secondary courses predominantly leading to further studies (CSPOPE) and secondary courses predominantly oriented towards working life (CT). The CSPOPE is the focus of this study for upper secondary education.

Curriculum

Compulsory subjects between the theoretical ages of 12 and 15 years include Portuguese, a foreign language, mathematics, physics, chemistry and natural sciences. In upper secondary education, there are four main areas of study: natural sciences, arts, economics and social sciences, and humanities; compulsory subjects include Portuguese and a foreign language (in the first two years).


Pupils in basic education (theoretical ages 6 to 15 years) are subject to formative, summative and specialised assessment. Formative assessment is the responsibility of the pupil's teachers and other teachers. It is descriptive and qualitative in nature; it is intended to inform pupils, parents and teachers of the quality of the teaching and learning processes and the extent to which curriculum

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objectives have been met. It is also intended to help teachers with their choice of methods and materials. Summative assessment is the responsibility of the school or class council and aims to compare the pupil’s overall development with the overall objectives of the school cycle (laid down by the Minister of Education and the school). In the second and third cycles (theoretical ages 10 to 15 years) the summative assessment is expressed by marks on a scale from 1 to 5, with a summary of formative assessment also being added. The summative assessment is expressed as pass or fail for the purposes of moving from one class to the next. The specialised assessment is for pupils who have already been kept back a year and do not have the necessary capacity to continue; it should lead to a specific educational support plan being implemented.

There are no national examinations at the end of basic compulsory education (age 15). However, students who successfully complete their basic education (by obtaining a pass in the final summative assessment) are awarded a diploma (diploma do ensino básico) which entitles them to enter secondary education.

As in the case of basic education, there are three forms of assessment. The summative assessment includes both internal and external elements. Both types are graded for each subject on a scale from 0 to 20. The internal assessment is the responsibility of the schools and the external summative assessment is the responsibility of the Ministry of Education. This assessment consists of written examinations in year 12 (final year of schooling) in most of the subjects included in the general and technological courses with individual pupils normally taking between five and six written examinations. Pupils who successfully complete secondary education receive a certificate (diploma de estudos secundários) specifying the courses completed and the final marks obtained. Final marks in the subjects covered by the national examination are computed from the weighted average of the marks awarded through internal assessment and the marks attained in the final examination in a ratio of approximately 70 per cent to 30 per cent (Amaro, 1996; EURYDICE & CEDEFOP, 1995).

External examinations at the end of upper secondary education were introduced in Portugal in the school year 1995/96. Before this there were only examinations for university entrance.

Spain

School structures

Major educational reforms have taken place in Spain over the past ten years and the focus here is on the education system ‘post-reform’. Compulsory secondary education (Educaci\n Secundaria Obligatoria – ESO) is divided into two two-year cycles, corresponding to ages 12 to 14 and 14 to 16. Post-compulsory general and intermediate vocational education may also be provided in secondary schools. Both types of education cover 16 to 18 year olds. The general education course leads to the Bachillerato and is the focus in this study.

Curriculum

During compulsory secondary education there are compulsory subject areas with different minimum timetable allocations depending on the cycle, and in accordance with the minimum core curriculum requirements (enseñanzas mínimas) for the whole of Spain. These include, amongst other subjects Castilian language and literature, language of the corresponding Autonomous Community and literature (where relevant), foreign languages, mathematics and natural sciences.

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The new Bachillerato lasts for two years (16 to 18 years of age). It has a minimum of four option streams: arts, natural and health sciences, humanities and social sciences, and technology. Subjects are grouped into common core subjects, subjects that belong to each option stream and optional subjects. The minimum educational requirements (enseñanzas mínimas) for core subjects, subjects by option stream and optional subjects are established by the Ministry of Education and Science (Ministerio de Educaci\n y Ciencia – MEC). The curriculum which is developed on the basis of these is established by the authorities. This is either the MEC, or for those regions with full powers over education, the Autonomous Communities themselves (these are Andalusia, the Basque Country, the Canary Islands, Catalonia, Galicia, Navarra and Valencia). Common core subjects and the minimum timetable requirements for each subject (enseñanzas mínimas), throughout the two years include amongst others Castilian language and literature and a foreign language. Those Autonomous Communities with their own language are able to devote 10 per cent of the total time for language teaching to this language.

Assessment

In compulsory secondary education, pupil assessment in each subject area is continuous and integrated. Both in the MEC territory, as well as in most of the Autonomous Communities, assessment must be carried out collectively by the team of teachers which is responsible for the same group of pupils, with the co-ordination of the tutor and advice from the Guidance Department (Departamento de Orientación). Pupils who have attained the required objectives at the end of compulsory secondary education receive a certificate of secondary education (Graduado en Educación Secundaria). This qualification enables the pupil to gain access to the Bachillerato. Pupils are assessed by subject taking into account the assessment criteria established for every subject and measured in relation to the educational aims of the Bachillerato.

Only pupils who have passed in all subjects receive the Bachillerato certificate, entitling them to have access to higher level vocational training or university studies (in the latter case, after having passed a university entrance examination - Pruebas de Aptitud para el Accesso a la Universidad - PAAU, commonly known as the selectividad). There is no final examination for the Bachillerato.

Outputs


26

Sweden

School structures

The Grundskola comprises primary and lower secondary education and lasts from 7 to 16 years (year 1 is age 7 years). Years 5 to 9 cover the lower secondary age group i.e. approximately 11 to 16 years of age. Upper secondary education, is provided in Gymnasieskola, consisting of three years education under the new post-reform system which has been in place since 1995/96. It should be noted that the focus in this study is on the post-reform system.

Curriculum

Every school has to devise a work plan based on the curriculum and local priorities. New national syllabuses for each subject state the objectives that are to be achieved by the end of year 5 and year 9 of compulsory school. In compulsory school, obligatory subjects include, amongst others Swedish, English, mathematics, biology, chemistry and physics.

In upper secondary general education, the curriculum arrangements are as follows: pupils follow one of sixteen different programmes. The natural science programme and the social science programme, which lead on to university education, are the two programmes with which this study is concerned. The others are vocational courses. Some subjects are common to all programmes and compulsory for all pupils. These core subjects include amongst others, Swedish, English, mathematics and nature studies. Additional compulsory subjects are taken according to pupils’ individual courses.

Assessment

As a result of the recent reforms in Sweden, there is a new marking system for compulsory education that is designed to be objective and related to attainment. It is geared to attainment criteria that are devised in conjunction with the syllabuses in order to make it clear to teachers and pupils the attainments necessary for the award of a certain mark. The final awards are on a three-point scale – passed, passed with credit and passed with distinction. Comparability is achieved by means of national tests. Diagnostic tests in reading, writing and arithmetic are administered at the end of year 2 in all municipal schools. All such schools administer national tests in Swedish, English and mathematics at the end of years 5 and 9; those for year 9 were used for the first time in 1998. All pupils receive a leaving certification (Grundskolabetyg).

There are no examinations at the end of post-compulsory secondary education. Pupils are assessed at the end of each course. The criteria for awarding marks are specified in the different syllabuses. To support this, centrally compiled tests are being developed in certain subjects.

Outputs


27

UK - England and Wales

School structures

In England and Wales, 95 per cent of secondary schools are comprehensive. The remainder (all in England) are grammar schools and secondary modern schools. All state schools (including those supported by religious bodies) are required to follow the national curriculum. Private schools (these charge fees and cater for around 7 per cent of the school age population) are not obliged to follow the national curriculum.

Upper secondary education is provided in schools, sixth form colleges, tertiary colleges and further education colleges. Both general education courses and vocational education courses are provided, but the precise course offer varies between institutions. Further education colleges are the main provider of vocational training but they also provide general education.

Curriculum

There is a national curriculum in England and Wales requiring all pupils from the age of 5 to 16 years to be taught a range of subjects. Pupils in compulsory secondary education (11 to 16) in state maintained schools are taught, amongst other subjects, English (and Welsh in Welsh-medium schools), mathematics, science and, in England, a modern foreign language. In post-compulsory secondary education there are no compulsory subjects4.


There is a continuous assessment of pupils’ progress by teachers who may set their own internal tests and examinations. In addition, towards the end of year 9 (age 14) teachers monitor pupils’ progress against ‘level descriptions’ for each of the national curriculum subjects. Pupils are also assessed by national tests at this stage in mathematics, English and science.

At the end of compulsory secondary general education (year 11, age 16) pupils are entered for external examinations (General Certificate of Secondary Education (GCSE)). The GCSE may be taken in a range of single subjects. There are no regulations governing the minimum or maximum number of subjects to be taken by a pupil at any one time. Vocational examinations are also offered.

Pupils who wish to go on to university usually study to General Certificate of Education Advanced (GCE A) level. This is taken at the age of 18 and is the main external examination offered in schools at the end of post-compulsory general education. There are also AS (Advanced Supplementary) examinations that are equivalent to one half of an A level. Most pupils in post-compulsory education take between two and four A levels. The subject areas studied can be very diverse. There are no regulations determining which subjects should be taken. Subjects can be combined according to the student’s preferences, although there are, in practice, restrictions in terms of subjects schools are able to offer and timetabling constraints (EURYDICE & CEDEFOP, 1995).

28

Outputs

Examination results in England have been improving in recent years. The percentage of pupils achieving five or more high grades at GCSE (grades starred A to C) has increased from 33 per cent in 1989 to 44 per cent in 1995. More girls than boys reach this level (48 per cent versus 39 per cent) (DfEE, 1996).

The minimum entry requirement to university in England, Wales & Northern Ireland is normally 2 GCE A level passes (although this varies between universities and departments as do the grades required). The percentage of the age cohort achieving two or more passes has increased from 15 per cent in 1988/89 to 20 per cent in 1994/95 (DfEE, 1996).

UK - Northern Ireland

School structures

In Northern Ireland, there are grammar schools (academically selective) and secondary schools. Grammar schools provide a range of courses for pupils aged 11 to 18 years, whilst secondary schools provide a similar range of courses for 11 to 16 year olds (although some offer post-16 opportunities).

Curriculum

There is a common curriculum in Northern Ireland, known as the Northern Ireland Curriculum for pupils in compulsory education in grant-aided (as opposed to independent) schools. Pupils in compulsory secondary education (11 to 16) are taught subjects from several areas of study; amongst them are: English, mathematics, science and technology and language studies. Within each area of study at least one subject is compulsory during certain years.


Every pupil’s performance in the compulsory subjects is formally assessed at the age of 14. At the end of the compulsory school phase most pupils take the General Certificate of Secondary Education (GCSE) examinations whilst at the end of upper secondary education GCE A levels are offered (see UK - England and Wales for details).

UK - Scotland

School structures

In Scotland, over 99 per cent of pupils in state schools attend comprehensive schools. Ninety per cent of these schools provide education covering four years of compulsory and two years of post-compulsory secondary education. All secondary schools offer a general education, with some vocationally-oriented courses for those who want them. Vocational education and training is also offered in further education colleges.

29

Curriculum

There is no national curriculum in Scotland. However, religious and moral education is a statutory requirement during the period of compulsory education and there are national guidelines that provide a framework for teaching between the ages of 5 and 14. The Government considers it essential that English, mathematics, science, a social subject and a modern language are studied by all pupils in compulsory secondary education. Between the ages of 12 and 14, pupils will study up to seven other subjects in addition to these five, selecting two or three of these additional subjects to complete their individual programmes of seven or eight subjects between the ages of 14 and 16. In the final two years of compulsory education, the Scottish Certificate of Education examinations at Standard Grade form the basis of the curriculum. In upper secondary education, courses leading to the Scottish Certificate of Education examinations at Higher Grade form the core of the post-compulsory curriculum; some pupils additionally pursue studies in the final year taking a Certificate of Sixth Year Studies. This is now changing and courses at five levels, the upper two of which replace Higher Grade and Certificate of Sixth Year Studies, will become modular and be able to be combined with vocational courses. The reforms will take effect from 1999/2000.


During the period between the ages of 5 and 14 years pupils are assessed according to the ‘5 to 14 national guidelines’. Five levels of attainment are specified for each area of the curriculum. These are used by teachers to plan the curriculum and monitor pupil progress and attainment. A continuing process of classroom assessment through observation and task-setting is supported by the use of national tests in reading, writing and mathematics. This is fairly well established in primary schools, but is more variable in the first two years of secondary school. There are proposals to introduce compulsory testing in English and mathematics in the first and second years of secondary school. The aim is that these tests will help to ensure that teachers’ assessments are in line with nationally agreed standards.

At the end of compulsory education (age 16) Scottish Certificate of Education examinations at Standard Grade are taken by pupils. This certificate takes into account performance in nationally-set examinations and the school’s own assessment of pupils. Standard Grade is awarded at three levels in most subjects: credit (the highest), general and foundation (but it should be noted that individual physics, chemistry and biology papers are only available at general and credit levels). Standard Grade examinations are taken in varying numbers, although pupils generally take seven or eight. The proportion of the relevant cohort gaining five or more high grades (grades 1 or 2) has been relatively stable over the past two years - ranging from 25 per cent in 1994 to 27 per cent in 1996. The percentage gaining five or more Standard Grade examinations at grades 1 to 4 has been similarly stable - 69 per cent in 1994 and 71 per cent in 1996 (Audit Unit, 1996).

At the end of the first or second year of post-compulsory general education the Scottish Certificate of Education Higher Grade is taken. This is set nationally. The external examinations for Higher Grade are primarily in written form, and are set by the Scottish Qualifications Authority. In some cases the examination will include work which has been assessed by the teacher (e.g. a folio of writing, a scientific investigation) which is sent to the Scottish Qualifications Authority (formerly the Scottish Examination Board). The award of a minimum of 3 Higher Grades with 2 additional Standard Grades gives access to higher education, although different universities require different grades and some require the Certificate of Sixth Year Studies (CSYS).

In many schools pupils also take a number of ‘national certificate modules’. These are internally assessed and are vocationally based. Virtually all pupils take at least one national certificate module

30

at some stage in their school career (in addition to Standard and Higher Grade examinations). Lower ability pupils may take these modules instead of Standard and Higher Grades.

As noted above, major reforms are underway to develop modular courses at different levels. These levels are known as Access, Intermediate One, Intermediate Two, Higher and Advanced Higher. Entry to higher education will be determined by Highers and Advanced Highers. Courses will be modular and made up of units. They will enable academic and vocational subjects to be combined. Units will be assessed internally (this is to guarantee a minimum level of competence) and externally (to determine by how much the minimum level has been exceeded). Specified combinations of units and courses will qualify for Scottish Group Awards; these will require a certain level of ‘core’ skills.

Outputs

The percentage of the relevant cohort gaining three or more Highers at grades A to C in 1996 was 20 per cent at the end of the first year of upper secondary education, and the percentage gaining two or more Highers at grades A to C at the end of the second year of upper secondary education was 16 per cent. The percentage gaining the CSYS was 9 per cent (Audit Unit, 1996).

31

References

Aaes, H. (1998) School Self-Evaluation and Decentralisation in Denmark. Paper provided for CER/LSE Conference on Quality and Assessment in Secondary Education, May 1998.

Amaro, G. (1996) Pupil Assessment in Portugal. Paper presented at British Council/School Curriculum and Assessment Authority Seminar on Pupil Assessment across Europe, 23-25 January 1996.

American Federation of Teachers (1995) What Secondary Students Abroad are Expected to Know, Washington: American Federation of Teachers.

American Federation of Teachers and National Center for Improving Science Education (1994) What College-Bound Students Abroad are Expected to Know about Biology, Washington: AFT/NCISE.

Audit Unit HM Inspectors of Schools (1996) Examination Results in Scottish Schools 1994-1996, Edinburgh: The Scottish Office. Croce, C. (1996) Correspondence to A West.

Croce, C. (1997) Personal communication.

Danish Ministry of Education (1998) Notes provided for CER/LSE Conference on Quality and Assessment in Secondary Education, May 1998. Department for Education and Employment (1996) Public Examinations GCSE and GCE in England 1995, London: HMSO.

Direction de l’Evaluation et de la Prospective (1997) Le BaccalaurJat Session 1996, Note d’Information, Paris: Direction de l’Evaluation et de la Prospective. Eurostat (1997) Education across the European Union Statistics and Indicators, 1996, Luxembourg: Office des publications officielles des CommunautJs europJennes.

Eurostat (1998) Education across the European Union Statistics and Indicators, 1997, Luxembourg: Office des publications officielles des CommunautJs europJennes.

Eurybase Website address: http://www.eurydice.org/Eurybase/files/dossier.htm

EURYDICE & CEDEFOP (1995) Structures of the Education and Initial Training Systems in the European Union, Brussels: European Commission, DGXXII.

Finnish Ministry of Education (1996) Correspondence to A West.

Gruber, K. H. (1996a) Assessment in Austrian Schools. Paper presented at an OECD International Conference on Assessment in Schools: International Comparisons, 20-23 February 1996.

Gruber, K. H. (1996b) Curriculum Change in Austria. Paper presented at the meeting of the OECD Project Teachers and Curriculum Reform in Basic Schooling, 12-16 May 1996.

32

Hinke, H. (1998) The System of Secondary Education, Curriculum and Examinations in Germany. Paper presented at CER/LSE Conference on Quality and Assessment in Secondary Education, May 1998.

Icelandic Ministry of Education (1996) Personal communication.

Jacob, H. (1998) Description of the Decentralised Abitur Examination in North Rhine Westphalia. Paper presented at CER/LSE Conference on Quality and Assessment in Secondary Education, May 1998.

Kern, A. (1998) The Austrian School System: Important Austrian Educational Pathways. Paper presented at CER/LSE Conference on Quality and Assessment in Secondary Education, May 1998.

LJvy, J. (1997) Examen de fin d’Jtudes secondaires 1996: Comparaisons et Analyse, Luxembourg: MinistPre de l’Education Nationale et de la Formation Professionnelle SCRIPT.

Melissen, M. (1998) Quality and Assessment in Secondary Education: The Case of the Netherlands. Paper presented at CER/LSE Conference on Quality and Assessment in Secondary Education, May 1998.

Ministry of the Flemish Community Education Department (1997) Education in Flanders, Brussels: Ministry of the Flemish Community Education Department.

OECD (1997) Education at a Glance, Paris: OECD.

ONISEP (1995) Objectif Bac: de la 3Pme au Bac, Paris: Medias Jeunes.

Salmio, K. (1998) Recent Developments in Secondary Education in Finland. Paper presented at CER/LSE Conference on Quality and Assessment in Secondary Education, May 1998.

33

Chapter 2

A comparison of the intended curriculum in lower secondary general/academic education

1 Introduction

There has been much interest across Europe about the quality of the education systems. International test results are used by policy makers to make comparisons about the ‘standards’ achieved in different countries. The concept of quality as it relates to education is, nonetheless, somewhat nebulous. A definition of ‘standards of outcomes’ is a measurable way of looking at the issue. However, before we can compare ‘standards’ across Europe, major conceptual issues need to be addressed.

The education systems in the 185 countries of the Socrates Programme are diverse (EURYDICE & CEDEFOP, 1995; Education, Training and Youth, 1996; see also SCAA, 1997) and the curriculum coverage varies, with certain subjects being taught in some countries but not others (see Kellaghan & Grisay, 1995). To interpret international test data6 that seek to compare ‘standards of outcome’ it is necessary to establish whether particular subjects are taught to all pupils, the extent to which the curriculum content varies across countries and the number of hours allocated to the teaching of the subject7. On a priori grounds these factors can affect levels of attainment. In this chapter, we attempt to answer three main questions: Which subjects are compulsory (and when) in lower/compulsory education? How many hours are allocated to teaching them? What are the common domains and topic areas in each of these subjects?

We focus on four key subject areas - mathematics, the language of instruction, modern foreign languages (English except in the case of the UK and Ireland, when the focus is on French), mathematics and sciences (notably physics, chemistry and biology) in lower/compulsory secondary general education. In the case of countries with different types of education/schools in this phase, we focused on academic schools as opposed to vocational or technical schools (i.e. AHS in Austria, Gymnasium in Germany and Liechtenstein; general education in Belgium and Luxembourg and VWO education in the Netherlands). In the case of the Nordic countries (Denmark, Finland, Iceland, Norway and Sweden), France, Greece, Portugal, Spain and Italy there is only one type of school at this level. In the UK, the curriculum in all state-funded schools is the same and in Ireland, the same syllabuses are followed across different school types (see Chapter 1). Mathematics, the language of instruction and science can be considered to be ‘core’ subjects whilst competence in modern foreign languages is of particular importance in the European context, given the single market and mobility of labour.

2 Methods

Information was obtained about the curriculum in the countries (and, where relevant, regions) concerned. We used material already available (e.g. EURYDICE & CEDEFOP, 1995) together with curriculum documents. Representatives of the Ministries of Education have assisted by providing documents, and by checking the veracity of our descriptions. They also provided supplementary information where necessary. In all countries, the focus is on the curriculum that is currently in place,

34

or in the process of being implemented (see Chapter 1). Appendix 1 provides details of the theoretical ages that were the focus of the study and the age at which lower and compulsory secondary education ends.

Across all countries of the EU/EEA the competent authorities (generally the Ministry of Education) produce documents that provide details of the curriculum content. Not all countries have a ‘national curriculum’. In Germany, the individual Länder produce the guidelines8. In Spain, the national guidelines are modified by the Autonomous Communities (e.g. Catalonia) to cater for linguistic and cultural variation. In Belgium, the individual Communities have produced targets of attainment for schools for which they are responsible9. Individual ‘networks’ (e.g. the Catholic church) also publish their own curriculum guidelines. In England and Wales, and in Northern Ireland there are national curriculum documents that apply until the end of compulsory schooling. In Scotland, there are curriculum guidelines that are applicable for pupils between 5 and 14 years of age. However, for England, Wales & Northern Ireland10, and separately for Scotland, there are curriculum syllabuses for each subject that are explicitly related to the main public examinations that take place at the end of compulsory general education. Similar syllabuses are produced in Ireland. These are the main focus in this chapter.

The curriculum guidelines vary in terms of the extent to which they prescribe what is to be covered. Two models can be discerned. Around half of the countries provide detailed curriculum guidelines/syllabuses (e.g. Austria, Belgium (Flemish and French Communities), France, Germany (Bavaria and North Rhine Westphalia), Greece, Iceland, Ireland, Luxembourg, Portugal and the UK (England, Wales & Northern Ireland and Scotland). In some of these countries the curriculum is more prescribed than in others. Less detailed specifications of the curriculum content are generally given in Denmark, Finland, Italy, Liechtenstein11, the Netherlands, Norway, Spain and Sweden. These may be considered to be countries providing a curriculum ‘framework’.

3 Which subjects are compulsory?

In all countries there are subjects that are compulsory in lower secondary general/academic or compulsory education. Mathematics and the language of instruction (e.g. French in France) are compulsory in all12. At least one modern foreign language is obligatory in all countries except Ireland and Northern Ireland; in the latter, ‘language studies’ is compulsory. With the exception of Ireland, sciences, in one form or another are compulsory in all countries. In some countries, science is viewed as comprising physics, chemistry and biology, whilst in others, such as France and Portugal, geology is also classified as a science, and in one (Italy), mathematics is timetabled and presented with the sciences. In a number of countries, only certain constituent science subjects are taught in lower secondary education, or in particular years (see Section 5.4).

4 Time allocated to subjects

There is variation between countries in the time that they recommend should be spent on particular subjects. Indicators were produced to compare the minimum/basic amount of time allocated to key subject areas. Direct comparisons are not possible as different conceptualisations and definitions are used in individual countries – in some there is a minimum time recommended (e.g. the Netherlands), in some there are actual prescribed time allocations (e.g. France, Germany (Bavaria) and in others estimates are given (e.g. UK (England, Wales & Northern Ireland)). Nevertheless, there is variation between countries in the extent to which time is allocated to particular subjects. Table 1 represents the minimum/basic time allocated per subject to all pupils in the final year of lower/compulsory13

secondary general/academic education (for theoretical ages see Appendix 1).

35

It is clear from Table 1 that there are marked differences between countries in the amount of time that is allocated to key areas of the curriculum. The mean number of hours allocated to mathematics is 107 hours per year whilst the mean number of hours for the language of instruction is 127. For modern foreign languages (and other national/regional languages) the mean number of hours is 126 per year. For sciences, the mean number of hours allocated is 108 hours per year.

Whilst there are difficulties making comparisons between countries as different definitions are used, these figures do indicate that some countries give a higher profile to certain areas of the curriculum than to others. The relative proportion of time devoted to these four subject areas is shown on a country-by-country basis in Figure 1 and, as can be seen, some interesting differences emerge:

· Luxembourg allocates a relatively high proportion of time to languages other than the language of instruction. A small proportion of time is devoted to sciences.

· Portugal and Belgium (French Community) allocate relatively high proportions of time to mathematics.

· Iceland and Italy allocate relatively high proportions of time to the language of instruction.· Austria and the UK (England, Wales & Northern Ireland) devote a relatively high proportion of

time to the sciences.

36

Table 1 Minimum number of hours allocated to key subjects in the final year of lower/compulsory general/academic secondary school

Country Mathematics Language ofInstruction

Modern foreign language(+ second national/regional language)

Sciences

AT 90 119 90 179BE(FL) 91 121 91 91BE(FR) 152 152 152 91DE(BA) 85 113 169 113DE(NRW) 99 99 197 127DK 120 180 90 120ES 105 105 105 (+105) 105FI 114 103 76 (+103) 163FR 132 149 99 116GR 105 105 131 131IE n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a.IS 62 122 62 41IT 100 200 100 100LI 120 120 120 120LU 105 90 105 (+135) 30NL 111 111 n.a. 89NO 105 133 86 86PT 123 123 92 92SE 100 166 90 89UK(EWNI) 119 119 95 190UK(S) 100 100 100 80EU/EEA MEAN

107 127 126 108

n.a. not available

1. BE(FL): French is a compulsory subject for all pupils in general academic schools; hours not available 2. BE(FR): figures for modern foreign languages incorporate/represent other domestic languages. At this level pupils

may study another domestic language and not take English.3. DE(NRW): minimum number of hours depends on hours taught in previous years. Estimates of realistic time

provided by Ministry of Education. Figures assume two modern foreign languages (alternative is for one modern foreign language and Latin).

4. ES: 10% of the total number of hours in the school timetable is available for teaching the regional language in the Spanish autonomous communities.

5. FI: figure for science includes geography which is taught combined with biology at this level. The figures for a modern foreign language and the second national language are interchangeable depending on the pupil’s choice.

6. FR: figure for sciences represents the time allocated for physics-chemistry and biology-geology. 7. IS: figures represent an average figure for each year over the 10 years of compulsory school. 8. LU: German is the language of instruction during lower secondary education.9. NL: figures represent an average over three years of the minimum recommended hours.10. NO: figures represent an average over the three years of lower secondary school.11. SE: figures represent the minimum guaranteed teacher led time and are an average figure for the nine year period of

compulsory school.12. UK(EWNI): published estimates; assumes single subject modern foreign language and double science (Dearing,

1993). 13. UK(S): figure for sciences assumes that one science subject is studied.

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5 Subject content

5.1 Language of instruction

In the majority of countries in the EU/EEA there is one official language; however, in a minority there are two or more official languages (Belgium, Finland, Ireland, Luxembourg and the UK (Wales)). Slightly fewer countries have a regional language that has recognised status (Finland, the Netherlands, Spain and the UK (Scotland)). In this study, where there is more than one official language or recognised regional language, we focused on the following languages: Dutch in Belgium (Flemish Community), French in Belgium (French Community), Finnish in Finland, English in Ireland and the whole of the UK, German in Luxembourg14, Dutch in the Netherlands and Castilian in Spain.

For the language of instruction, four domains were identified:

· Reading and literature· Writing· Speaking and listening· Reflection on language, language analysis and grammar

In all countries each domain is covered. To identify differences, we thus have to explore the topic areas. In reading and literature, we find a number of similarities, but also some differences, as shown in Table 2.

Table 2 Language of instruction: Domain of reading and literature

Topic area Number of countries/regions specifying topic (N=21) (1)

Contemporary writing 21Pre-twentieth century literature 21Prose, novels, plays, poetry 21Media texts 15Significant writers/the classics/culturally important texts 13

(1) N=21 in this and subsequent tables (18 countries but 21 countries/regions (two Communities in Belgium; two L@nder in Germany; and in the UK, England, Wales & Northern Ireland on the one hand and Scotland on the other.)

All countries cover contemporary writing, pre-twentieth century works and different genres of literature. A majority refer to media texts, such as newspapers and magazines – although these are not specified in Belgium, Greece, Italy, Luxembourg or Portugal. Fewer countries make reference to the work of significant writers, ‘classical’ literature or texts of cultural significance (such as myths, legends and sagas); these topics are not specified in Austria, Belgium, Liechtenstein, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, Norway or Spain.

Topics addressed in the domain of writing are shown in Table 3. All countries specify the composition of texts or essays. Over half specify imaginative or creative writing (but not Germany (North Rhine Westphalia), Finland, France, Greece, Italy, Liechtenstein, the Netherlands, Sweden, Spain). Handwriting techniques are specifically mentioned in three northern European countries (Denmark, Iceland and Norway).

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Table 3 Language of instruction: Domain of writing

Topic area Number of countries/regions specifying topic (N=21)Composition of texts or essays 21Imaginative or creative writing 12Handwriting 3

The domain of speaking and listening is also addressed in all countries. The number of countries/regions addressing the main topic areas of conversation and discussion, structured debate and pronunciation are shown in Table 4.

Table 4 Language of instruction: Domain of speaking and listening

Topic area Number of countries/regions specifying topic (N=21)Conversation and discussion 21Structured debate/role play 16Pronunciation 8

All countries specify conversation and discussion. Around three-quarters specify structured debate or role play (but not Greece, Ireland, Italy, Luxembourg or Liechtenstein). Pronunciation is specified in a minority of countries (Austria, Belgium (Flemish Community), Denmark, France, Greece, Iceland, Liechtenstein and Luxembourg).

In all countries, the domain of reflection on language, language analysis or grammar is addressed. As can be seen in Table 5, all cover spelling and/or vocabulary (the Netherlands only specifies spelling). Punctuation is mentioned in over half of the countries (but not in Austria, Belgium, Denmark, Greece, Italy or Luxembourg). A minority of countries15 provide detailed grammar guidelines (Austria, Belgium, Germany, France, Greece and Luxembourg). It is interesting to note that these are predominantly in mainland Europe and focused on the French and German-speaking countries.

Table 5 Language of instruction: Domain of reflection on language, language analysisand grammar

Topic area Number of countries/regions specifying topic (N=21)Spelling and/or vocabulary 21Punctuation 14Detailed grammar guidelines 8

39

5.2 Modern foreign languages

For the teaching of modern foreign languages, four well-defined categories emerged, namely:

· Reading · Writing· Speaking and listening· Grammar and reflection on language

In all countries there is a focus on reading. However, the type of material that is referred to varies as shown in Table 6. All countries specify informative texts. Around three-quarters specify printed media (such as newspapers, magazines and advertisements); this topic area is not specified in Finland, Iceland, Liechtenstein, Luxembourg or the UK (Scotland). Just under two-thirds of countries mention personal texts, such as letters, postcards and messages (but not Belgium, Denmark, France, Iceland, Liechtenstein, Luxembourg or Norway). A similar proportion of countries specify a variety of other texts, such as poems, songs, and stories (Austria, Belgium, Germany, Denmark, Spain, France, Greece, Italy, the Netherlands, Norway and Sweden).

Table 6 Modern foreign languages: Domain of reading

Topic area Number of countries/regions specifying topic (N=21)

Informative texts (e.g. public notices, instructions) 21Printed media (e.g. newspapers, magazines, advertisements) 16Personal texts (e.g. letters, postcards, messages) 13Other texts (e.g. poems, songs, stories, novels, pop lyrics) 13

All countries require pupils to produce written work in the foreign language to demonstrate that they have understood the main substance of what they have read, seen or heard, on the one hand, and on the other to convey personal information or facts. However, the types of writing that are addressed in the curriculum guidelines differ to some extent between countries, although virtually all (20) mention writing letters and/or postcards (Iceland describes written texts in general terms only). Details are given in Table 7.

Table 7 Modern foreign languages: Domain of writing

Topic area Number of countries/regions specifying topic (N=21) Letters, postcards 20Imaginative texts, guided composition 13Messages, notes, instructions 12Descriptive text/summaries/reports 12

A majority of countries/regions specify the writing of imaginative texts (but not Denmark, Greece, Ireland, Iceland, Liechtenstein, the Netherlands, Spain or Sweden). Messages, notes or instructions are mentioned by over half of the countries/regions (but not by Denmark, Iceland, Liechtenstein, Luxembourg, Norway, Portugal, Spain, or the UK). Descriptive text is mentioned by a similar proportion (although not by Belgium, Greece, Iceland, Ireland, Italy, Liechtenstein, Spain or Sweden).

Speaking and listening is the skill domain covered most extensively and in most detail – with the exception of Iceland and Liechtenstein, where the curriculum documents outline general rather than

40

specific requirements. As shown in Table 8, there is similarity in terms of the coverage of conversation, discussion and listening, which are addressed by all countries, but less in terms of oral presentations and pronunciation. Pronunciation is specified by around half of the countries/regions (but not by Belgium, Denmark, Greece, Ireland, Liechtenstein, Norway, Portugal, Spain or the UK (Scotland)). Just under half of the countries specify oral presentations (Austria, Denmark, France, Germany, Greece, Ireland, Norway, Portugal and Sweden).

Table 8 Modern foreign languages: Domain of speaking and listening

Topic area Number of countries/regions specifying topic area (N=21) Conversation, discussion, listening 21Pronunciation 11Oral presentations (e.g. giving a short talk) 10

Turning to the broad domain of grammar (see Table 9), we find that parts of speech, tenses and sentence construction are specified universally. Specific reference to vocabulary, for example, words, meaning and use of words, spelling and building up a vocabulary is made in 18 countries/regions (but not in Iceland, Italy or the UK (England, Wales & Northern Ireland)).

Only a minority of countries16 provide detailed grammar guidelines, namely Austria, Belgium, France, Germany, Greece and Luxembourg. These are mainly, but not solely German and French-speaking countries, and are the same countries that provide detailed guidelines for the language of instruction. Guidelines are extremely detailed in Austria, Greece and France, and include grammar exercises and vocabulary lists with, in France, a recommended number of words per year.

Table 9 Modern foreign languages: Domain of grammar


Parts of speech, tenses, sentence construction 21Specific reference to vocabulary 18Detailed grammar guidelines provided 8

Modern foreign languages: General comparisons

It is clear that there are many similarities in the curriculum coverage in modern foreign languages. However, if we look at key themes that the Council of Europe (1991) recommends should be included in the teaching of languages, we find some variation between countries (see Table 10). A large number of themes are used in the teaching of modern foreign languages and the vast majority of countries make specific reference to most or all of these.

41

Table 10 Modern foreign languages: Main themes addressed across the EU/EEA

Home family

Daily life

Pers Details

Hobby People Places School Weath Travel Food Shops Health

AT s s s s s s s s s s

BEFL s s s s s s s s s s s s

BEFR s s s s s s s s s s s s

DEBA s s _ s s s _ _ _ _ _ _

DENRW

s s _ s s s _ _ _ _ _ _

DK s s s s

ES s s s

FI s s s s s s s s s s s s

FR _ _ _ _ s _ _ _ _ _ _ _

GR s s s s s

IE s s s s s s s s s s s s

IS s s s s s s s s

IT _ _ _ _ _ s _ _ _ _ _ _

LI (1)LU s s

NL _ s s s s _ s s s _ s _

NO s

PT s s s s s s

SE s s

UKEWNI

s s s s s s s s s s

UKS s s s s s s s s s s

Key: Home family: Home and family, Pers. details: personal details, Hobby: hobbies, leisure, entertainment, sport, People: relations with other people, School: school/education, Weath: weather, Travel: travel, transport, getting around, Food: food and drink, Shops: shopping, Health: health and body care(1) The new syllabus for introduction in 1999 will include all themes.

5.3 Mathematics

In order to compare the curriculum content, we used four domains17:

· Number· Geometry· Functions, relations and equations· Data representation, probability and statistics

There is considerable similarity in the main topics addressed as shown in Table 11. Number, geometry and functions, relations and equations are addressed by all countries. Within domains there are differences in terms of the precise topics but, for example, in the domain of geometry, Pythagoras’ theorem is mentioned explicitly in virtually all countries (although not in Spain or Sweden, or the lower tiers in Ireland or the UK).

Interestingly, the study of statistics and probability shows considerable variability across countries. Topics in this domain are not mentioned at all in one group of countries – the Belgium (Flemish Community), Germany (Bavaria), Liechtenstein and Luxembourg. A second group of countries cover either probability but not statistics (Germany (North Rhine Westphalia)) or statistics but not probability (Belgium (French Community), France, Ireland and Scotland). This leaves a group of countries that covers both statistics and probability, all the Nordic countries - Denmark, Finland, Iceland Norway and Sweden, - plus two other northern European countries - the Netherlands and the UK (England, Wales & Northern Ireland) - together with Austria and four southern European countries Greece, Italy, Spain and Portugal.

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Table 11 Countries addressing domains for mathematics

Domain Number of countries/regions addressing domain (N=21)

Number (e.g. fractions, decimals, square roots, estimation) 21Geometry (e.g. Pythagoras’ theorem, congruence, area, volume) 21Functions, relations, equations 21Data representation, probability and statistics 17

Mathematics: General comparisons

Whilst the main topic areas appear, superficially, to be similar there are differences in relation to the way in which the subject is conceived, presented and taught. Four main models can be discerned as shown in Table 12.

Table 12 Mathematics models

Model CountriesType 1 BE, DE, FR, LIType 2 GR, IE, LUType 3 AT, DK, FI, IS, NL, NOType 4 ES, IT, PT, SE, UK

Type 1 represents countries where there is a strong emphasis on the integration of the subject. Topics are presented under a small number of categorical headings (two or three) and there may be a greater focus compared with other countries on the theoretical underpinnings than on applications to everyday life. This more integrated conceptualisation, in general, is at the expense of greater breadth of topic coverage. Type 2 represents countries where there is a strong topic-based emphasis. The curriculum is presented as a series of topics that should be covered, but which are not grouped under any general or conceptual headings. Type 3 represents countries where the curriculum headings and content illustrate a focus on practical mathematics applications, particularly in relation to everyday life. Type 4 represents those countries where topics are grouped into a larger number of overarching categories (four or more) than in Type 1. There is less focus on integration, an apparent greater breadth of coverage, but less emphasis on practical applications than in Type 3.

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5.4 Sciences

Three main areas of science are explored, namely, biology18, chemistry and physics19. There are some important differences between countries, with six different models of teaching being found, as shown in Table 13.

Table 13 Models for the provision of science in lower secondary general education

Models for the provision of science CountriesScience not compulsory but available IEScience compulsory but not necessarily every year ESBiology only science subject taught LUBiology taught first, then both physics and chemistry later BE, FR, GR, LI, NL, PTBiology taught first, then physics, then chemistry later AT, DE(BA)Biology and physics and chemistry taught throughout DE(NRW), DK, FI, IS, IT, NO, SE, UK

The following section focuses on each subject area in turn. For biology we used five categories20, namely:

· Human biology· Animal biology (not specifically human biology)· Plant biology· Cells· Ecology, humans and the environment, evolution

As shown in Table 14, there are very clear differences between countries in the main domains specified. Human biology is not only the one domain that is covered by all countries, it is also the most emphasised theme overall. The focus is on the characteristics of humans as living organisms (e.g. digestion, excretion) and the topics with the highest profile are reproduction and health issues. The domain of ecology, the environment and evolution is addressed by almost all the countries (but not Belgium (French Community)). However, the individual topics that comprise the domain are not specified in all countries. Ecology is not addressed in France whilst evolution is not addressed by Belgium (Flemish Community), Finland, Luxembourg, Portugal or Spain. The domain of animal biology (not specifically human biology and not covered elsewhere) is addressed by the majority of countries (but not the Belgium (Flemish Community), Finland, Italy, Portugal, Sweden, the UK (England, Wales & Northern Ireland)). Plant biology is specifically addressed in the majority of countries (but not Belgium (Flemish Community), Finland, Italy, Portugal or Sweden). Cells, however, is a domain that only around two-thirds of the countries address; it is not covered by Austria, Denmark, Iceland, Liechtenstein, the Netherlands, Norway or Portugal.

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Table 14 Countries addressing domains in biology

Domain Number of countries/regions specifying domain (N=20) (1)

Human biology (e.g. reproduction, health, digestion) 20Ecology, humans & the environment, evolution, genetics 19Plant biology (e.g. photosynthesis, growth, reproduction) 15Animal biology (e.g. nutrition, animal breeding)(2) 14Cells (e.g. structure, function, metabolism) 13

(1) No data available for Greece(2) Not specifically human biology and not covered elsewhere

For physics, we used the following four categories21 to compare the curriculum content: · Electricity, fields and electronics · Forces, motion, matter and energy · Waves · Radiation and radioactivity

There are marked similarities between countries in relation to the first three domains as shown in Table 15. In the domain of forces, motion, matter and energy, France, the Netherlands, Portugal and the UK (Scotland) have a clear focus on ‘transport’, so placing the study of physics in the ‘real world’ in an explicit way. In relation to the domain of waves, only the topic of light is mentioned in Belgium (French Community), France, Germany (Bavaria) and Liechtenstein, whilst in the remaining countries sound or waves more generally are included. One of the areas where there are clear differences between the countries is that of radiation and radioactivity. Topics in this general domain are mentioned in just over half of the countries (Austria, Denmark, Finland, Germany, Greece, Ireland, Norway, Portugal (as part of an optional module), Sweden and the UK) but not in the remainder.

Table 15 Countries specifying domains in physics

Domain Number of countries/regions specifying domain (N=20)(1) Electricity, fields and electronics 20Forces, motion, matter and energy 20Waves 20Radiation and radioactivity 12

(1) Excludes Luxembourg which does not cover physics in lower secondary education

The presentation of the topic coverage for chemistry is the most diverse of all the subjects investigated as the subject area is conceptualised in different ways across the countries of the EU/EEA (see Appendix 2). It is also frequently given less time and/or introduced later than biology and physics. In a number of countries there is insufficient detail to make relevant comparisons in some domains. Notwithstanding the difficulties encountered, it is possible to discern four main domains:

· The structure of matter· Chemical transformations· Aspects of organic chemistry· The chemical industry and society

As shown in Table 16, all countries address the structure of matter and chemical transformations. Aspects of organic chemistry are specifically addressed in just over half of the countries (Austria,

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Belgium (Flemish Community), Denmark, Finland, Germany, Greece, Norway, Sweden, the UK). A similar proportion of countries refers to the chemical industry (Austria, Denmark, Finland, Greece, Italy, the Netherlands, Norway, Portugal, Sweden and the UK). One key focus in the domain concerned with the chemical industry is the extent to which environmental consequences of the industry are included. Particular emphasis to this issue is given in Austria, Denmark, the Netherlands, Norway and Sweden.

Table 16 Countries specifying domains in chemistry

Domain Number of countries/regions specifying domain (N=20)(1)Structure of matter 20Chemical transformations 20Organic chemistry 11Chemical industry 11

(1) Excludes Luxembourg which does not cover chemistry in lower secondary education

Overall, in terms of science curricula at this level, we can postulate two general models, Types 1 and 2. Type 1 is broadly based in that it includes all subjects and many domains and topic areas. In these countries all, or virtually all, the science domains are addressed. Type 2 is more focused or targeted on particular domains (see Table 17).

Table 17 Models of teaching sciences in lower secondary education

Model CountriesType 1 AT, DE, DK, GR, IE, NO, SE, UKType 2 BE, ES, FI, FR, IS, IT, LI, LU, NL, PT

The science curricula also vary in terms of whether they are predominantly theoretical or applied to the real world. Just under half of the countries have a more applied approach as demonstrated by a focus on everyday life and/or the real world and/or environmental issues in the curriculum guidelines - Austria, Denmark, Finland, France, the Netherlands, Norway, Portugal and Sweden.

6 Conclusions

Across all countries certain core subjects are compulsory. The subject content, however, varies. This is particularly noticeable with the sciences. There are similarities in the domains and topics that are addressed in each subject, particularly in modern foreign languages and to a lesser extent the language of instruction. Superficially, mathematics shows similarities in terms of several of the domains, but these obscure variations in the conceptualisation of the subject in different countries. There is much less common ground in the sciences. It is, nevertheless, interesting to note the similarities in terms of the domain of human biology and in a number of the physics domains.

These findings add to the debate about the possible reasons for differences between countries in their international test performance. A number of factors may contribute to differences. First, individual countries recommend that varying amounts of time be spent on particular subject areas. Such variations may give rise to differing outcomes (although it would, first, be necessary for evaluations to be carried out to verify that the time recommendations were being adhered to). Second, and specifically in relation to science, different countries start the study of science subjects at different stages. If the study of physics or chemistry begins at a later stage, and is compulsory for a shorter period, it is likely that the overall science curriculum coverage will be reduced and this too may have an effect on international test results. Third, notwithstanding the similarities that have been observed

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in relation to the domains covered, there are clear differences in the extent to which countries have a ‘focused’ curriculum as opposed to a ‘broad’ curriculum for different subject areas. This is likely to mean that depth of coverage in those countries with a broad curriculum is foregone at the expense of greater curricular breadth. This too may affect standards achieved.

Summary

This chapter has explored similarities and differences in the curriculum coverage and content in compulsory/lower secondary general/academic education in the countries of the EU/EEA, looking particularly at four key subject areas - the language of instruction, modern foreign languages, mathematics and the sciences.

· In all countries mathematics and the language of instruction are compulsory subjects22. At least one modern foreign language is compulsory except in Ireland and in Northern Ireland; in the latter ‘language studies’ is obligatory. In all countries, except Ireland, sciences, in one form or another are compulsory, although not necessarily for the whole period of lower secondary education.

· The minimum amount of time allocated to the language of instruction, mathematics, modern foreign (and other national/regional) languages and the sciences varies between countries. The relatively high proportion of time devoted to languages other than the language of instruction in Luxembourg is notable, as is the proportion of time devoted to the sciences in Austria and the UK (England, Wales & Northern Ireland).

· In the language of instruction, reading and literature are addressed in all countries, with universal reference being made to contemporary and pre-twentieth century works and different genres of literature. Writing is an important domain and compositions or essays are common to all countries. Speaking and listening is another key domain, with conversation and discussion being referred to in all countries. Reflection on language, language analysis and grammar are mentioned in all countries. Detailed grammar guidelines are given in Austria, Belgium, Germany, France, Greece and Luxembourg.

· In modern foreign languages, all countries address the reading of texts with informative texts such as public notices and instructions being specified universally; printed media are specified in a majority of countries (but not Finland, Iceland, Liechtenstein, Luxembourg or the UK (Scotland)). Letters and postcards are mentioned in under half of the countries (Austria, Germany, Spain, Finland, Liechtenstein, Portugal, Sweden and the UK). Speaking and listening are covered extensively and in detail, with conversation and discussion being mentioned in all and oral presentations in just under half (Austria, Denmark, France, Germany, Greece, Ireland, Norway and Sweden). The most frequent form of writing is letters or postcards. All countries refer to grammar and a significant minority provides detailed grammar guidelines (Austria, Belgium, Germany, France, Greece and Luxembourg). Everyday themes (to do with home and family, travel etc.) are addressed in all countries.

· In mathematics, all countries address the domains of number; geometry; and functions, relations and equations. The domain of data representation, statistics and probability shows considerable variability, with the majority of countries addressing some topics but some not covering it at all – Belgium (Flemish Community), Germany (Bavaria), Liechtenstein and Luxembourg.

· The teaching of sciences is the most variable within the EU/EEA. In Luxembourg, only biology is taught. In others, biology is taught at the beginning of lower secondary general education, with

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physics and chemistry being introduced later. In just under half of the countries, physics, chemistry and biology are taught throughout this period – Denmark, Finland, Germany (North Rhine Westphalia), Iceland, Italy, Norway, Sweden and the UK.

· There are clear differences between countries in terms of the main science areas that are covered. Only one domain in biology is covered by all countries namely human biology, with the domain of ecology and evolution being addressed in virtually all.

· In physics, three domains are addressed in all countries: electricity, fields and electronics; forces, motion, matter and energy; and waves. Radiation and radioactivity are covered in just over half of the countries – Austria, Germany, Denmark, Finland, Greece, Ireland, Norway, Portugal, Sweden and the UK.

· In chemistry, all countries address the structure of matter and chemical reactions. Aspects of organic chemistry are addressed in around half – Austria, Belgium (Flemish Community), Denmark, Finland, Germany, Greece, Norway, Sweden and the UK.

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References

Britton, E. & Raizen, S. (1996) Examining the Examinations: An international comparison of science and mathematics examinations for college-bound students, Boston: Kluwer Academic Publishers.

Council of Europe (1991) Waystage 1990: Modern Languages, Strasbourg: Council of Europe.

Dearing, R. (1994) The National Curriculum and its Assessment, Final Report, London: School Curriculum and Assessment Authority. Education, Training and Youth (1996) Key Data on Education in the European Union, Brussels: European Commission DGXXII.


Kellaghan, T. & Grisay, A. (1995) International Comparisons of Student Achievement: Problems and prospects. In Measuring what students learn, Paris: OECD.

Robitaille, D. et al. (1993) Curriculum Frameworks for Mathematics and Science, Vancouver: Pacific Educational Press. School Curriculum and Assessment Authority (SCAA) (1997) INCA: the International Review of Curriculum and Assessment Frameworks Archive [CD-ROM] NFER/SCAA (obtainable from the Qualifications and Curriculum Authority, London).

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Appendix 1

Table A1 Theoretical ages for beginning and end of lower secondary/compulsory education and curriculum documents

Country Lower secondary begins

Lower secondary ends

Compulsory ends

Documents relate to … (theoretical ages)

Description of stage

AT 10 14 15 12 – 14 Final 2 years of the 4 year lower level of the academic secondary school

BE 12 16 18 (1) 14 – 16 Second cycle/degree of general secondary education

DE(BA)(NRW)

10 16 18 14 – 16 Final 2 years of the 6 years of lower secondary education (Gymnasium)

DK n.a. n.a. 16 13 – 16 Final three years of the 9 year comprehensive school

ES (2) 12 16 16 14 – 16 Second cycle of compulsory secondary education

FI n.a. n.a. 16 13 – 16 Upper stage of the comprehensive schoolFR 11 15 16 13 – 15 Final two years of the 4 year collège GR 12 15 15 12 – 15 The 3 years of gymnasioIE 12 15 15 12 – 15 3 years of second level education – junior

cycleIS n.a. n.a. 16 13 – 16 Final 3 years of the 10 year

comprehensive schoolIT 11 14 14 11 – 14 3 years of scuola mediaLI 12 16 16 14 – 16 Years 3 and 4 of the 8 year Gymnasium,

Sekundarstufe ILU 12 15 15 12 – 15 Lower cycle of the lycée (general

secondary education)NL 12 15 17/18 (3) 12 – 15 The 3 year period of ‘basic education’

VWONO n.a. n.a. 16 13 – 16 The lower secondary stage of the 10 year

comprehensive schoolPT 12 15 15 12 – 15 Third cycle of basic educationSE n.a. n.a. 16 12 – 16 Period between years 5 and 9 in the 9 year

compulsory schoolUK(EWNI)

11 14 16 14 – 16 Key Stage 4, final 2 years of compulsory secondary education

UK(S) 12 16 16 14 – 16 S3 and S4, final 2 years of compulsory secondary education

n.a: not applicable – in the Nordic countries there is no separate system of lower secondary education (see Chapter 1)

(1) Part-time education (until compulsory school leaving age) for 15 to 16 year olds who are not in full-time general education

(2) Refers to the situation post-reform(3) Compulsory education lasts either 12 years full time (age 5 to 17 years) or full time from 5 until the end of the

school year in which the pupil has reached 16, followed by part-time compulsory education until 18 years of age

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Indicators of minimum time allocated to subjects The time represents actual hours (not lessons) of teaching over the course of the final year calculated on the basis of known lesson length or other published information. The number of weeks per year is the official published figure. In some subjects in certain countries the greatest number of hours may be in earlier years. The number of hours allocated to modern foreign languages and sciences represents the total time for all subjects that are compulsory for all pupils at this stage. In different countries this may represent one or two languages or one, two or three science subjects (biology, physics, chemistry). The intention is to show the distribution of available teaching time between different subject areas.

General formula for calculating indicators

The general formula used in calculating the number of hours per subject is:

60.. cbaN

Where:

N is the number of hours per yeara is the minimum/basic number of lessons per weekb is the number of weeks per school year (based on number of days per week and

number of days per year)c is the length of each lesson in minutes

This formula could not always be used because of varying contexts. The notes accompanying Table 1 provide further elaboration.

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Appendix 2

In order to compare the curriculum content, we had hoped to be able to use the classification systems developed by Robitaille et al. (1993) for the Third International Mathematics and Science Study (TIMSS). For mathematics they proposed ten major content categories: numbers; measurement; geometry: position, visualisation and shape; geometry: symmetry, congruence and similarity; proportionality; functions, relations and equations; data representation, probability and statistics; elementary analysis; validation and structure; and other content. However, because we were dealing with curriculum documents that varied in terms of the amount of detail provided it did not prove possible to use these exact categories.

However, we were able to modify these categories. Those that we used were: numbers; geometry; functions, relations and equations; and data representation, probability & statistics. Numbers; functions, relations and equations; and data representation match the TIMSS content categories. Our category of geometry is the two TIMSS geometry categories combined plus the sub-category of perimeter, area and volume from the category of measurement. The remaining TIMSS categories (proportionality, elementary analysis, validation and structure and other content) were not used for the content analysis of the curriculum documents.

For biology, Robitaille et al. (1993) proposed five major content categories: diversity, organisation, structure of living things; life processes and systems enabling life functions; life spirals, genetic continuity, diversity; interactions of living things; human biology and health. However, because we were dealing with curriculum documents that varied in terms of the amount of detail provided and in terms of the very different ways in which the subject is conceptualised at the level of the individual country it did not prove possible to use these categories. Instead, we used a category of ‘cells’ (a sub-category of diversity, organisation, structure of living things); ‘human biology’; animal biology (excluding human biology); ‘plant biology’ and ‘ecology, humans and the environment, evolution’. These last three categories are in effect combinations of sub-categories of the five major TIMSS categories.

To make comparisons between the topic coverage in physics we modified the augmented TIMSS framework proposed by Britton & Raizen (1996). Although this is designed for use in upper secondary education, it proved the most appropriate to adapt for our analysis of the content of physics in lower/compulsory secondary education. Seven main content categories are used: electricity and electromagnetism; mechanics; waves, sound, light; thermophysics; atomic and quantum physics; nuclear physics; and relativity and cosmology. For our content analysis we used the following categories: electricity, fields and electronics; forces, motion, matter and energy; waves; radiation and radioactivity. The first three of these closely match the first three TIMSS categories, whilst radiation and radioactivity covers some of the topics in atomic and quantum physics and nuclear physics.

It did not prove feasible to use the TIMSS categories for the content analysis of chemistry. In fact, it proved difficult to make comparisons between the countries concerned in relation to chemistry. Whilst some countries provide a framework couched in scientific language, others use more ‘real life’ language. The presentation of the topic coverage for chemistry is one of the most diverse of all subject areas investigated. Notwithstanding these difficulties, we were able to classify the content into the following categories: the structure of matter; chemical transformations; aspects of organic chemistry; and the chemical industry and society.

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Chapter 3

Examinations and assessment at the end of compulsory/lower secondary general/academic education

1 Introduction

The aim of this chapter is to provide an overview of the external examination systems and internal school-based assessment that operate in the countries of the EU/EEA23 at the end of compulsory/lower secondary general/academic education. In the case of countries with different types of education/schools in this phase, we focused on academic schools as opposed to vocational or technical schools (i.e. AHS in Austria, Gymnasium in Germany and Liechtenstein; general education in Belgium and Luxembourg and VWO education in the Netherlands). In the case of the Nordic countries (Denmark, Finland, Iceland, Norway and Sweden), France, Greece, Italy, Portugal and Spain there is only one type of school at this level. In the UK, the curriculum in all state-maintained schools is the same and in Ireland, the same syllabuses are followed across different school types. In the first section of this chapter an overview of the various forms of school-based assessment is given together with the marking systems that are used. This is followed by an investigation of the external examinations that are taken at the end of lower secondary/compulsory general education.

2 School-based assessment In all countries of the EU/EEA there is school-based assessment during compulsory/lower secondary general/academic education. The precise form of internal assessment varies between countries, and may include assessing the participation of individual pupils in class work, oral assessment, written assessment (class assignments, tests, dictations) and practical assessment. In general, there is some form of continuous assessment on the basis of teacher assessments of pupils’ work. In a number of countries formalised assessment of pupils’ behaviour is also included (EURYDICE & CEDEFOP, 1995).

In some countries, school-based assessment is ‘high stakes’ in that it determines whether or not pupils progress to the next year of study or indeed are able to progress to upper secondary general education. Countries in which progression is determined in this way are shown in Table 1. Clearly, the majority of countries use this approach, the exceptions being the Nordic countries – Denmark, Finland, Iceland, Norway and Sweden and the English speaking countries – Ireland and the UK (see Figure 1).

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Table 1 Progression to following year on basis of school-based assessment

Progression … CountriesProgression determined by school-based assessment AT, BE(1), DE, ES(2), FR, GR, IT(3), LI, LU, NL, PT Automatic DK, FI, IE, IS, NO, SE, UK

(1) In Belgium there is automatic progression in the first degree (theoretical ages 12 to 14 years) but in the second and third degrees there is provision for pupils to repeat a year, based on assessment within the school.

(2) In Spain it is ‘exceptional’ for pupils not to progress from year to year, but the opportunity exists for pupils to remain for an additional two years in compulsory education.

(3) In Italy, internal school-based examinations also determine the right to entry to upper secondary general education. These examinations are compulsory and bound by Ministry of Education regulations.

School-based assessment is marked in a centrally prescribed way in certain countries, but not in others as shown in Table 2.

Table 2 School-based assessment marking system

School-based assessment CountriesMarking system prescribed AT, DE, DK, ES, FI, FR, GR, IT, LI, LU, NL, NO, PT, SE No system prescribed BE, IE, IS, UK

In those countries where a system for school-based assessment is prescribed a range of different marking schemes are used as shown in Table 3.

Table 3 Centrally prescribed marking systems

Country Marking system AT 1(very good) to 5 (insufficient)DE 1(very good) to 6 (very poor)DK 1 to 13 in examination subjects only (1)ES Insuficiente, suficiente, bien, notable, sobresalienteFI 4 (fail) to 10 (excellent)FR 0 (low) to 20 (high)GR 0 (low) to 20 (high) IT Ottimo, buono, distinto, sufficiente, non licenziatoLI 1 (very poor) to 6 (very good)LU 0 (low) to 60 (high) NL 1(extremely poor) to 10 (excellent)NO S (highest), M, G, NG, LG (lowest) PT 1 to 5SE No grade, pass, pass with credit, pass with distinction

(1) Last two years of compulsory secondary education only.

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3 External examinations

3.1 Which countries have external examinations?

Examinations that are externally set take place in a minority of countries at the end of lower/compulsory secondary general education, namely, Denmark, France, Iceland, Ireland, Norway, Sweden and the UK24 (see Figure 2).

It should be noted that the focus in this section is again on those examinations that are taken by pupils in general (not vocational) education. In those countries where there is tracking from the beginning of lower secondary education (e.g. Austria, Belgium, Germany, Liechtenstein, Luxembourg, the Netherlands) there are no external examinations at the end of lower/compulsory secondary academic education. However, in some of these countries (e.g. the Netherlands and some German L@nder) there are externally-set examinations in some types of non-academic education25.

The external examinations at the end of lower/compulsory general education may serve an ‘orientation’ function in relation to the educational programmes that are followed in post-compulsory education (as in Denmark, France, Iceland, Ireland and the UK). They may also be ‘high stakes’ in that they have a value in the labour market – as in the case of the UK, Denmark and Ireland.

The age at which examinations at the end of lower/compulsory secondary general education are taken varies; in France they are taken at the end of the ‘classe de troisiPme’ and in Ireland at the end of compulsory school; in both cases the theoretical age is 15. In the other five countries the examinations are taken at the end of compulsory schooling, which is theoretically 16 years of age. In Denmark, examinations are not compulsory and students may decide whether or not to take an examination. In practice 90 to 95 per cent of pupils sit for the leaving examination at the end of the ninth year. In the remaining countries, the assessment/examinations that take place at this time are carried out within schools (i.e. internally).

The external examinations are set by different bodies in the various countries. In most of the countries they are set by the Ministry of Education. The exceptions are France, Sweden and the UK. In France, there is no single set of brevet examinations taken by all pupils across the country. Instead, each of the 30 regional administrative districts (acadJmies) develops its own examinations based on the national curriculum. To ensure that the examinations are comparable in their content and rigour, each acadJmie must submit its examination papers to the Academic Commissions for approval. The Commissions are composed of the Head of the AcadJmie, who is appointed by the Ministry of Education, pedagogical inspectors, who are specialists in one subject area and teachers. The Commissions and individual teachers also establish a standardised point system for grading the brevet examinations. The regional acadJmies oversee the grading of the brevet exams. Each pupil’s exams are graded by one local teacher from outside of the pupil’s school (French Ministry of Education, 1998).

In England, Wales & Northern Ireland, the GCSE examinations are set by five separate private examining groups. Our focus, in this study, has been on the University of London Examinations and Assessment Council (ULEAC, now known as Edexcel). The examination process is governed nationally by a mandatory code of practice and regulations laid down by the agencies with responsibility for qualifications and the curriculum in England, Wales & Northern Ireland. The code of practice is designed to promote quality and consistency in the examining process across all awarding bodies. In Scotland, examinations at Scottish Certificate of Education Standard Grade, are set by the statutory awarding body, the Scottish Qualifications Authority26 (SQA). Codes of practice govern the setting of question papers and marking schemes, the standardisation of marking, how

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course work is to be assessed and moderated, how grade boundaries are to be set, and how spelling, punctuation and grammar are to be assessed. The Qualifications and Curriculum Authority (QCA) (for England), the Qualifications, Curriculum and Assessment Authority (ACAC) (for Wales) and the Northern Ireland Council for the Curriculum, Examinations and Assessment (CCEA) are responsible for approving GCSE syllabuses, and the SQA has a similar responsibility for Standard Grade syllabuses in Scotland. Subject experts nominated by the awarding bodies, teacher associations and professional organisations help with this work throughout the UK. There is also examination monitoring in the form of ‘scrutinies’ which are detailed checks of individual examinations, and comparability exercises, which involve the investigation of grade standards across syllabuses or over time.

In Sweden, while the Ministry of Education lays down the curricula and syllabuses for the school system, the National Agency for Education is responsible for national monitoring, evaluation and supervision of all school activities.

3.2 Gradings

The gradings that are used in the external examinations in general secondary education vary as shown in Table 4.

Table 4 External examination gradings

Country Examination Points on scale

Explanation

DK Folkeskolen afgangsprove (andFolkeskolen udvidede afgangsprove)

10 0, 3, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 13

FR Brevet 20 0 to 20 (10 needed for diploma)IE Junior Certificate Examination 7 Scale from A (85% or over) to F (10% to

24%) NG (less than 10%) IS SamrFmd pr\f 10 1 to 10 (high)NO Agangsprrve i grunnskolen 5 S (high), M, G, NG, LGSE ?mnesprov, SkolDr 9 3 Pass, Pass with credit, pass with

distinction (1)UK(EWNI) General Certificate of Secondary

Education Examination 9 Starred A, A, B, C, D, E, F, G, U

(unclassified) UK(S) Scottish Certificate of Education

Standard Grade Examination7 1 to 7 (7 is no award)

(1) Pupils who do not attain a pass level in a particular subject are not awarded a grade in that subject.

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3.3 Subjects examined externally

There are marked differences between the countries in terms of the subjects that are examined externally at this stage. Table 5 gives details of the subjects examined.

Table 5 Subjects examined externally

Country Subjects examined Examinations combined with internal assessments?DK Danish and mathematics written

examinations (1) No (3)

FR French, mathematics, history-geography Pupils’ results from classes 4 and 3 taken into account

IE No fixed number of subjects, but Irish, English and mathematics compulsory

No account taken of course work except in practical and technical subjects

IS Icelandic, Danish, English, mathematics No (3)NO Norwegian, mathematics and English

(2) No (3)

SE Swedish, English and mathematics No (3)UK(EWNI) No fixed subjects or number of subjects,

up to 10 in generalInternally assessed course work moderated by the examining group is combined with examination results

UK(S) No fixed subjects or number of subjects, typically 7 or 8

Internally assessed course work moderated by the SQA is combined with examination results

(1) Oral examinations in other subjects(2) Pupils sit written examination in at least one subject (oral examinations in one or more other subjects)(3) Leaving certificates give grades in both the national examinations and in studies completed in school.

There are different ‘levels’ of examination in Ireland and the UK. Those in the UK and Ireland are designed to meet the differing levels of attainment of pupils. In Denmark, in addition to the examinations at the end of year 9, there are further examinations in the optional year 10; however, these are only taken by a minority of pupils.

3.4 External examinations in mathematics and the language of instruction

Given that the subjects examined vary between countries, we have focused on the external examinations in mathematics and the language of instruction, as these are common subject areas across countries with external examinations at this stage.

3.4.1 External examinations in mathematics

Turning to mathematics, Table 6 gives details of the number of papers, number of questions and the total duration of the examinations for the countries with external examinations at this stage.

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Table 6 Number of written papers, questions and length of examinations Country Number of papers

(1)Number of questions (1)

Total length of examinations (1)

Denmark (1996) Two 56 5 hFrance (Paris, 1995) One 7 2 hIceland (1995) Two 50 3 hIreland (1996) One/Two/Two 20/12/12 2 h/5 h/5h Norway (1997) Two 24 n.k.Sweden (1998) Two (2) 17 2h 40UK (EWNI) (3) (1995) Two/Two/Two 58/46/40 3 h/3 h 30/4 hUK(S) (1995) One/One/One 21/17/19 1 h 10/1 h 30/2 h 15

(1) Where more than one figure is given the first is for the lowest level/tier, the second for the middle level/tier and the third for the highest level/tier

(2) Two additional papers are set which are not taken on fixed days but may be taken at different times over a period of weeks

(3) University of London Examinations and Assessment Council (now Edexcel)

It is clear from Table 6 that the mathematics examinations in each of the countries differ in terms of the number of papers, the number of questions and their length. The English lower level papers have the highest number of questions, followed by the Danish, Icelandic, English (higher two levels), Norwegian and the Scottish. The French paper has the fewest questions. In terms of the length of the examinations, the longest are in Ireland and Denmark and the shortest is in Scotland (lowest level).

In Denmark, France, Norway, Sweden and the UK, there is no choice and candidates must answer all the questions. In Iceland, there is a choice section at the end of one paper (covering either algebra or applied mathematics). There is also an element of choice in the two higher levels in Ireland (where there is one compulsory question and then four questions have to be chosen out of five).

We also explored the content of the mathematics examinations27. Different mathematics domains are assessed as can be seen in Table 7.

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Table 7 Content of mathematics examinations

Domain Number of countries N=7 (1)Measurement 7Geometry 7Proportionality 7Functions, relations and equations 7(2)Numbers 6Data representation, probability and statistics 6Elementary analysis 3Validation and structure 1

(1) N=7 (Denmark, France, Ireland, Iceland, Norway, UK(EWNI), UK(S)). No examination papers were available for Sweden; 1998 was the first year that examinations were set.

(2) In the UK(S) only at middle and highest levels

All countries examine the domains of measurement; geometry; proportionality; and functions, relations and equations (only at the middle and highest levels in Scotland). Six of the seven countries examine numbers and data representation, probability and statistics (in the case of the latter, Scotland only examines this domain at the lowest level). The domains of numbers and data representation are not examined in the French examination in the year in question. Only the UK and Ireland (at the highest and lowest levels) examine elementary analysis. Ireland alone examines the domain of validation and structure (at the highest and lowest levels).

We analysed the content of the examination papers to establish the relative weight given to the various domains in the year in question. We used the following domains: numbers; measurement; geometry; proportionality; functions, relations, equations; data representation, probability and statistics; elementary analysis; and validation and structure. Table 8 provides an analysis of the content using these domains and as can be seen we find marked differences in the emphasis in the examinations.

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Table 8 Mathematics: Content aspect (percentage table)

Country Level/ option N M G P FRE DPS EA VSDenmark (1) Ordinary level 34 31 6 2 19 7 0 0France 0 11 33 11 44 0 0 0Iceland +algebra 28 14 12 2 30 14 0 0

+applied maths 32 18 12 2 20 16 0 0Ireland Foundation 25 45 5 0 10 10 0 5

Ordinary 7 20 38 6 19 10 0 0Higher 6 14 30 9 32 7 0 2

Norway 21 25 12 8 29 4 0 0Sweden (2) - - - - - - - -UK(EWNI) Foundation 27 13 21 2 3 25 10 0

Intermediate 21 9 20 2 17 22 9 0Highest 18 5 22 3 24 25 4 0

UK(S) Foundation 50 24 11 8 0 2 5 0General 32 32 18 3 12 0 3 0Credit 13 5 26 5 45 0 5 0

(1) The figures represent a weighted average of the two papers in proportion to the time allowed.(2) 1998 is the first year of the Swedish examinations; examination papers were not available.

Key for content aspects: N is numbers, M is measurement, G is geometry, P is proportionality, FRE is functions, relations and equations, DPS is data representation, probability and statistics, EA is elementary analysis, VS is validation and structure.

It is clear from Table 8 that different mathematics topic areas are assessed in the external examinations to a greater or lesser extent. There is a particular emphasis on functions, relations and equations in France and Scotland (at the highest level). In virtually all the countries, more than 10 per cent of the content is focused on geometry. In France, and in the two higher levels in Ireland, around a third of the content is geometry.

The category numbers has a high profile in Scotland (at the lowest level). In the three countries with different levels of examination this category decreases in importance as the level increases, whilst the category of functions, relations and equations increases in importance. In general, an emphasis on numbers, and to a lesser extent, measurement, is associated with the lower levels in countries with different levels of examination and with a large total number of questions.

The assessed topics cover a wider range of content aspects in England, Wales & Northern Ireland. The emphasis on data representation, probability and statistics in England, Wales & Northern Ireland is marked in comparison to other countries.

A second analysis was carried out to assess the mathematics questions according to their level of abstraction. This was designed to establish whether the mathematics questions were abstract or based in the ‘real world’. An intermediate category, where there was some contextualisation or an attempt to base the problem in the real world, was also included. The results are given in Table 9.

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Table 9 Mathematics: level of abstraction of questions (percentage table)

Country Level/ option Abstract Context Real WorldDenmark (1) Ordinary level 13 1 86France 83 11 6Iceland +algebra 56 12 32

+applied maths 46 12 42Ireland Foundation 45 20 35

Ordinary 77 6 17Higher 87 0 13

Norway 37 0 63Sweden (2) - - -UK(EWNI) Foundation 40 19 41

Intermediate 35 28 37Highest 43 23 35

UK(S) Foundation 0 19 81General 18 29 53Credit 37 26 37

(1) The figures represent a weighted average of the two papers in proportion to the time allowed.(2) 1998 is the first year of the Swedish examinations; examination papers were not available.

Over eight out of 10 questions in the French and the Irish higher level examination were classified as abstract compared with around half in the Icelandic examinations. In the remaining countries, less than half of the questions were classified as abstract - in Scotland, at the lowest level none were so classified, whilst over eight out of 10 were ‘real world’ problems.

The countries with the highest percentage of ‘real world’ questions were Denmark, Norway and the lowest level in Scotland. Only six per cent of questions were of this type in the French examination and just over 10 per cent in the highest level in Ireland. In most countries, a certain proportion of the content was classified as having some degree of contextualisation. In all countries with levels/tiers, the proportion of ‘real world’ questions decreases as the level increases.

There is a debate in some countries (e.g. Denmark, the UK) about the use of calculators in examinations and it is interesting to note the different policies at this level. Calculators are allowed in France and the UK (Scotland). They are not allowed in Ireland. In the majority of countries, calculators are allowed for some examination papers but not others (Denmark, Sweden) or for some questions but not others (Iceland, Norway, UK (England, Wales & Northern Ireland).

In Ireland, mathematical tables can be requested (although some questions on the highest level paper should be answered without the tables). In the UK, formulae sheets (with different formulae for the different examination levels) are provided for candidates.

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3.4.2 External examinations in the language of instruction

Details of the number of examination papers and the length of the external examinations for the language of instruction are shown in Table 10.

Table 10 Number of papers and length of examinations

Country Number of papers Total length of examinations Denmark (1996) Two 5 h France (Paris, 1995) Two 3 h (inc. dictation)Iceland (1995) Two 3 h (inc. dictation)Ireland (1996/8) (1) One/One/Two (2) 2 h 30/2 h 30/5 h Norway (1997) One n.k.Sweden (1998) Three n.k.UK(EWNI) (3) (1995) Two/Two (4) 4 hUK(S) (1995) Two (5) 2 h 05

(1) Ordinary and higher level papers 1996; foundation level 1998(2) Three levels, foundation/ordinary/higher (3) University of London Examinations and Assessment Council (now known as Edexcel) English examination (there is

also a separate examination for English Literature)(4) Two levels, foundation and higher(5) One paper is set at three levels, the second paper covers all levels

As can be seen, there is variation between countries in the total length of the examinations in the language of instruction. The longest examinations are in Denmark, Ireland (higher level) followed by the UK (England, Wales & Northern Ireland). The shortest examinations are in Scotland followed by Ireland (foundation and ordinary levels).

The types of answers required vary between countries as shown in Table 11. In all countries, essays or compositions are required. In five countries (France, Ireland, Iceland, Norway and the UK (England, Wales and Northern Ireland)), answers in the form of short paragraphs are required. In half of the countries (France, Ireland, Sweden and the UK (Scotland)), answers in the form of sentences are required. Answers to multiple choice questions are required in Iceland, Sweden and in Scotland (at the two lowest levels only).

Table 11 Language of instruction: types of answers for examinations

Type of answer Number of countries (N=8)Essay/composition 8Short paragraph 5Sentence 4Multiple choice 3

Given that essay responses are required in all countries, it comes as no surprise that the only topic covered in all countries is essay writing or composition. Comprehension of text is part of the examination in most countries (but not Denmark). In a minority of countries (Denmark, France and Iceland) grammar and dictation are explicitly examined (see Table 12). Talking and listening are assessed internally in the UK and in Sweden there is a listening examination requiring pupils to listen to text and answer questions to demonstrate their understanding of it.

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Table 12 Language of instruction: topics covered in examinations

Topic Number of countries (N=8)Composition/essay 8Comprehension 7Grammar 3Dictation 3

4 Conclusions

The study reported here provides the first systematic attempt to compare the school-based assessment and external examination systems across the countries of the EU/EEA at the end of lower/compulsory secondary general/academic education.

School-based assessment is carried out throughout the EU/EEA. In the majority of countries the assessments carried out at this time can be considered to be ‘high stakes’ in that they have significant consequences for the individuals being assessed. Thus, pupils who fail to meet satisfactory standards are not allowed to progress to the next year or into upper secondary general education. Only in the Nordic countries (Denmark, Finland, Iceland, Norway and Sweden) and the English-speaking countries (Ireland and the UK) is there a clear-cut policy of automatic progression.

In a minority of countries – Denmark, France, Iceland, Ireland, Norway, Sweden and the UK – there are external examinations at this stage that evaluate pupils’ progress. Whilst a large number of subjects are taken in the English-speaking countries, in the remaining countries the examinations are in core subjects – such as the language of instruction, mathematics and, in some cases, another subject such as a modern foreign language.

Summary

This chapter has provided an overview of the systems of school-based assessment and external examinations in the countries of the EU/EEA at the end of compulsory/lower secondary general/academic education.

· School-based assessment is ‘high stakes’ in the majority of countries insofar as it is used to determine whether pupils should progress to the next year or to upper secondary general education. Only in the Nordic countries and the English-speaking countries is there a clear policy of automatic progression.

· Pupils in a minority of countries take external examinations at the end of compulsory/lower secondary general education – Denmark, France, Iceland, Ireland, Norway, Sweden and the UK (England, Wales & Northern Ireland, and Scotland). In the UK and Ireland there are different levels of examination, catering for pupils with different levels of ability/attainment.

· The number of examinations taken by pupils varies. In the UK and in Ireland, a broad range of subjects is frequently taken. In the remaining countries, a small number of core subjects are examined – the language of instruction and mathematics, plus, in some cases, another subject (such as a modern foreign language).

· There are one or two examination papers for the language of instruction in all countries where external examinations are set. The length of the examination varies, however, with a

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minimum of just over two hours in Scotland and a maximum of five hours in Denmark and Ireland (higher level).

· The topics covered in the examinations for the language of instruction include essays or compositions in all countries; comprehension is addressed in all except for Denmark and grammar in three countries (Denmark, France and Iceland).

· There are one or two examination papers for mathematics in all countries. In Denmark, Iceland and the highest level in England, Wales & Northern Ireland, there are at least 50 questions. In France, there are seven exercises. The length of the examination varies from just over one hour for the lowest level in Scotland to five hours in Denmark and for the higher levels in Ireland.

· There are interesting differences in the content of the mathematics examinations. In some countries, there is a heavy emphasis on functions, relations and equations and on geometry (e.g. France and the highest levels in Ireland and Scotland). Data representation, probability and statistics are emphasised particularly in England, Wales & Northern Ireland. An emphasis on numbers and to a lesser extent measurement is associated with the lower levels in countries with different levels of examinations and with a large total number of questions.

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References


French Ministry of Education (1998) Correspondence to Centre for Educational Research.

Melissen, M. (1998) The Netherlands - Curriculum and Assessment in Secondary Education. Paper prepared for Quality and Assessment in Secondary Education Conference, organised by the Centre for Educational Research, London, May 1998.

Robitaille, D. et al. (1993) Curriculum Frameworks for Mathematics and Science, Vancouver: Pacific Educational Press.

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Chapter 4

A comparison of the intended curriculum in upper secondary general education

1 Introduction

The education systems in the 1828 countries participating in the Socrates Programme are varied (EURYDICE & CEDEFOP, 1995; Education, Training and Youth, 1996; see also SCAA, 1997). Nevertheless, there is a belief that ‘standards of outcome’ at the end of upper secondary general education are broadly comparable as exemplified by the emphasis given to student mobility at the higher education level across the EU/EEA. However, to compare ‘standards of outcome’ it is necessary first of all to establish whether particular subjects are taught to all pupils, the extent to which the curriculum content varies across countries and the number of hours allocated to the teaching of the subject29. On a priori grounds these factors can affect the overall performance of pupils.

In this chapter, we explore the curriculum in upper secondary/post-compulsory general education30

and address three main questions: Which subjects are compulsory in upper secondary general education? How many hours are allocated to the teaching of key subjects? What are the common domains and topic areas in each? Our focus is on four key subjects - mathematics, the language of instruction, sciences (notably physics, chemistry and biology) and modern foreign languages (English except in the case of the UK and Ireland, where the focus is on French). The first three of these can be considered to be ‘core’ subjects whilst competence in modern foreign languages is of particular importance in the European context, given the single market and mobility of labour.

2 Methods

We obtained information about the curriculum in the countries (and, where relevant, regions) concerned from material already available (see EURYDICE & CEDEFOP, 1995) and supplemented it with a detailed analysis of curriculum documents obtained from representatives of the Ministries of Education (or other relevant person). Ministry of Education representatives further assisted by checking the veracity of our descriptions of the curriculum and education systems. They also provided additional information where necessary.

The focus in this part of the study was on the period of upper secondary/post-compulsory general education; this is provided in different types of institutions in the various countries. We were particularly interested in those courses/tracks that provided the most specialised/longest duration of those subjects that were the focus of the study (i.e. the language of instruction, modern foreign languages, mathematics and sciences). The intention was to compare the curriculum coverage in secondary education leading on to higher education entry. Appendix 1 provides details of the theoretical age groups that were the focus of the study together with the ages at which upper/post-compulsory secondary education begins and ends.

In all EU/EEA countries the competent authorities produce curriculum guidelines or syllabuses. In most countries, the Ministry of Education publishes these. However, it is important to note that not all countries have what might be called a ‘national curriculum’ in that the curriculum documents may

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not be produced at a national level. In Germany, the individual Länder produce the curriculum guidelines; for this study we focused on two geographically and politically distinct Länder, Bavaria and North Rhine Westphalia. In Spain, the national guidelines are modified by the Autonomous Communities (e.g. Catalonia, the Basque Country) to cater for linguistic and cultural variation. In the Flemish and French Communities of Belgium, individual ‘networks’ (e.g. the Catholic church) publish their own curriculum guidelines. For England, Wales and Northern Ireland31, Scotland and Ireland, there are curriculum syllabuses related to the main external examinations that take place at the end of post-compulsory general education. These are the focus in this chapter.

The curriculum guidelines vary in terms of the extent to which they prescribe what is to be covered. Two models can be discerned. Around half of the countries provide detailed curriculum guidelines/syllabuses (e.g. Austria, Belgium (Flemish and French Communities), Denmark, France, Germany (Bavaria and North Rhine Westphalia), Greece, Iceland, Ireland, Luxembourg, Portugal and the UK (England, Wales & Northern Ireland and Scotland). These may be considered to be the ‘prescriptive’ countries. Somewhat less detailed specifications of the curriculum content are generally given in Finland, Italy, Liechtenstein32, the Netherlands, Norway, Spain and Sweden. These may be considered to be countries providing a curriculum ‘framework’.

3 Number of subjects pupils study

The countries of the EU/EEA can be differentiated in terms of the subjects that pupils study in upper/post-compulsory secondary general education. There is wide variation in the number of subjects33. Whilst in the UK (England, Wales & Northern Ireland) pupils generally study three subjects34, in all other countries the number is commonly between five and ten (e.g. Germany, Denmark, France, Greece, Ireland, Luxembourg, Spain, the UK (Scotland)). In some countries it exceeds ten (e.g. Austria and Liechtenstein). There is also variation in terms of the subjects that are compulsory. There are no compulsory subjects that pupils must study in the UK35 and only one in Ireland (Irish). Overall, between five and ten subjects are compulsory in the final year of upper secondary general education in Belgium, Denmark, Greece, Italy and Portugal. In some countries more than ten subjects are compulsory (e.g. Austria). If we look at the subjects that are compulsory at some stage in upper/post-compulsory secondary general education, we find some interesting differences between countries as shown in Table 1.

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Table 1 Subjects that are compulsory at some stage in upper secondary general education

Subject Number of countries (N=21) (1)Language of instruction 18One modern foreign language 18Mathematics 15Science 15Physical education 17Religion (or ethics/philosophy) 14Philosophy 9

(1) N=21 in this and subsequent tables (18 countries but 21 regions (two Communities in Belgium; two L@nder in Germany; and in the UK, England, Wales & Northern Ireland on the one hand and Scotland on the other)

In all countries except for Ireland and the UK, the language of instruction and at least one modern foreign language are compulsory, although not necessarily throughout the whole period.

Mathematics and some science are compulsory for at least part of upper secondary general education in the majority of countries, although not in Ireland, the Netherlands, Portugal, Spain or the UK. However, in Portugal, a quantitative methods course must be taken if mathematics is not studied and in the Netherlands mathematics and ‘orientations into the natural sciences’ (Melissen, 1998) will be compulsory from 1998/99.

Religion or ethics/philosophy is compulsory in 14 countries/regions (although in Austria it can be ‘cancelled without compensation’ (Kern, 1998)). In France, Iceland, Ireland and the Netherlands, it is not compulsory. In Spain, religion must be available and in the UK the government expects it to be available. Physical education is compulsory in a majority of countries (but not in the UK, Ireland or the Netherlands (until 1998/99)). Finally, philosophy is compulsory in just under half of the countries – Austria, Finland, France, Greece, Italy, Liechtenstein, Luxembourg, Portugal and Spain.

4 Time allocated to subjects

Indicators were produced to compare the maximum amount of time allocated to key subject areas. Direct comparisons are not possible as different conceptualisations and definitions are used in individual countries – in some there is a minimum time allocation (e.g. Sweden), in some actual prescribed time allocations (e.g. France, Germany) and in others estimates are given (e.g. UK (England, Wales & Northern Ireland)). Nevertheless, there is variation between countries in the time allocated to particular subjects. Table 2 represents, for most countries, the likely maximum time allocated to subjects in the final year of upper secondary general education (for theoretical ages see Appendix 1).

We also produced indicators to compare the maximum percentage of time that is allocated to different subjects/subject areas in the final year of upper/post-compulsory secondary general education for pupils who take the most advanced/specialist/longest courses. These are shown in Figure 1. A relatively high proportion of time is allocated to:

· Mathematics in: the UK (England, Wales & Northern Ireland), Luxembourg, Greece and France. In Luxembourg, Greece and France there are specialist tracks that emphasise mathematics.

· The language of instruction in: Belgium (French Community), the UK (England, Wales & Northern Ireland) and Germany.

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Table 2 Maximum number of hours allocated to subjects in the final year of upper secondary general education

Country Mathematics Language of instruction

Modern foreign language(s) (+2nd

national/regional language)

Sciences Theoretical number of hours available in

final year

AT 149 90 179 239 1025BE(FL) 243 121 n.a. 243 1012BE(FR) 182 212 364 212 967DE(BA) 141 141 282 226 902DE(NRW) 169 169 338 254 902DK 128 101 383 360 960ES 140 105 385 (+105) 280 1050FI 124 76 238 (+76) 152 855FR 264 157 363 330 1007GR 210 105 158 315 788IE n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. 960IS 73 97 154 73 766IT 167 133 300 233 916LI 120 120 240 180 1080LU 270 150 270 (+150) 330 926NL n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. 1062NO 143 143 285 285 855PT 123 153 215 460 951SE 100 67 240 180 727UK(EWNI) 380 190 570 570 950UK(S) 140 120 360 380 1045EU/EEA MEAN 172 129 314 279 938

n.a. not available

Notes

1. AT: Figures for mathematics include descriptional geometry; sciences figure is for the Realgymnasium.2. BE(FL): French is compulsory for all pupils in general academic schools but the hours are not available.3. BE(FR): figures for modern foreign languages incorporate other national languages.4. DE: figure for sciences is based on the assumption that one science subject is taken at advanced level and one at basic level.5. DK: assumes two sciences at advanced level and one at intermediate level.6. ES: figure for the language of instruction is based on pupils taking a course over a period of two years (it may be taken in one

year). 10% of the total number of hours in timetable available for teaching the regional language of the autonomous communities.

7. FI: the figures represent the average over the three years of upper secondary general education and include the minimum number of advanced courses that can be offered. For modern foreign languages figures are based on three languages at basic and advanced levels (a minimum of two advanced courses in each language). No figures are given for the number of courses allocated to a fourth modern foreign language so an additional three courses are given as an estimate.

8. FR: figures for sciences are for physics-chemistry and life and earth sciences.9. GR: figure covers only two of the three languages taken; no information for the third language.10. IS: figures represent an average over the four-year period for the basic subject courses. No information available on the time

added by specialised courses which can account for between 17% and 33% of a pupil’s time and which would significantly increase the hours given.

11. IT: figures for mathematics and sciences in Liceo Scientifico; for languages in Liceo Linguistico; for language of instruction all types of Liceo.

12. LI: figures are for the Matura B under the current system.13. NO: figure for modern foreign languages is based on an advanced course being taken for the final year in the second foreign

language in addition to an advanced course in the first foreign language. For science, the figure is based on pupils taking two science subjects as specialist subjects.

14. SE: figures are the minimum guaranteed teacher led time. Figures for different subjects are an average for the three years of upper secondary general education.

15. PT: figure for science is based on pupils taking all three science subjects in the final year.16. UK (EWNI): figures for mathematics are based on two mathematics courses (mathematics figure) or three foreign languages

(foreign languages) or three science subjects (sciences) being taken.

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· Modern foreign (and other national/regional) languages in: the UK (England, Wales & Northern Ireland), Spain and Luxembourg.

· Sciences in: the UK (England, Wales & Northern Ireland), Portugal, Greece and Denmark.

It is important to note that in the UK (England, Wales & Northern Ireland), pupils generally specialise in only three subjects. (For example, they may take two mathematics subjects (and one other) or three modern foreign languages or three science subjects or various combinations of these or other subjects.)

Overall, the mean number of hours in the final year of upper secondary education is 938. The highest number of hours per year are found in Liechtenstein, the Netherlands, Spain, the UK (Scotland), Austria, Belgium (Flemish Community) and France (see Figure 2). For mathematics, the mean number of hours allocated across all countries is 172 per year. For the language of instruction, the comparable figure is 129 hours. The mean number of hours allocated to modern foreign languages (and other national/regional languages) is 314 and for sciences 279.

5 Subject content

5.1 Language of instruction

In the majority of countries in the EU/EEA there is one official language; however, in a minority there are two or more official languages (Belgium, Finland, Ireland, Luxembourg and the UK (Wales)). Slightly fewer countries have one or more regional language that has recognised status (Finland, the Netherlands, Spain and the UK (Scotland)). In this study, where there is more than one official or recognised regional language, we have focused on the following languages: Dutch in Belgium (Flemish Community), French in Belgium (French Community), Finnish in Finland, English in Ireland and the whole of the UK, French in Luxembourg36, Dutch in the Netherlands and Castilian in Spain.

In order to compare and contrast the topics covered in the language of instruction at upper secondary level, two categories were used:

· Literature· Communication and use of language.

Whilst all countries focus on literature, there is variation in terms of the other topics that are covered, hence the broad second category.

Domains

The emphasis in all countries in the language of instruction is on the study of literature. Texts from different periods of literary history, contemporary writing and different genres of writing, such as novels, plays and poetry are mentioned in virtually all countries. However, Finland and the Netherlands do not refer to different types of literature in this way37. In both countries, the curriculum guidelines are framework documents as opposed to prescriptive guidelines, so allowing choices to be made at a local level.

Key topics covered in the domain of communication and use of language are shown in Table 3. It is interesting to note that all countries make reference to text analysis and interpretation and to the written use of language. Oral presentations or public speaking are specifically addressed in the majority of countries, but not in Italy, Liechtenstein, Luxembourg or the UK.

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Table 3 Domain of communication and use of language

Topic area Number of countries/regions specifying topicText analysis and interpretation (N=21) 21Written use of language: proficiency/expression/style (N=21) 21Oral presentations/public speaking (N=20)(1) 16

(1) UK(EWNI): not applicable, as course is English literature

5.2 Modern foreign languages

Four main domains can be used to conceptualise the content of modern foreign language teaching:

· Reading and literature· Speaking and listening· Writing· Language, grammar and vocabulary

Each of these domains is examined in the following sections38.

Domains

All countries address reading and literature39. More specifically, three-quarters of the countries make reference to contemporary writing or popular authors in a variety of genres – for example, novels, poems (but not Belgium (French Community), Finland, Greece, Iceland or Italy). The same proportion mention factual texts (but not Ireland, Liechtenstein, Luxembourg or the UK). Over half of the countries make reference to significant authors or classic works (but not Austria, Finland, Greece, Ireland, the Netherlands, Spain or Sweden).

Table 4 Topics in domain of reading and literature

Topic area Number of countries/regions specifying topic (N=20)(1)Contemporary writing 15Factual texts (e.g. essays, biography, articles) 15Significant authors/classic works 13

(1) No information available for Belgium (Flemish Community) for modern foreign languages

Speaking and listening skills are addressed in all countries40. Two main topics are covered as shown in Table 5. There is a ‘real life’ emphasis in all cases with a focus on discussion and conversation (although this is not specified in Denmark or Portugal). Oral presentations are also frequently mentioned (but not in Denmark, Germany, Ireland or Spain).

Table 5 Topics in domain of speaking and listening

Topic area Number of countries/regions specifying topic (N=20)Discussion/conversation 18Oral presentations 15

Writing is a requirement in all countries. As shown in Table 6, nearly all the countries (except Ireland and Luxembourg) specifically mention writing in the foreign language, in the form of letters, notes or summaries. In three-quarters of the countries written comment on, for example a book or a

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named topic, in the pupils’ own language is specified (although not in Belgium (French Community), Germany, Iceland or Portugal).

Table 6 Topics in domain of writing


Writing in foreign language (e.g. letters, notes, summaries) 18Comment or essay in own language 15

The domain of language, grammar and vocabulary is addressed in a majority of countries, although it is not specifically mentioned in the Netherlands or Norway41. The main distinction between countries is in terms of whether this domain is addressed by means of a detailed description of the content, or more general guidelines. Table 7 shows the variation.

Table 7 Topics in domain of grammar and vocabulary

Guidelines on language, grammar, vocabulary Countries (N=18)(1) Detailed content AT, BE(FR), DE, ES, FR, PT General guidelines/less detailed content DK, FI, GR, IE, IS, IT, LI, LU, SE, UK

(1) No information available for Belgium (Flemish Community) and the Netherlands and Norway do not specifically mention this domain.

Finally, regarding themes in the study of modern foreign languages, culture and/or characteristics of the country and people are most commonly studied, particularly in the media. Media study is mentioned in all countries at this level.

5.3 Mathematics

The content for mathematics has been categorised very broadly (see Appendix 2) into three domains, namely: · Algebra & calculus · Geometry · Data representation, probability & statistics

Table 8 provides details of the major domains for mathematics that are covered in the curriculum documents42. As can be seen all countries cover the domains of algebra & calculus and geometry. Nearly all countries address the domain of data representation, probability & statistics, with the exception of Scotland and the Netherlands specialist course aimed at natural sciences pupils (however, the parallel course for social sciences and general studies pupils does cover this domain).

Table 8 Domains addressed in mathematics

Domain Number of countries/regions covering domain (N=21)

Algebra & calculus 21Geometry 21Data representation, probability (1), statistics 19

(1) Probability, permutations, combinations

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In algebra & calculus, there is great similarity in the content covered with slightly less overlap in geometry. A closer investigation reveals that there are differences in the focus given to data representation, probability and statistics. In several countries the area of probability and statistics is offered as an option (as in the case of Germany (North Rhine Westphalia) and the UK (England, Wales and Northern Ireland)). In yet others, it is taught early on in the upper secondary course, often in common courses/modules prior to specialisation (e.g. Denmark, France, Iceland and Sweden). It may also be taught to pupils specialising in the social sciences rather than those specialising in the natural sciences where there is a greater focus on ‘pure mathematics’ (e.g. the Netherlands where it is included in one course (Mathematics A) but not the other (Mathematics B)).

General comparisons

One way of distinguishing between the curricula is in terms of the structure of the curriculum and courses that are available. In the majority of countries, there are opportunities for some pupils to study mathematics at a more advanced level than others. However, there is variation in how such opportunities are realised. Two main models can be discerned:

· specialised mathematics courses for pupils who have made a specific choice to follow a particular track or line;

· mathematics courses for pupils who are taking a broad base of different subjects (but where there is no system of specialised tracking).

The mathematics content varies where there is tracking. In general, pupils who are in the sciences track will take the most specialised or advanced mathematics course. Mathematics relevant to the social sciences may also be offered for those on social sciences tracks with a more general mathematics course being provided for pupils in the other tracks (e.g. languages).

Where mathematics is provided as one of a number of different subjects the content does not vary in this way and pupils may specialise in mathematics as part of a broadly-based curriculum. Whilst there may be the opportunity to study the subject at an advanced level (as in Germany, Ireland) this is not necessarily the case (e.g. in Liechtenstein). Table 9 provides details of those countries that follow these different models.

Table 9 Models for teaching mathematics

Models for mathematics CountriesSpecialisation within track/line AT, BE, DK, ES, FI, FR, GR (1), IS, IT, LU, NL(2), NO, SE Content not dependent on tracks DE, IE, LI, PT, UK

(1) In final year only(2) From 1998/99

The majority of countries provide more advanced or specialised mathematics courses within specially constructed ‘tracks’ or ‘lines’. In Finland, there are no clear tracks or lines, but there are specific courses depending on whether pupils are taking sciences or social sciences. In a minority of countries opportunities for specialisation in mathematics are not dependent on such a tracking system.

5.4 Sciences

The analysis of content of the sciences in upper secondary general education uses three constituent science subjects – namely biology, chemistry and physics43. For biology, the following domains,

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derived from the augmented TIMSS classification (Britton & Raizen, 1996) were used (see Appendix 2):

· Life processes in animals and plants· Genetics, inheritance and evolution · Ecology, ecosystems, animal behaviour and adaptation · Human biology and health issues · Cells and cellular metabolism

In upper secondary general education, there is considerable similarity between countries in terms of the domains that are addressed in biology, as shown in Table 10.

Table 10 Domains in biology

Domain Number of countries/regions specifying domain (N=21)

Life processes in animals and plants 21Genetics, inheritance & evolution 21Cells/cellular metabolism 21Ecology, ecosystems, animal behaviour and adaptation 19Human biology/health issues 19

Three of the domains are covered in all countries of the EU/EEA, namely, life processes in animals and plants (e.g. nutrition, reproduction and life systems); genetics, inheritance and evolution; and cells/cellular metabolism. The other two domains are not addressed in all countries – neither the Flemish nor the French Community of Belgium covers ecology, ecosystems, animal behaviour and adaptation; Scotland and Portugal do not specifically focus on human biology, whilst Iceland includes this domain as an option module.

For physics, we used five broad categories (see Appendix 2), namely:

· Mechanics· Electricity, electromagnetism and magnetism· Waves (sound, light etc.)· Thermophysics · Nuclear physics, atomic and quantum physics

These are broadly similar to the augmented TIMSS categories developed by Britton and Raizen (1996). Table 11 provides details of the domains covered by different countries.

Table 11 Domains for physics

Domain Number of countries/regions specifying domain (N=21)

Mechanics 21Electricity and magnetism 21Waves (e.g. sound, light) 20Nuclear physics, atomic and quantum physics 20Thermophysics 17

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In many of the domains, the countries tend to emphasise somewhat different topics in their curriculum guidelines, but these should not detract from the broad similarity between them. Two domains are covered by all countries – mechanics, energy, forces and motion; and electricity and magnetism. Waves is a domain specified in virtually all countries (but not Iceland); however, some countries focus on light, whilst others also explore sound, electromagnetic radiation and other wave forms. The remaining topics for physics are not covered in a similar manner by the countries concerned. The domain of nuclear physics, atomic and quantum physics44 is addressed in some detail in the majority of countries. The topic areas are more focused in Scotland (radiation and radioactivity) and France (nuclear energy) and the domain is not addressed in Portugal at this level. Thermophysics does not appear as a separate domain in a significant minority (Germany (Bavaria), Spain, France or the UK(Scotland)).

The presentation of the chemistry curriculum guidelines does not easily lend itself to comparative analysis (see Appendix 2). The main domains that we were able to compare were:

· Matter and its structure · Chemical transformations · Organic chemistry· Chemical industry

The first three were derived from the augmented TIMSS classification (Britton and Raizen, 1996) and the fourth is a transversal domain that emerged in our analysis. Table 12 gives details of the countries specifying particular domains.

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Table 12 Domains in chemistry

Domain Number of countries/regions specifying domain (N=21)Chemical transformations 21Aspects of organic chemistry 21Matter and its structure 19Chemical industry 14

All countries make reference to chemical transformations. In general, there is considerable similarity in terms of the topic areas mentioned – such as oxidation and reduction, chemical equilibria and acid/base equilibria.

Whilst all countries touch on the subject of organic chemistry, the extent of coverage appears to differ between them. However, because of the way in which the various countries describe the intended curriculum it is not possible to make clear comparisons. Notwithstanding these difficulties, reference to biomolecules (fats, proteins, carbohydrates, enzymes) appear to have a more prominent focus in some countries than others (for example, Denmark, Germany (Bavaria), Greece, Liechtenstein, Norway and Scotland), as does reference to soaps (Austria, France, Germany (Bavaria), Liechtenstein, Scotland), drugs (Austria, France) and perfumes (France).

Virtually all countries make some reference to topics in the domain of matter and its structure (although not Liechtenstein (where the course is not a specialist one) or Belgium (French Community)). The precise formulation of the content is, however, variable and not amenable to a detailed analysis of topic areas that are addressed.

Another way of comparing the countries is in terms of the focus given to chemistry and industry. Two-thirds of the countries make specific reference to the chemical industry; the remainder do not – Belgium, Ireland, Iceland, Liechtenstein, Luxembourg and Portugal. Of those countries that address chemistry and industry, an overlapping group of countries also makes specific reference to environmental issues in relation to the chemical industry – Austria, Denmark, Finland, Italy, Germany (North Rhine Westphalia), Norway and Sweden.

6 Conclusions

This chapter set out to explore the similarities and differences in relation to the curriculum content in four subject areas. Across virtually all countries certain core subjects are compulsory in upper secondary general education. However, there are differences in relation to the precise subjects that are compulsory. The language of instruction and a modern foreign language are more often compulsory than mathematics and the sciences. There are also differences between countries in terms of the recommended time that should be allocated to teaching different subjects in upper secondary general education. In all the core subjects, there are common elements across countries, but also distinctive points of divergence. In general, similarities in the curriculum content in upper secondary general education are greater than in lower secondary education thus militating against the development of typologies to differentiate groups of countries.

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Summary

This chapter has examined similarities and differences in the curriculum content in upper secondary general (as opposed to vocational) education in the countries of the EU/EEA. The focus has been on four key subjects – the language of instruction, modern foreign languages, mathematics and the sciences – with a particular emphasis on the most specialised courses/tracks (where relevant).

· In all countries, except the UK, there are compulsory subjects for at least part of upper secondary general education. In Ireland, Irish is compulsory. In all others the language of instruction and at least one modern foreign language are compulsory, although not necessarily for the whole period. Some mathematics and science are also obligatory (but not in the UK, Ireland, the Netherlands45 or Spain).

· The maximum amount of time allocated to the language of instruction, modern foreign (and other national/regional) languages, mathematics and sciences varies between countries. High allocations are found in the UK (England, Wales & Northern Ireland) where the curriculum is focused on a narrow range of subjects.

· In the language of instruction the emphasis is on the study of literature. In virtually all countries (except for Finland and the Netherlands), historical and contemporary works are specified, as are different genres of literature. Text analysis and interpretation and the written use of language are addressed in all countries. Oral presentations are mentioned in the majority of countries but not in Italy, Liechtenstein, Luxembourg or the UK.

· In modern foreign languages, all countries specify reading and literature, with three-quarters mentioning contemporary writing and factual texts. All countries, explicitly, or implicitly, make reference to speaking and listening, with discussion/conversation predominating. Writing is a requirement in all countries. Detailed guidelines for grammar are provided in Austria, Belgium (French Community), Germany, Spain, France and Portugal.

· In mathematics, there is similarity in the coverage of algebra & calculus, and geometry. There are differences in the focus given to data representation, probability and statistics.

· There is considerable similarity in biology. Three of the domains, life processes in animals and plants; genetics, inheritance and evolution; and cells/cellular metabolism are specified in all countries. Two other domains are specified in virtually all countries, although Belgium does not cover ecology and neither Scotland nor Portugal specifically focus on human biology at this level46.

· In physics, all countries include mechanics and electricity & magnetism. Waves is a domain covered by virtually all countries (but not Iceland). Thermophysics is addressed in the majority of countries but not Germany (Bavaria), Spain, France or the UK (Scotland). The domain of nuclear physics, atomic and quantum physics, is addressed in all countries except Portugal.

· The conceptualisation of chemistry is the most variable across countries of the EU/EEA. Nevertheless, all countries make reference to topics in the domains of chemical transformations and organic chemistry. Two-thirds of the countries make specific reference to the chemical industry. A smaller, overlapping group of countries also makes specific reference to environmental issues in relation to the chemical industry.

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In spite of differences between countries in the extent to which they specify compulsory subjects, there is considerable similarity between them in the domains and indeed topics specified in most subjects, militating against distinctive typologies.

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References


Education, Training and Youth (1996) Key Data on Education in the European Union, Brussels: European Commission DGXXII. EURYDICE & CEDEFOP (1995) Structures of the Education and Initial Training Systems in the European Union, Brussels: European Commission, DGXXII.

Kern, A. (1998) Correspondence to A. West.

Melissen, M. (1998) Curriculum and Examinations in the Netherlands. Paper prepared for conference ‘Quality and Assessment in Secondary Education’, organised by the Centre for Educational Research, London, May 1998.

School Curriculum and Assessment Authority (SCAA) (1997) INCA: the International Review of Curriculum and Assessment Frameworks Archive [CD-ROM] NFER/SCAA (obtainable from the Qualifications and Curriculum Authority, London).

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Appendix 1

Table A1 Age range and duration of upper secondary general education

Country Age range of upper secondary general education

Duration of upper secondary general education (in years)

AT 14 – 18 4BE 16 – 18 2DE(BA & NRW) 16 – 19 3DK 16 – 19 3ES 16 – 18 2FI 16 – 19 3FR 15 – 18 3GR 15 – 18 3IE 15 – 17 2IS 16 – 20 4IT 14 – 19 5LI 16 – 20 4LU 15 – 19 4NL 15 – 17/18 2-3NO 16 – 19 3PT 15 – 18 3SE 16 – 19 3UK(EWNI) (1) 16 – 18 2UK(S) 16 – 17 (2) 1 (2)

(1) Post-compulsory secondary education in England, Wales & Northern Ireland.(2) The move to courses extending over two years for pupils from 16 to 18 is being implemented in 1999/2000.

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Indicators of maximum time allocated to subjects The time represents actual hours (not lessons) of teaching over the course of the final year calculated on the basis of known lesson length or on other published information. The number of weeks per year is the official published figure. In some subjects in certain countries the greatest number of hours may be in earlier years. Where pupils are able to specialise by selecting ‘tracks’ or options the figures represent the maximum time allocated to a pupil specialising in a particular subject. The number of hours allocated to modern foreign languages and sciences represents the total time allocated for pupils specialising in these areas at this stage. In different countries this may represent two, three or four languages or two or three science subjects (biology, physics, chemistry).

General formula for calculating indicators

The general formula used in calculating the number of hours per subject is:

60.. cbaN

Where:

N is the number of hours per yeara is the maximum number of lessons per weekb is the number of weeks per school year (based on number of days per week and

number of days per year)c is the length of each lesson in minutes

This formula could not always be used because of varying contexts. The notes accompanying Table 2 provide further elaboration.

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Appendix 2

Analysis of the curriculum content

Mathematics

In order to compare the curriculum content, we had hoped to be able to use the augmented TIMSS classification system developed by Britton & Raizen (1996). There are ten major content categories: numbers; measurement; geometry: position, visualisation & shape; geometry: symmetry, congruence & similarity; proportionality; functions, relations & equations; data representation, probability & statistics; elementary analysis; validation & structure; and other content. However, as we were dealing with curriculum documents that varied in terms of the amount of detail provided it did not prove possible to use these categories or indeed the detailed categories used at lower secondary level.

Instead, our analysis of the curriculum documents enabled us to classify the content very broadly using three general categories: algebra & calculus; geometry; and data representation, probability & statistics. The first category, algebra & calculus, is in effect a combination of sub-categories of the TIMSS categories of numbers; functions, relations & equations; and elementary analysis. Our category of geometry matches the two TIMSS geometry categories, plus slope & trigonometry a sub-category of proportionality; and data representation, probability & statistics matches the TIMSS category of the same name.

Sciences

In order to compare the topic coverage in the science subjects, our intention had been to use the augmented TIMSS categories used by Britton & Raizen (1996). However, this was only partially successful, and we were obliged to collapse various categories in order to make the desired comparisons.

For biology, the augmented TIMSS framework uses the categories of: diversity, organisation, structure of living things; life processes and systems enabling life functions; life spirals, genetic continuity, diversity; interactions of living things; human biology and health. However, it did not prove possible to use these categories as the level of detail was not sufficient to enable us to use them without modification. Thus for our content analysis we used the following categories:

· cells and cellular metabolism (a combination of one TIMSS sub-category of diversity, organisation and structure of living things and one TIMSS sub-category of life processes and system enabling functions);

· life processes in animals & plants, including nutrition, respiration, reproduction and regulation (similar to one sub-category of the TIMSS category life processes and system enabling functions);

· genetics, inheritance & evolution (similar to the TIMSS category of life spirals, genetic continuity and diversity);

· ecology, ecosystems, animal behaviour & adaptation (similar to the TIMSS category of interactions of living things);

· human biology & health issues (similar to the TIMSS category of human biology and health).

In order to compare and contrast the topics covered in physics, we used five broad categories that are broadly similar to the augmented TIMSS categories developed by Britton & Raizen (1996). These are:

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· mechanics (includes physical properties; energy types; time, space and motion; dynamics of motion; fluid behaviour);

· electricity, electromagnetism and magnetism; · waves (sound, light and other wave forms); · thermophysics; · nuclear physics, atomic and quantum physics. Chemistry proved the most problematic area to compare and contrast. The augmented TIMSS categories (Britton & Raizen, 1996) consist of matter; structure of matter; physical transformations; chemical transformations. However, the curriculum documents did not enable us to use precisely these categories. Topics that we were able to compare relate to:

· Matter and its structure; · Chemical transformations; · Organic chemistry;· Chemical industry.

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Chapter 5

Examinations and assessment at the end of upper secondary general education

1 Introduction

The aim of this chapter is to provide an overview of the examination systems that operate in the countries of the EU/EEA at the end of post-compulsory general education47. The intention is to compare the examinations that are of particular importance in terms of entry to higher education with particular reference to written as opposed to oral examinations48. The next section outlines the types of written examinations (i.e. whether or not they are set externally). This is followed by details of where the responsibility lies in relation to the setting and marking of examination papers. The various grading/marking systems in operation are presented before attention is focused on those countries with external or externally-approved examinations. An analysis of the format and content of written examinations in key subjects follows. The chapter concludes with a discussion of emerging issues.

2 Types of written examinations

Table 1 provides details of the types of written examinations at the end of upper secondary general education. Externally-set examinations at the end of post-compulsory general education take place in the majority of countries – Denmark, Finland, France, Germany (Bavaria), Ireland, Italy, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, Norway, Portugal and the UK (see Figure 1). Internally-set examinations at this stage take place in Austria, Belgium (Flemish and French Communities), Germany (North Rhine Westphalia), Greece, Iceland49, Liechtenstein and Spain. In Sweden, externally produced tests to assist with teacher assessments of pupils’ attainment are being developed. In Austria, Liechtenstein and North Rhine Westphalia, the examination papers are set by teachers, but are then subject to the approval of the relevant authorities. They can thus be considered to be ‘externally verified’ unlike the examinations in the other countries where examinations are set at school level.

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Table 1 Types of written examinations at end of post-compulsory general education

Type of examination Country (1)Set externally DE(BA), DK, FI, FR, IE, IT, LU, NL, NO(2), PT, UK(EWNI),

UK(S)Set internally, approved externally AT, DE(NRW), LISet internally BE(FL), BE(FR), ES, GR, IS None: marks given at the end of each course

SE

(1) In a number of countries, examination results are combined with school assessment/examinations (see Section 5).(2) In Norway, only a random selection of pupils take external examinations.

3 Responsibility for the examinations

Examinations at the end of post-compulsory general education are found in all the countries of the EU/EEA (except for Sweden). The responsibility for these examinations varies between countries as shown in Table 2. In the majority of countries examinations are set externally. However in a minority, they are set internally. Whilst in some of these countries, the examinations are then approved by the relevant authority, this is not the case in the remainder, where the whole process takes place within the school.

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Table 2 Who sets and marks the examinations?

Country Examinations set by … Responsibility for marking (internal/external)AT Teachers set examinations that

are then approved by provincial school board

Examining teacher proposes a mark for majority decision by examination board consisting of all class teachers involved in the examination and chaired by inspector or ministry official (internal & external)

BE Teachers in school Teachers in school. Marks confirmed by the Class Council, made up of all the teachers under the direction of the headteacher (internal)

DE(BA) Ministry of Education Monitored by the Ministry (internal & external)DE(NRW) Teachers set examinations that

are then approved by regional board

Teachers in school and external moderation (internal & external)

DK Ministry of Education Two external examiners appointed by the Ministry (external)ES Teachers Teachers in school (internal)FI Matriculation Examination

BoardMatriculation Examination Board (external)

FR Groups of AcadJmies Ministry of Education has dominant role (external) GR Teachers in school Teachers in school (internal) IE Department of Education n.k.IS Teachers Teachers in school (internal)IT (1) Ministry of Education Board of examiners of five external teachers, one internal teacher,

one external headteacher or one university professor (internal & external)

LI Teachers in school Teachers in school but teachers’ standards monitored by national, Austrian and Swiss authorities (internal and external)

LU Ministry of Education Papers are first graded by the school and then sent for external moderation by two other schools (internal & external)

NL School and State Authority (2) Teachers in school (internal) and for the external examination one internal and one external teacher (internal and external)

NO Public Examination Boards Evaluated centrally by groups of experienced teachers (external)PT Ministry of Education Marked by teachers from other schools to criteria set by Ministry of

Education (external)SE Teachers Teachers in school (internal)UK(EWNI) Private Examination Boards Examination Boards (external) plus internal coursework marked by

teachers and moderated by examination board (external & internal)UK(S) Scottish Qualifications

Authority (3)Scottish Qualifications Authority (SQA) plus internal coursework moderated by the SQA (external & internal)

(1) The 1997 Act will lead to the reform of the examination system to take effect from June 1999.(2) There are both external examinations and internal examinations in the Netherlands.(3) Formerly the Scottish Examination Board.

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4 Gradings

In virtually all the countries of the EU/EEA the final marks in examinations at the end of upper secondary general education are classified into higher and lower grades as shown in Table 3.

Table 3 Gradings at the end of post-compulsory general education

Country Examination Points on scale

Comments

AT Matura 1 to 5 (low) Very good, good, satisfactory, sufficient, insufficient (5 in one or two written examinations can be compensated for by an additional oral examination)50

BE(FL) Internally set Pass mark is at the discretion of the schoolBE(FR) Internally set Pass mark is 50%DE(BA) Abitur 1 to 6 (low) Very good, good, satisfactory, adequate, poor, very poor (4 is

pass mark) (decimal points used) DE(NRW) Abitur 1 to 6 (low) Very good, good, satisfactory, adequate, poor, very poor (4 is

pass mark) (decimal points used)DK Studentereksamen 0 to 13 Points are as follows: 0, 3, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 13 (average

of 6 needed to pass both in the year’s work and in the examinations)

ES Internally set 1 to 10 (high) Pass mark is 5FI Matriculation 0 to 7 L (7), E (6), M (5), C (4), B (3), A (2), I (0) (0 out of 7 is a

fail (I)) FR Baccalauréat 0 to 20 An average of 10 out of 20 needed to pass (decimal points

used)GR Internally set 0 to 20IE Leaving Certificate

(Ordinary and Higher Levels)

14 A1, A2, B1, B2, B3, C1, C2, C3, D1, D2, D3, E, F, NG (no grade)

IS Internally set 1 to 10 Pass mark is 5IT Maturità 36 to 60 Pass mark is 36; the pupil who does not pass is defined as

‘non maturo’LI Matura 1 to 6 (high) Pass mark is 4 and no more than 4 marks under 4 (from 12

subjects) (decimal points used)LU Examen de fin

d’Jtudes secondaires60 Average of 30 out of 60 needed to pass (satisfactory, quite

good, good, very good) NL VWO Leaving

Examination10 1 (extremely poor) to 10 (excellent); pass mark is 6

NO Upper Secondary Leaving Examination

7 Grades are awarded on a scale from 0 (lowest) to 6 (highest) (decimal points are not used)

PT External examinations

20 10 out of 20 in all subjects in course needed to pass

SE Internal 4 Pass with distinction (MVG), pass with credit (VG), pass (G), fail (IG)

UK(EWNI) GCE A level 7 A, B, C, D, E, N (narrow failure), U (unclassified)UK(S) SCE Higher Grade

(1)5 A, B, C, D, ungraded

(1) A small percentage of pupils take the SCE Certificate of Sixth Year Studies (CSYS); this is not the focus of the current study.

As can be seen from Table 3, the results of the examinations at the end of post-compulsory general education are reported in different ways - numerical grades, alphabetic grades, verbal descriptors and so on.

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· In Finland, there is a seven point scale: laudatur (L) 7 points; eximia cum laude approbatur (E) 6 points; magna cum laude approbatur (M) 5 points; cum laude aprobatur (C) 4 points; lubenter approbatur (B) 3 points; approbatur (A) 2 points; improbatur (I) 0 points. Eximia cum laude approbatur is a new grade that was added to make a clearer distinction between the most successful examinees. The new grade distribution is: L 5 per cent, E 15 per cent, M 20 per cent, C 24 per cent, B 20 per cent, A 11 per cent and I 5 per cent.

· In France, the pass mark is 10 out of 20 as an overall average mark. Decimal points are used in the gradings. Candidates may be able to score quite well in particular subjects without actually achieving a ‘mention’. ‘Mention assez bien’ equates to an overall average mark of 12, ‘mention bien’ equates to 14, and ‘mention trPs bien’ to 16 or more. Pupils who do not pass the Baccalauréat examinations but have on average received marks equivalent to at least 8 out of 20 can obtain a secondary school leaving certificate (certificat de fin d’études secondaires). This certificate states that the pupil has completed secondary education in its entirety, but does not entitle the pupil to enter higher education.

· In Denmark, there is a ten-point scale between 0 and 13, with the following grades available: 0, 3, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 13.

· In Germany, the grades are as follows: grade 1 (15 to 13 points), grade 2 (12 to 10 points), grade 3 (9 to 7 points), grade 4 (6 to 4 points), grade 5 (3 to 1 point) and grade 6 (0 points).

· In Ireland, there is a 14-point scale from A1 (90-100%) to F (10%-24%). The grade NG is less than 10 per cent.

· In England, Wales and Northern Ireland the General Certificate of Education Advanced Level (GCE A level) examination has a seven-point scale. Five (A to E) are pass grades, N is a narrow fail and U is an unclassed performance. At the end of the marking and moderating period, key members of the examining board propose ranges of marks for each examination component (i.e. examination papers and coursework assessment) as a basis for locating preliminary boundaries for E/N, A/B and B/C. Other grade boundaries are determined arithmetically (SCAA et al., 1996).

· In Scotland, each student’s performance at the Scottish Certificate of Education Higher Grade (or Certificate of Sixth Year Studies) is reported on the Certificate issued by the Scottish Qualifications Authority as a single grade A, B, C or D. An A represents a pass with 70 per cent or above, a B a pass with between 60 and 69 per cent, and a C a pass with between 50 and 59 per cent. A D indicates that a student has not passed but has achieved a mark of between 40 and 49 per cent. Below this no award is given and there nothing is recorded on the Certificate.

The marks required to obtain a ‘pass’ examination vary between countries, as can be seen in Table 3 above. Whilst the most commonly occurring pass mark is 50 per cent (France, Iceland, Luxembourg, Portugal and Scotland), the pass mark may be higher (e.g. in Italy, the Netherlands) or lower (e.g. Ireland). In some countries there is variation in the marks required (e.g. UK(England, Wales & Northern Ireland)).

Separate marks are given for individual subjects in certain countries and in these cases no overall grade is given (e.g. Ireland, the UK). In other countries, although separate marks may be awarded for different subjects or examinations, an overall grade is also calculated (e.g. Austria, France, Germany). In some countries, a compensatory mechanism may allow pupils who fail in some subjects to pass overall (e.g. in Austria, a mark of 5 in one or two written examinations can be compensated by a mark of at least 3 in the oral examination).

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There are no externally-set or approved examinations in Belgium, Greece, Iceland, Spain or Sweden at the end of post-compulsory general education.

5 Countries with external/externally-verified examinations

We now turn to those countries where there are external or externally-approved examinations at the end of post-compulsory secondary general education. Our focus is on written examinations51. The number of subjects which pupils take varies between countries. The following list is not comprehensive52, but in Italy, pupils sit written examinations in two subjects, in Germany three, in the UK (England, Wales and Northern Ireland) typically three, in Austria three or four, Liechtenstein five, in Scotland, typically five, in Ireland, at least five. In other countries, there are a larger number of written examinations – between six and eight. This is the case in the Netherlands, Portugal, Luxembourg and France.

Whilst our focus is on the written examinations, it is important to note that in many countries, there are also oral examinations. In a minority of countries there are no oral examinations, and in the English-speaking countries there are only oral examinations for modern foreign languages. However, in one group of countries – primarily German-speaking – there are oral examinations in some subjects that replace written examinations in those subjects (e.g. there are only oral examinations in chemistry in Austria). In France and Luxembourg, there are oral examinations as part of some subjects, and in Norway only some pupils are selected for oral examinations in certain subjects. Table 4 provides a typology of countries in terms of the use of oral examinations in the examination system of those countries that also have external or externally-verified examinations.

Table 4 Oral examinations where there are external/externally-verified examinations

Oral examinations … CountriesNo oral examinations PT, FI, NL(1) Oral examinations in modern foreign languages only IE, UKOral examinations in some subjects AT, DE, DK(2), IT, LI Oral examinations as part of some subjects FR, LU Oral examinations for some pupils NO

(1) May be part of school-based examination(2) The Ministry decides in which subjects pupils of individual upper secondary schools must take an oral examination.

The final marks achieved by pupils are not only the result of the final examinations (either written or oral). In the majority of countries with external or externally-approved examination the final marks are frequently combined with marks from school work as shown in Table 5.

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Table 5 Basis of final marks where there are external/externally verified examinations

Final marks on basis of … CountriesExamination only FI, FR, IE(1)Examination plus specified coursework (2) AT, UKExamination plus school work DE, DK, IT, LI, LU, NO, PT,External and internal school examinations NL

(1) For sciences, laboratory classes have to be attended(2) Replacing an examination paper in Austria. In the UK coursework may replace an examination or may be

additional to an examination, or may not be required depending on the subject and in England, Wales and Northern Ireland, the examination board.

The way in which external examinations are combined with internal course work or examinations varies between countries:

· In Austria, pupils may submit a long written paper in place of one written examination.

· In Denmark, pupils are given marks for their final year’s work as well as their examination mark; the average of the two is their final mark.

· In Italy, the board of examiners must take into account the evaluation of the pupil by the school teachers when giving the examination marks.

· In Liechtenstein, at present53, the examination marks are combined with the marks achieved in the subject in the last year of school. There are a total of 12 Matura subjects and for those where there are no written or oral examinations, the school marks are the sole measure.

· In Luxembourg, the final examination mark is made up of two parts. One third is the result of a mark derived from continuous assessment throughout the final year and two-thirds is derived from the examinations (written and oral where appropriate).

· In the Netherlands, at present, the final subject mark is the average of the written external examinations and the mark for the school examination54.

· In Norway, marks for the pupil’s achievement in each subject in the final year are recorded on the certificate with the marks for any examinations taken.

· In Portugal, pupils are continuously assessed in school. In the last year of upper secondary general education, the mark for each subject is computed from a weighted average of the marks obtained in the year(s) in which the subject has been studied and the marks from the external examination.

· In the UK (ULEAC Board), a number of subjects include an option to submit some specified coursework to contribute to the overall subject mark (in place of a written examination paper).

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6 External/externally-approved examinations in key subjects

We analysed the written external or externally-approved examination papers that pupils are required to answer. We focused on the following subjects: the language of instruction, modern foreign languages (English55 for all countries except the UK and Ireland, where the focus was on French 56), mathematics and the sciences (biology, chemistry and physics). Moreover, we focused on those examinations that are the longest or most specialised. In a number of countries there are two levels of examinations, a higher or specialised level and a basic level (e.g. in Denmark, France, Germany, Ireland, Portugal). In other countries, the examinations relate to courses that are longer or shorter (e.g. Finland for certain subjects). In yet other countries, the examinations for particular subjects differ according to the chosen ‘track’ (e.g. Italy, Luxembourg). Our focus was on the highest level or the longest course or the most specialised track. We obtained examination papers for one year57. In some countries, the questions cover different topic areas in different years; thus the content of the examinations cannot necessarily be generalised from year to year. Moreover, in the case of Austria, Germany (North Rhine Westphalia) and Liechtenstein58, the examinations relate to only one school; examination questions in these countries are proposed by the school and then approved by the competent authority. This means that the examples cited do not show the whole variety of examination papers for schools in Austria and North Rhine Westphalia. The topics that can be tested are detailed in the curriculum guidelines/syllabus in each case. In spite of these shortcomings, the analysis undertaken provides the first systematic attempt to compare the examination systems across the countries of the EU/EEA. Whilst the focus is on the examinations themselves, it is important to note that in several countries there is assessed course work, the results of which contribute to the pupil’s final mark.

There are very marked differences in terms of the length of the examinations, the number of questions that pupils have to answer, the type of response that is required and so on. Key issues to emerge are highlighted in the following sections. It is important to stress that the focus here is on the external and externally-approved examinations that are taken at the end of upper secondary general examinations. We are not addressing either school-based examinations (Belgium, Greece, Iceland, Spain, Sweden) or examinations for university entrance that are set in countries such as Greece and Spain. The following sections thus relate to those countries where there are external/externally approved examinations (15 of the 21 countries or regions in the study).

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6.1 Language of instruction external examinations

The external/externally-approved examinations for the language of instruction vary in a number of ways. Table 6 provides details for each country of the number of written papers, their length and the number of questions or themes.

Table 6 Language of instruction: Number of written papers, questions and length

Country Number of papers

Total length of examinations

Total number of questions/themes

AT (1995) One 5h 3 (1 to be chosen)DE(BA) (1997) Advanced One (plus oral) 5h 6 (1 to be chosen)DE(NRW) (1997) Advanced One (plus oral) 5h 4 (1 to be chosen)DK (1996) One 5h 6 (1 to be chosen)FI (1996) Two 6h 14 each paper (1 to be chosen in each

paper)FR (1996) Bac L ‘Lettres’ (1) One (plus oral) 2h 2 (no choice)IE (1996) Higher level Two 5h 30 33 (10 to be chosen)IT (1995) Tema di Italiano One (plus oral) 6h (2) 4 (1 to be chosen)LI (1997) One (plus oral) 4h 3 (1 to be chosen)LU (1996) A1 Two (plus

oral)4h 30 3 (no choice)

NL (1996) VWO Two 6h 11 (1 compulsory, plus 1 of remainder)NO (1997) VG4000 Advanced One 5h (3) 7 (1 to be chosen)PT (1996) A12 One 1h 30 9 (5 compulsory, plus 1 of remainder)UK(EWNI) (1996, ULEAC) English literature (4) GCE A level

Four 10h 52 (10 to be chosen)

UK(S) (1995) (5) SCE Higher Grade

Two 3h 35m At least 18 (4 to be answered, some compulsory)

(1) This is in addition to the French examination taken at the end of premiPre (épreuve anticipJ de franHais) which lasts 4 hours and consists of three sujets one of which has to be chosen (there is also an oral examination).

(2) Candidate can leave after 3 hours.(3) Plus 1.5 days preparation.(4) ULEAC (University of London Examination and Assessment Council (now Edexcel)) examination. Four

examinations when four examination modules are selected. A folio of course work assessed externally may be substituted for one module.

(5) A folio of work assessed externally is also required.

The examinations for the language of instruction vary in terms of the number of examination papers, the opportunity to choose questions/themes and the duration of the examinations. In general there are one or two papers that candidates are required to take. The exception is the English literature examination set by the University of London (England, Wales & Northern Ireland) where there are four papers.

The number of questions/themes varies. In seven countries there is one written paper and one of the themes presented has to be chosen and a composition produced, generally in great depth and over a long time period (up to five or six hours). In the remainder, more questions have to be answered – up to 10 in the case of England, Wales & Northern Ireland. The duration of the examinations ranges from one and a half hours in Portugal to six hours in Italy and ten hours in the UK (England, Wales & Northern Ireland).

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Types of responses

The types of responses required vary between countries, but in all cases, essays must be produced. The analysis of text or comprehension requiring shorter answers is expected in three countries (Luxembourg, Portugal and the UK (Scotland)). Summaries of text are required in the Netherlands and Scotland.

In essay-type responses, a variety of skills are required. These are shown in Table 7.

Table 7 Skills required in essay-type responses

Skills Number of countries/regions (N=15)Interpretation and analysis 13Construction of an argument/debating an issue 13Literary appreciation and criticism 12Analysis of current affairs 8Philosophical debate 7Demonstration of historical knowledge 5Creative/expressive/imaginative writing 2

Interpretation and analysis are the skills most frequently required in essay writing, although they are not specifically addressed in Italy or Norway. Construction of an argument or debating an issue is covered in all except the UK. Literary appreciation and criticism is covered in the same number of countries, but not in Finland, Norway59 or the Netherlands60.

An analysis of current affairs is required in Austria, Germany (Bavaria), Denmark, Finland, Ireland, Italy, the Netherlands and Norway. Skills in philosophical debate are required in Germany, Finland, Ireland, Italy, Liechtenstein and Luxembourg. Five countries/regions (Austria, Germany (both L@nder), Italy and Liechtenstein) require candidates to demonstrate a knowledge of history or the historical context/background of the subject matter. Creative or expressive writing skills are covered in Ireland and the Netherlands.

Themes

The themes and topics covered in the examination papers vary between countries. In those countries that have set books, these are examined (France, Germany (North Rhine Westphalia), Ireland, Italy, Liechtenstein, Luxembourg, Portugal and the UK). In addition to questions relating to set books and to literature, the main subject matter of questions falls into four main areas as shown in Table 8.

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Table 8 Themes covered in language of instruction (external) examination papers

Themes Number of countries/regions specifying theme (N=15)Social issues/environment/real world issues 10Media and the arts 8Philosophy/religion/morality 8Language/language analysis 9

The theme relating to social issues, the environment and real world issues is covered in a wide range of countries, although not by Denmark, France, Luxembourg or the UK (in France and the UK the course focuses on literature). Media and/or the arts is a theme addressed in over half the countries/regions (Austria, Denmark, Germany, Italy, Liechtenstein, the Netherlands and the UK (Scotland)). A theme covered by the same number of countries relates to abstract or theoretical issues. These include philosophy, religion, moral dilemmas, ethics and so on. Countries/regions that include such themes are: Finland, Germany, Ireland, Italy, Liechtenstein, Luxembourg and the Netherlands. Another area that frequently occurs in the examinations is language analysis. Questions concerning the use of language, style, linguistic devices, technique, conventions and, occasionally grammar are found in Austria, Germany, Ireland, Liechtenstein, Luxembourg, Portugal and the UK.

6.2 Modern foreign language external examinations

The external/externally-approved examinations for modern foreign languages vary in a number of ways. Table 9 provides details for each country of the number of written papers, their length and the number of questions or themes. As will be recalled, the focus was on examinations in English or in the case of the English-speaking countries on examinations in French.

Table 9 Modern foreign languages (English or French (UK and IE only)): Number of written papers and length

Country Number of Papers Total length of examinationsAT (1995) One 5h 00 (1)DE (BA) (1997) Advanced One 5h 00DE (NRW) (1997) Advanced One 5h 00DK (1996) Higher level One 5h 00FI (1995) Advanced Four or more 6h eachFR(1995, Paris, Bac L (2) One 3h 00IE (1996) Higher level One 2h 30 IT (1995) Tema di lingua straniera (3) One 6h 00LI (1997) One 3h 00 LU (1995) A1 Two 4h 30 NL (1996) VWO Central examination One 2h 30 NO (1997) VKII Option A n.a. n.a.PT (1996) High level One 1h 30UK(EWNI) (1995, ULEAC) GCE A level

Six 11h 05

UK(S) (1995, SQA) SCE Higher Grade

Five (plus folio) 5h 00

(1) Includes 1h listening(2) English as the first modern foreign language (Langue Vivante 1)(3) Or Testo Letterario, or Testo di Attualita, or Testo Socio-Economico

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The examinations in modern foreign languages vary considerably in terms of the number of papers and the duration of the examinations. In the majority of countries, there is just one paper, but in the UK and in Finland there are more – four or more in the case of Finland and five or six in the case of the UK.

The duration of the examinations is similarly varied. The shortest is in Portugal, whilst the longest is in Finland. Relatively long examinations are also found in England, Wales & Northern Ireland and in Italy. Because of the nature of the examinations it is not feasible to compare the number of questions that candidates are required to answer. This is because the content and type of questions in the examinations vary widely.

In all countries the domains of reading comprehension and writing skills are examined. A minority of countries (Austria, Finland, Ireland and the UK) examines listening comprehension. In all countries except for Finland and Portugal61 there are oral examinations/tests of varying duration to test pupils’ communication skills.

Types of responses

A wide variety of responses are required as shown in Table 10. There are no instances where candidates are expected to answer the entire examination paper(s) wholly in the foreign language, except in the Netherlands, where the external examination consists of a reading comprehension with multiple choice questions (in English).

Table 10 Types of responses

Type of response Number of countries/regions (N=14) (1)Essay in foreign language 12Essay in language of instruction 4Shorter written responses in foreign language 8Shorter written responses in language of instruction 7Translation into the language of instruction 6Translation into the foreign language 4Cloze passage (2) 5Multiple choice 4

(1) No information available for Norway.(2) Filling in missing words into a passage of text.

The ability to write extended pieces (essays or compositions) in the modern foreign language is clearly a requirement in the majority of countries (although not in Ireland or the Netherlands). A small number of countries expect pupils to write an essay or composition in the language of instruction, namely, Austria, Denmark, Portugal and the UK (England, Wales & Northern Ireland). Three countries thus require essays or compositions in both languages – Austria, Portugal and the UK (England, Wales & Northern Ireland).

Short answers, such as brief reports, summaries or paragraphs of a few sentences in the foreign language are expected in just over half of the countries (Austria, Finland, Ireland, Liechtenstein, Luxembourg, Portugal and the UK). In a similar number of countries short answers in the language of instruction are required – Denmark, France, Germany (both L@nder), the UK and Italy (depending on the paper chosen) 62. In the UK candidates are required to answer short questions in both the language of instruction and the modern foreign language.

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Translation from the language of instruction into the foreign language is required in Denmark, Liechtenstein and the UK. Translation into the language of instruction is required in Austria, Finland, France, Germany (Bavaria) and the UK. Translations both to and from the foreign language are required only in the UK.

Other types of responses include providing missing words to be inserted into text (cloze passages). Cloze passages are a feature of the examinations in Finland, France, Ireland, Liechtenstein and Scotland. Finally, multiple choice questions form part of the examination in Finland, Ireland, the Netherlands and the UK (Scotland).

Content of the examinations

Language, grammar and vocabulary

Only two countries – Finland and Liechtenstein – have separate sections in the examination papers that deal with grammar. Other countries incorporate questions on grammar into the translation/cloze/comprehension exercises (as in the case of France, Germany (both L@nder), Ireland, the Netherlands, Portugal and the UK (Scotland)).

Set texts and other texts

Set texts are only examined (in written examinations) in four countries, namely Liechtenstein, Luxembourg, Portugal, the UK (England, Wales & Northern Ireland). However, many examination papers use text extracts from literary sources on which to base reading comprehension questions. For example, extracts from fictional literature (a well-known or popular contemporary author) are used in this way in Austria, Denmark, France, Germany (both L@nder) and Ireland. However, Finland, the Netherlands and Scotland use factual as opposed to fictional texts63.

Themes

Whilst at the lower secondary level, themes relating to practical or everyday activities such as travel, shopping, home, family and hobbies are commonly found, at the upper secondary level, the emphasis shifts to more abstract or theoretical ideas.

The literature and/or other texts of the foreign country are addressed in all countries. In relation to the teaching of English, English and American texts are used in the examination papers in Austria, Germany (Bavaria), Liechtenstein, the Netherlands and Portugal. The use of slang and non-standard English in text appears in Denmark, Germany (Bavaria), Liechtenstein, the Netherlands and Portugal. Topics on the arts, culture, film and media are found in Austria, France, Germany (Bavaria), Ireland, the Netherlands, Portugal and the UK. All countries (except for France and Luxembourg) cover social issues. These are varied in kind, but the most common topics64 in this area are shown in Table 11.

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Table 11 Most commonly covered social issues

Social issues/current affairs Countries (1)Discrimination/racism/prejudice AT, DE, DK, FI, IE, LI, NL Youth/growing up/teenage years AT, DE, IE, LI, NL, PT, UK(S)Travelling abroad/tourism/living abroad DE, DK, FI, IE, UKCrime AT, DE, IE, LI, UK(EWNI)Impact of technology DE, ITSociety/values/politics DE, IT

(1) No information available for Norway

The main topics in the broad general area of social issues relate to discrimination and racism against minority groups and issues associated with youth and growing up. Other topics are addressed in fewer countries.

Examination aids

Finally, it is of interest to note that in some countries, a dictionary (sometimes monolingual, sometimes bilingual) is allowed for some or all of the examination papers (e.g. Austria, Denmark, Germany, Italy, Portugal, the UK (Scotland)). In contrast, in a number of countries dictionaries are not allowed (e.g. the Netherlands, the UK (England, Wales & Northern Ireland)).

6.3 Mathematics external examinations

Considerable variation between countries exists in the content and format of the external/externally-verified examinations at the end of upper secondary general education (in this study we are focusing on the mathematics course that is the most advanced/specialised or, where relevant, the only mathematics course (e.g. Liechtenstein)). In Table 12, the examinations in the countries concerned are compared in terms of their length, the number of papers and the number of questions.

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Table 12 Mathematics: Number of written papers, length and questions

Country Number of papers

Total number of questions (no choice unless stated)

AT (1995) One (4h) 4 exercises DE (BA)(1997) Advanced One (4h) 6 exercises (20 questions) (subject committee

selects one exercise from each of three areas to be put to the candidate)

DE (NRW) (1997) Advanced One (5h) 3 exercises DK (1996) Higher Level One (4h) 8 (all compulsory, choice between 2 parts in

one question)FI (1996) Advanced One (6h) 10 (5 compulsory, 5 choice, either/or)FR (1997), Paris, Bac S specialism One (4h) 3 exercises (9 questions) IE (1996) Higher level Two (5h) 18 (6 out of 7 in one paper and 6 out of 11 in

second paper)IT (1995 Scientific liceo Theme of mathematics

One (5h) 3 exercises (2 to be chosen)

LI (1997) One (4h) 14 (9 compulsory, choice of 3 of remainder) LU (1995) Branch B Three (7h) 10 NL (1996) VWO B (1) One (3h) 4 exercises (15 questions) NO (1997) 3MX One (5h) 20 PT (1996) One (1h

30)16

UK(EWNI) (1995, ULEAC) GCE A level Four (6h) 38 UK(S) (1995, SQA) SCE Higher Grade Two (4h

30)32

(1) There is an alternative paper A; pupils may do both.

The examinations vary in their length and in the number of questions to be answered. In the majority of countries there is only one examination. The exceptions are Ireland, Luxembourg and the UK; in Ireland and the UK (Scotland), there are two papers, in Luxembourg there are three and in the UK (England, Wales & Northern Ireland) there are four papers.

We analysed the content of the mathematics examinations using the classification devised for the Third International Mathematics and Science Study (see Appendix for details). Each scoreable item was given one (or more) codes. The percentage of items in each of the TIMSS categories is given in Table 13.

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Table 13 Mathematics: Percentage of examination questions addressing each domain

Country Level/option N M G P FRE DPS EA VSAT Realgymnasium 0 0 32 10 42 0 16 0DE(BA) Advanced 0 0 29 0 18 33 20 0DE(NRW) Advanced 0 0 24 0 35 0 30 11DK Higher 0 3 38 3 4 0 52 0FI Advanced 19 0 13 0 38 6 25 0FR Bac S (specialism) 0 0 35 0 12 12 41 0IE Higher 5 0 20 4 23 10 31 7IT Scientific liceo 0 0 22 0 22 0 56 0LI Matura B/E 0 0 30 0 22 0 43 5LU Branch B, scientific 21 0 21 0 29 5 19 5NL VWO B 0 4 30 0 33 0 26 7NO 3MX 0 0 18 0 24 18 40 0PT Mathematics 0 0 20 10 40 15 15 0UK(EWNI) Pure mathematics A level 10 4 14 1 33 2 33 3UK(S) Mathematics Higher

Grade5 0 21 10 44 0 21 0

Key: N: Numbers; M: Measurement; G: Geometry; P: Proportionality; FRE: Functions, relations, equations; DPS: Data representation, probability, statistics; EA: Elementary analysis; VS: Validation and structure

The analysis of the mathematics examination papers shows enormous variation between countries, not only in terms of the domains that are addressed but also in terms of the relative emphasis given to each domain within the examinations.

All the TIMSS domains are covered in the UK (EWNI). In all the other countries the examinations are more focused on particular domains. Across all countries (except Denmark) there is a relatively heavy weighting given to functions, relations and equations. Geometry is also a domain that is well represented in most countries as is elementary analysis. Data representation, probability and statistics and proportionality do not, in general, have a high profile at this level in the year in question.

6.4 Science external examinations: Biology

As noted above, the focus in this study is on the examinations in biology for pupils on the most specialised/longest course (or the only course where relevant)65. Table 14 provides details of the number and length of biology examination papers and the number of questions/exercises posed and to be answered.

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Table 14 Biology: Number of written papers, length and questions

Country Title of examination Number of papers

Length Number of biology questions/ exercises (no choice except where noted)

AT (1995) Biology & environmental science (1)

1 4h 00 3 exercises

DE(BA) (1997) Biology Advanced 1 4h 00 4 exercises (24 questions) (subject committee selects two exercises to be put to candidates)

DE(NRW) (1997)

Biology Advanced 1 5h 00 2 exercises (9 questions)

DK (1997) Biology Higher Level 1 5h 00 7 (3 to be answered)FI (1996) General Studies (2) 1 6h 00 8 (choice)FR (1995) Life & earth sciences (3) Bac S

specialism1 3h 30 2 biology (1 earth sciences)

IE (1996) Biology Higher 1 3h 00 15 (10 to be answered)IT (1995) Experimental liceo: Theme of

mathematics, physics and science (4)

1 5h 00 3 exercises (choice)

LU (1995) Biology (5) 1 2h 00 2 exercises NL (1996) Biology VWO Central examination 1 3h 00 13 exercises (48 questions) NO (1997) Biology 3B1 1 5h 00 2 exercises (12 questions)PT (1996) Biology 1 1h 30 5UK(EWNI) (1996)

Biology GCE A level (6) 5 7h 20 40 (35 to be answered)

UK(S) (1995) Biology SCE Higher Grade 2 3h 45 59

(1) In Austria there is an additional oral examination.(2) Pupils must answer 8 questions during this time, choosing from ten different subject areas.(3) In France there is an additional oral examination lasting 15 minutes with 15 minutes preparation time.(4) One mathematics question and one other question must be answered (from a choice of 2 physics and 6 biology and earth

sciences questions)(5) In Luxembourg there is an additional oral examination lasting 15 minutes with 20 minutes preparation time. (6) In the ULEAC examination (England, Wales & Northern Ireland) there is either teacher assessment of practical work or

an additional practical examination lasting 1hour 30 minutes.

As can be seen from Table 14, the biology examinations vary considerably in terms of their duration and the number of biology exercises that candidates are required to answer. The longest examinations are in the UK (England, Wales & Northern Ireland), where they last for over 7 hours and the shortest are in Portugal where the examination lasts for 1 hour 30 minutes. However, in all countries except for the UK there is only one examination paper. In four countries, the biology examination is combined with other subjects.

There is considerable variation in the number of questions or exercises that candidates must answer. In the UK, the model differs from that in the majority of countries in that there are a large number of discrete questions. The prevalent model consists of a smaller number of exercises around a particular dominant theme. These exercises are then frequently sub-divided into sections.

We analysed the content of the biology written examination papers using the augmented TIMSS categories (Britton & Raizen, 1996, see Appendix for details).

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Table 15 Biology: Percentage of examination questions addressing each domain

Country DIVORGST

LIFEPROC LIFESPIR INTERACT HUMBIOL OTHER

AT 0 0 33 33 33 0DE(BA) 7 22 36 20 15 0DE(NRW) 17 42 42 0 0 0DK 20 17 15 13 35 0FI 0 30 15 30 25 0FR 8 17 33 0 42 0IE 29 14 22 14 21 0IT 33 33 33 0 0 0LU 0 31 23 0 46 0NL 8 32 20 17 22 0NO 33 50 0 17 0 0PT 35 6 17 27 15 0UK(EWNI) 22 29 12 8 28 1UK (S) 20 25 27 25 3 0

Key: DIVORGST: diversity, organisation and structure of living things; LIFEPROC: life processes; LIFESPIR: life spirals, genetic continuity and diversity; INTERACT: interactions; HUMBIOL: human biology; OTHER: agriculture

As can be seen from Table 15, there are a number of differences in the content of the biology examination questions. There is variation in terms of the domains that are addressed and the relative weighting given to each in the examinations.

Seven countries include questions that address all the main TIMSS categories – Denmark, Germany (Bavaria), Ireland, the Netherlands, Portugal and the UK (England, Wales & Northern Ireland and Scotland). In the remainder, there is a more focused approach in terms of the examination content – in Austria, Germany (North Rhine Westphalia), Italy and Luxembourg the questions focus on three main TIMSS categories. However, it is of interest that in virtually all countries the domain life spirals, genetic continuity and diversity is addressed as is the domain life processes. There is considerable divergence in the extent to which human biology and interactions are examined.

The weighting given to the domains also varies. In some countries a greater emphasis is given to one domain and in others a greater emphasis is given to another. Thus we find that in the French and Luxembourgish examinations in the year in question, human biology has a high profile. In contrast, in the examination66 for Germany (North Rhine Westphalia) and for the Norwegian examinations life processes has a high profile.

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6.5 Science external examinations: Physics

The physics examination papers are varied in their format and their content. Table 16 provides details of the number of examination papers, their length and the number of questions/exercises that candidates are required to answer in each of the countries67.

Table 16 Physics: Number of written papers, length and questions

Country Title of examination Number of papers

Length Number of physics questions/ exercises (no choice except where stated)

AT (1995) Physics (1) 1 4h 00 4 exercises DE(BA) (1997) Physics Advanced 1 4h 00 5 exercises (15 questions)

(subject committee selects two of the five exercises for candidates to answer)

DE(NRW) (1997) Physics Advanced 1 5h 00 2 exercises (11 questions) DK (1996) Physics Higher Level 1 4h 00 5 exercisesFI (1996) General Studies (2) 1 6h 00 16 (choice)FR (1995) Physics and chemistry

Bac S specialism 1 3h 30 (3) 2 exercises

IE (1996) Physics Higher 1 3h 00 13 (9 to be answered)IT (1995) Experimental liceo:

Theme of mathematics, physics and science

1 5h 00 (4) 2 exercises

LU (1995) Physics Branch B and C 1 3h 00 4 exercisesNL (1996) Physics VWO 1 3h 00 6 exercises (26 questions)NO (1997) Physics 3FY 1 5h 00 5 exercisesPT (1996) Physics 1 1h 30 6 UK(EWNI) (1996)

Physics GCE A level (5) 5 7h 20 37 (32 to be answered)

UK(S) Higher Grade

Physics SCE Higher Grade

2 4h 00 49

(1) Austria also has an oral examination in physics. (2) Pupils must answer 8 questions during this time, choosing from ten different subject areas.(3) In France there is an additional oral examination lasting 20 minutes (plus 20 minutes preparation time). The time given

is the time for the two physics questions and the two chemistry questions. (4) General science paper and the time allowed includes time to answer the non-physics questions. One mathematics

question and one other question must be answered (from physics, biology and earth sciences).(5) In England, Wales & Northern Ireland (ULEAC, now Edexcel) there is an additional practical examination that

lasts 2 hours 30 minutes.

The duration of the physics examinations is variable, but in the majority of cases, they last for at least three hours. The shortest examination is in Portugal and the longest in England, Wales & Northern Ireland. In all countries except for the countries that comprise the UK there is only one examination paper. In England, Wales & Northern Ireland, there are five examinations plus an additional practical examination. The questions vary considerably in format. In the UK examinations there are a large number of individual questions whilst in the other countries there is a smaller number of extended exercises, with multiple parts, that candidates are required to answer.

In the majority of countries there is no effective choice for candidates in terms of the questions/exercises that they are required to answer. In those countries where there is an apparent

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choice it is likely to be the case that only certain topics have been covered in the curriculum (e.g. in the case of the UK (England, Wales & Northern Ireland)).

The content of the physics written examinations was analysed using the augmented TIMSS categories (see Appendix). The percentage of scoreable items within the various domains is shown in Table 17.

Table 17 Physics: Percentage of examination questions addressing each domain

Country MECH ELEC WAVE THER ATOM NUC REL OTHAT 0 23 23 0 0 38 15 0DE(BA) 0 34 16 0 19 22 9 0DE(NRW) 0 9 73 0 18 0 0 0DK 25 25 25 8 0 17 0 0FI 31 19 23 4 4 15 4 0FR 0 62 38 0 0 0 0 0IE 17 37 29 8 3 6 0 0IT 50 50 0 0 0 0 0 0LU 35 43 13 0 0 0 0 9NL 23 31 27 0 11 0 0 0NO 48 30 9 0 0 0 13 0PT 61 17 9 9 0 0 0 4UK(EWNI) 19 28 10 15 6 16 5 1UK (S) 29 32 15 3 5 7 0 8

Key: MECH: mechanics; ELEC: electricity and electromagnetism; WAVE: waves, sound, light; THER: thermophysics; ATOM: atomic and quantum physics; NUC: nuclear physics; REL: relativity and astrophysics; OTH: other (e.g. units of measurement)

There are clear differences between countries in terms of the physics domains that are examined in written papers. The examinations can be differentiated in terms of the extent to which they are focused on particular domains or address a broad range of domains.

Examinations that address between two and four domains include those in Austria, Germany (North Rhine Westphalia), France, Italy and Luxembourg. The others address a larger number of domains. The only country covering all the categories is the UK (England, Wales & Northern Ireland).

However, the fact that a wide range of domains is covered in the examination papers does not mean that pupils necessarily answer questions/exercises in such a diverse range of domains. For example, in Germany (Bavaria), Finland and the UK (England, Wales & Northern Ireland), there are choices within the examination paper that enable pupils to focus their answers on specific domains (these are likely to be those that they have been taught in school).

Also, as the study focused on only one year’s examination papers, the above analysis is not necessarily typical of every year. Thus, in the Netherlands, nuclear physics is commonly examined (although it was not in the year in question).

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6.6 Science external examinations: Chemistry

The chemistry examination papers are varied in their format and their content. Table 18 provides details of the number of examination papers, their length and the number of questions/exercises that candidates are required to answer in each of the countries68.

Table 18 Chemistry: Number of written papers, length and questions

Country Examination Number of

papers

Time Number of chemistry questions/exercises (no choice except where stated)

DE(BA) (1997)

Chemistry Advanced 1 4h 00 4 exercises (14 questions) (subject committee selects two exercises to be put to candidates)

DE(NRW) (1997)

Chemistry Advanced 1 5h 00 2 exercises (8 questions)

DK (1996) Chemistry Higher Level 1 4h 00 3 exercises FI (1996) General Studies (1) 1 6h 00 8 (choice)FR (1996) Physics and chemistry Bac

S specialism 1 3h 30

(2)2 chemistry exercises

IE (1996) Chemistry Higher 1 3h 00 10 (6 to be answered) LU (1995) Chemistry Branch B and

C 1 3h 00 4 exercises

NL (1996) Chemistry VWO 1 3h 00 6 exercises (22 questions) NO (1997) Chemistry 3KJ 1 5h 00 4PT (1996) Chemistry 1 1h 30 8UK(EWNI) (1996)

Chemistry GCE A level (3)

5 7h 20 22 (20 to be answered)

UK (S) (1995)

Chemistry SCE Higher Grade

2 4h 10 66

Notes

In Italy, in the year in question, there were no questions relating to chemistry

(1) Pupils must answer 8 questions during this time, choosing from ten different subject areas.(2) In France there is an additional oral examination lasting 20 minutes plus 20 minutes preparation time. The time indicates

the total time available to answer the two physics and the two chemistry questions.(3) In the examination for England, Wales & Northern Ireland there is teacher assessment of practical work or a 3 hour

practical examination.

The written chemistry examinations69 vary between countries, although in all, except for the UK, there is one paper. In Scotland there are two examination papers and in the examination for England, Wales & Northern Ireland there are five. The duration of the examinations is also variable – with the longest being in the UK (England, Wales & Northern Ireland) and the shortest being in Portugal.

The number of questions to be answered is also variable – ranging from two exercises in France to 66 questions in Scotland. In the majority of countries the examination model is of one paper with a relatively small number of exercises, comprising sub-sections that candidates are required to complete.

The chemistry content of the written external examinations was compared using the augmented classification system devised by Britton & Raizen (1996). (Further details are given in the Appendix.) Table 19 gives the domains covered and the relative weighting given to each in the examinations.

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Table 19 Chemistry: Percentage of examination questions addressing each domain

Country M ST PHY CHC ECC RCE ORG NUC ELEDE(BA) 7 11 2 9 15 0 41 13 2DE(NRW) 15 23 0 31 23 8 0 0 0DK 0 31 16 5 11 16 5 0 16FI 5 15 35 15 10 10 10 0 0FR 0 12 4 13 17 21 33 0 0IE 11 25 3 4 9 22 17 0 9LU 7 4 0 48 4 7 30 0 0NL 0 18 0 9 0 36 27 0 9NO 16 16 16 16 0 0 21 0 16PT 0 19 19 27 4 15 8 0 8UK(EWNI) 10 22 5 9 8 18 22 2 4UK(S) 4 24 8 10 5 15 18 8 8

Key: M: matter; ST: structure of matter; PHY: physical transformations; CHC: chemical changes; ECC: explanations of chemical changes; RCE: rate of change, equilibria, energy, chemical change; ORG: organic and biological changes; NUC: nuclear chemistry; ELE: electrochemistry

There are differences between the countries in terms of the domains that are addressed in the chemistry examination papers. All or virtually all of the domains are addressed in the UK, Germany (Bavaria), Denmark, Ireland and Portugal. The remaining countries focus more broadly on five or six domains.

In terms of similarities between countries, it is clear that the domain the structure of matter is almost universally included in the examinations as are the domains concerned with organic & biological changes and chemical changes. The relative weighting given to each domain varies however. The Bavarian and French examinations emphasise organic and biological changes. In Finland the most emphasised domain is physical transformations. In the countries with a broader coverage, there is, in general, less difference in the relative weightings given to the various domains (as in the case of Denmark, Ireland, Portugal and the UK).

7 Conclusions

At the time of writing, externally-set or verified examinations take place in post-compulsory secondary general education in the majority of the countries, but not in Belgium, Greece, Iceland, Spain or Sweden. (In Greece and Spain, however, there are university entrance examinations that are linked to the curriculum in upper secondary general education.)

Oral examinations play a role in certain countries with external/externally-verified examinations. A minority of countries have no oral examinations and a small number only have oral examinations for modern foreign languages. In the majority of countries with external/externally-verified examinations, the final marks are combined with school work.

Turning to the examination papers that we analysed, we find that for the language of instruction, there are generally one or two examination papers, lasting on average a total of 4.9 hours. All countries require essay-type responses. For each modern foreign language, there is generally only one examination paper. An essay in the modern foreign language is sought in the majority of countries. For mathematics, there is generally one examination paper lasting an average of 4.5 hours. For the science subjects, there is also great variation between countries in the way that the individual subjects are examined. The mean lengths of the examinations are 4.1 hours for biology and chemistry and 4.2 hours for physics.

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Countries vary in terms of the extent to which the examination questions focus on a small or a large number of domains in mathematics and the sciences. However, the fact that a wide range of domains is covered in the examination papers does not mean that pupils necessarily have to answer questions/exercises in such a diverse range of domains.

Finally, in several countries it is important to note that the examinations are not intended to address every domain in the curriculum (e.g. in Austria, Germany (North Rhine Westphalia)). It is thus not feasible to make direct comparisons between the extent to which the external examinations that we have analysed address the intended curriculum. To carry out such a study, individual case studies would need to be conducted in schools in different countries.

Summary

This chapter has provided an overview of the examination systems that operate in the countries of the EU/EEA in post-compulsory general/academic (not vocational) education.

· Externally set or verified examinations take place in the majority of the countries, but not in Belgium, Greece, Iceland, Spain or Sweden. (In Greece and Spain, however, there are university entrance examinations that are linked to the curriculum in upper secondary general education.)

· The responsibility for setting and marking examinations is at different levels, although in general they are set externally by the Ministry of Education or a government agency.

· The marks required to obtain a ‘pass’ grade vary between countries. Whilst the most commonly occurring pass mark is 50 per cent (France, Iceland, Luxembourg, Portugal and Scotland), the pass mark may be higher (e.g. in Italy, the Netherlands) or lower (e.g. Ireland).

· Oral examinations play a role in certain countries with external/externally-verified examinations. A minority of countries have such examinations only for modern foreign languages. In Austria, Germany, Denmark, Italy and Liechtenstein there are oral examinations in some other subjects, and in France and Luxembourg as part of some subjects. In Norway, a random selection of pupils are given oral examinations.

· The final marks achieved by pupils are not always the result of the final examinations. In the majority of countries with external/externally-verified examinations, the final marks are frequently combined with school work or school examinations (Austria, Denmark, Germany, Italy, Liechtenstein, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, Norway, Portugal and the UK).

· For the language of instruction, there are generally one or two examination papers (range 1 to 4 papers), lasting on average 4.9 hours (range 1.5 hours to 10 hours). The number of questions/themes that pupils are required to answer varies between countries. In the majority, one extended essay must be chosen (range 1 to 10). All countries require essay-type responses. The skills required in most countries include the following: interpretation and analysis, construction of an argument and literary appreciation and criticism.

· For each modern foreign language, there is generally only one examination paper (range 1 to 6). The examinations last between 1.5 hours (Portugal) and 24 hours (Finland). In all countries the domains of reading comprehension and writing skills are examined. The responses required in the examinations are varied. An essay in the modern foreign language is sought in the majority of countries. A minority of countries requires pupils to complete missing words in a given text (cloze passages) or to answer multiple choice questions.

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· For mathematics, there is generally one examination paper (range 1 to 4) lasting an average of 4.5 hours (range 1.5 hours to 7 hours). The content of the examinations varies considerably between countries. In the UK (England, Wales & Northern Ireland) a wide range of domains are covered. In all other countries, the examinations are more focused on particular domains.

· For the science subjects, there is also great variation between countries in the way that the individual subjects are examined. The mean lengths of the examinations are 4.1 hours for biology and chemistry and 4.2 hours for physics (in all cases the range is 1.5 to 7.3 hours).

· For all science subjects, there are usually a relatively small number of questions/exercises to be answered by pupils but in the Netherlands and the UK there are a larger number of questions. There is clear variation between countries in the extent to which the examinations focus on a limited or a wide range of domains.

· In the biology examinations, there is a focus on specific domains in Austria, Germany (North Rhine Westphalia), Italy and Luxembourg. A wide range of domains are examined in Denmark, Germany (Bavaria), Ireland, the Netherlands, Portugal and the UK.

· In the physics examinations there is a focus on specific domains in Austria, France, Germany (North Rhine Westphalia), Italy, Luxembourg, the Netherlands and Norway. A wider range of domains are examined in Finland, Ireland and the UK.

· In the chemistry examinations the majority of countries with written chemistry examinations include questions on a wide range of domains: Germany (Bavaria), Denmark, Finland, Ireland, Portugal and the UK.

· The fact that a wide range of domains is covered in the examination papers does not mean that pupils necessarily have to answer questions/exercises in such a diverse range of domains.

107

References


Icelandic Ministry of Education (1998) Personal communication.

Kern, A. (1998) Correspondence to A. West.

Robitaille, D. et al. (1993) Curriculum Frameworks for Mathematics and Science, Vancouver: Pacific Educational Press.

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Appendix

Categories used for analysis of mathematics and science examinations

In order to compare the examination papers we used the classification systems developed by Robitaille et al. (1993) for the Third International Mathematics and Science Study (TIMSS). For mathematics they proposed ten major content categories: numbers; measurement; geometry: position, visualisation and shape; geometry: symmetry, congruence and similarity; proportionality; functions, relations and equations; data representation, probability and statistics; elementary analysis; validation and structure; and other content. The mathematics examination papers were analysed according to the content aspects covered using the TIMSS categories above. The only modification that we made to the TIMSS framework was to collapse the two TIMSS geometry categories and we did not use the ‘other’ content category as it did not appear in the examination questions.

In order to compare the content of the examination questions in biology, the TIMSS augmented framework was used (Britton & Raizen, 1996). Questions and sub-questions were coded into the five main categories given for biology, plus a miscellaneous ‘other’ category:

· diversity, organisation and structure of living things (covering the sub-topics of plants, animals, other organisms - micro-organisms, organs, tissues and cells);

· life processes (covering the sub-topics of life processes and systems, sensing and responding, biochemical processes in cells);

· life spirals, genetic continuity and diversity (covering the sub-topics of life cycles, reproduction, variation and inheritance, evolution, speciation and diversity, biochemistry of genetics);

· interactions (covering the sub-topics of biomes and ecosystems, habitats and niches, interdependence of life, animal behaviour);

· human biology (covering the sub-topics of nutrition, diseases and health and human biology). · other (used for questions on agriculture included in the ULEAC examination paper).

We also analysed the content of the physics examination papers using the augmented TIMSS framework (Britton & Raizen, 1996). We used the main TIMSS categories for physics:

· mechanics (physical properties, energy types, sources, conversions, types of forces, time, space and motion, dynamics of motion, fluid behaviour);

· electricity and electromagnetism (electricity, electromagnetism and magnetism); · waves, sound and light (wave phenomena, sound and vibration, light); · thermophysics (heat and temperature, physical changes, explanations of physical changes, kinetic

theory, energy and chemical change); · atomic and quantum physics (atoms, ions, molecules; macromolecules, crystals; subatomic

particles; quantum theory); · nuclear physics; relativity and astrophysics (a more sophisticated version of ‘cosmology’ used in

the augmented TIMSS framework); · other items that cannot be classified elsewhere.

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We also analysed the content of the chemistry questions using the augmented TIMSS framework (Britton & Raizen, 1996). It was possible to use the categories of:

· matter; · structure of matter; · physical transformations.

However, in order to reflect the diversity of the content coverage, we sub-divided the fourth augmented TIMSS category of chemical transformation into its constituent sub-categories: · chemical changes; · explanations of chemical changes; · rate of change, equilibria and energy, chemical change; · organic and biochemical changes; · nuclear chemistry· electrochemistry.

110

Bibliography of key curriculum documents

COUNTRY(lower/upper secondary)

SUBJECT DOCUMENT DETAILS

AUSTRIA

- Lower secondary All subject areas Sondernummer zum Verordnungsblatt fhr die Dienstbereiche der Bundesministerien fhr Unterricht und Kunst Wissenschaft und Forschung. Sthck 9b, Nr 126; Sthck 9a, Nr 99; Sthck 10b, Nr 96. Vienna. 1993 – 1995

- Upper secondary All subject areas Sondernummer zum Verordnungsblatt fhr die Dienstbereiche der Bundesministerien fhr Unterricht und Kunst Wissenschaft und Forschung. Sthck 3a, Nr 27. Vienna. 1989

Separate booklist for both levels:Schulbuchaktion 1996/97 Schulbuchliste fhr Allgemeinbildende H`here Schulen Unterstufe Oberstufe

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BELGIUM

- Lower secondary All subject areas Flemish CommunitySecondary Education in Flanders, Core Curriculum – Final objectives and developmental aims of the first cycle of regular secondary education, Text of the Government of Flanders Act and Starting Points, Ministry of the Flemish Community Education Department, Information and Documentation Division, Brussels. 1997

Language ofInstruction

Flemish communityCommunity networkLower secondary and upper secondary - one document for both:Rijkssedundair Onderwijs Leerplan - Eerste Graad, Tweede Graad – Derde Graad, Doorstroming vak Nederlands, Gemeenschappleijke Vorming Ministerie, van Onderwijs, Bestuur Secundair Onderwijs 1984

French communityCommunity networkLangue Maternelle, 1er DegrJ, CommunautJ FranHaise MinistPre de l’Education, de la Recherche et de la Formation. 1990Langue Maternelle, DeuxiPme DegrJ, CommunautJ FranHaise MinstPre de l’Education et de la Recherche Scientifique. 1991

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- Lower secondary Mathematics Flemish communityCatholic networkLeerplan Secundair Onderwijs. Wiskunde Tweede Graad. National Verbond van het Katholiek Secundair Onderwijs. Brussels. 1990Community networkGemeenschapsonderwijs. Tweede graad, 4de leerjaar. Leerplan vak Wiskunde. 1992

French communityCatholic networkProgramme provisoire de mathematiques. Enseignement Secondaire. DeuxiPme degrJ de transition, troisiPme annJe, articule au programme du premier degrJ. FJdJration de l'Enseignement Secondaire Catholique, Bruxelles. 1996Community networkProgramme du cours de mathematiques. DeuxiPme degrJ de transition (TroisiPme annee) 7/5086. Bruxelles. 1982Programme de mathematiques. DeuxiPme degrJ de transition. (TroisiPme annJe.) (Addition to programme 7/5086). Bruxelles 1993Programme de mathematiques. DeuxiPme degrJ de transition (QuatriPme annJe) Bruxelles. 1992Programme transitoire de mathematiques. DeuxiPme degrJ (QuatriPme annJe) Bruxelles. 1994Programme de mathematiques. Premier degrJ de l'enseignement secondaire. Bruxelles. 1995

Modern foreignLanguages

Flemish CommunityCatholic networkLeerplan Secondair Onderwijs, Engels, Tweede Graad Aso Vlaams Verbond van het Katholiek, Secundair Onderwijs. 1991Community networkRijkssecundair Onderwijs, Leerplan, Tweede Graad, Doorstroming 3de-4de Leerjar vak Engels, tweede en derde taal, Gemeenschappelijke Vorming Ministerie Van Onderwijs Bestuur Secundair Onderwijs.1986

French community Catholic NetworkProgrammes Enseignement Secondaire de Type 1, Langues Modernes, Lange 1/4p. sem, DeuxiPme DegrJ de Transition, (TroisiPme et QuatriPme annJes)FJdJration de l’Enseignement Secondaire Catholique. 1995Community networkEnseignement Secondaire, Premier DegrJ, Programme Experimental, Langues Germaniques MinistPre de l’Education, de la Recherche et de la Formation. 1994Langues Germaniques, Programme Enseignement Secondaire, DeuxiPme DegrJ MinistPre de l’Education Nationale Organisation des Etudes, Structures, Programmes, Methodes et Documentation PJdagogique. 1985

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- Lower secondary Sciences Flemish CommunityCommunity networkGemeenschapsonderwijs. Tweede graad. Leerplan Chemie. 94006.Gemeenschapsonderwijs. Tweede graad. Leerplan Fysica. 94016Gemeenschapsonderwijs. Tweede graad. Leerplan Biologie. (no number)

French CommunityCatholic networkProgrammes Enseignement Secondaire de Type 1 Sciences, DeuxiPme DegrJ de transition. Perspective pour un nouvel enseignement des sciences. FJdJration de l'Enseignement Secondaire Catholique, Bruxelles. 1994Community networkProgramme de Chemie et de pratique de Laboratoire. Enseignement secondaire gJnJral et technique de transition, DeuxiPme degrJ. Bruxelles. 1994Physique. DeuxiPme degrJ de transition. Programmes de l'enseignement secondaire. Bruxelles. 1985Programme de Physique. DeuxiPme degrJ de l'enseignement secondaire de transition ( QuatriPme annJe). Bruxelles 1996Programme du Cours de Biologie, DeuxiPme et TroisiPme DegrJ. Bruxelles. 1980

- Upper secondary Language ofInstruction

Flemish communityCatholic networkLeerplan Secundair Onderwijs, Nederlands, Derde Graad Aso-Kso-TsoNationaal Verbond van het Katholiei Secundair Onderwijs1992Community network - As for lower secondary

French communityCatholic network FranHais, Enseignement Secondaire de Type 1, TroisiPme DegrJSecretariat National de L’Enseignement Catholique - Bureau PJdagogique, FJdJration Nationale de l’Enseignement Moyen Catholique, FJdJration Nationale de l’Enseignement Technique Catholique, FJdJration Nationale de L’Enseignement Superieur PJdagogique Catholique. 1980Community networkFranHais - Enseignement Secondaire, 3iPme DegrJ technique de transition MinistPre de l’Education, de la Recherche et de la Formation1993

Mathematics Flemish communityCatholic networkLeerplan Secundair Onderwijs. Wiskunde Derde Graad. National Verbond van het Katholiek Secundair Onderwijs. Brussels 1992Community networkGemeenschapsonderwijs. Derde graad, Basisvorming, Alles opties. Leerplan vak Wiskunde. 94035

French communityCatholic networkMathematique. Enseignement secondaire renove, troisiPme degrJ transition (CinquiPme et SixiPme annJe). Bruxelles. 1985Community networkProgramme de mathematiques. Enseignement secondaire, troisiPme degrJ de transition (CinquiPme annJe). Bruxelles. 1993

113

Programme provisoire de mathematique. Enseignement secondaire de transition, troisiPme degrJ (SixiPme annJe). Bruxelles. 1994

Modern foreignlanguages

French communityCommunity networkEnseignement Secondaire, Enseignement de transition, TroisiPme DegrJ, Langues Germaniques Ministere de l’Education, de la Recherche et de la Formation. 1993

-Upper secondary Sciences Flemish CommunityCatholic networkLeerplan Secundair Onderwijs. Derde Graad Chemie. National Verbond van het Katholiek Secundair Onderwijs. Brussels. 1992Leerplan Secundair Onderwijs. Derde Graad Fysica. National Verbond van het Katholiek Secundair Onderwijs. Brussels. 1992Leerplan Secundair Onderwijs. Derde Graad Biologie. National Verbond van het Katholiek Secundair Onderwijs. Brussels. 1992Community networkGemeenschapsonderwijs. Derde graad. Leerplan Chemie. 94003.Gemeenschapsonderwijs. Derde graad. Leerplan Fysica. 94020Gemeenschapsonderwijs. Derde graad. Leerplan Biologie. 94002

French CommunityCommunity networkProgrammes de Chemie (niveaux A et B) et de Practique de Laboratoire. TroisiPme degrJ de l'enseignement de transition. Bruxelles. 1995Programme de Chemie. TroisiPme degrJ de transition (sixiPme annJe) 1983Programme provisoire de Physique. Enseignement secondaire renove - troisiPme degrJ. Bruxelles. 1973Programme provisoire de Physique. Enseignement secondaire renove. TroisiPme degrJ ( SixiPme annJe. Bruxelles. 1975Programme du Cours de Biologie, DeuxiPme et TroisiPme DegrJ. Bruxelles. 1980

Background documentsSecondary Education in the Flemish community of Belgium. Peter Michielsens. Council of Europe Press. 1995.

DENMARK(1)- Compulsory secondary

Language ofinstruction

Curriculum Guidelines, Danish, Ministry of Education, Undervisningsminnisteriet, Frederiksholms Kanal 21-25 DK Krbenhavn K3392. 1996http://www.uvm/dk

Mathematics Mathematics. Ministry of Education (undated)


English. Ministry of Education (undated)

Sciences Separate curriculum documents issued by Ministry of Education – Biology and Physics-Chemistry (undated)

114

- Upper secondary


All documentation drawn from the following website: http://www.sektornet.dk/gym

Danish – Bilag 3 Gymnasium. Ministry of Education. 1993

Mathematics Matematik, Matematisk Linje, A-Niveau, Gymnasiebekendtgrrelsen, Bilag 22 Matematik. 1997. Matematik, Matematisk Linje, Obligatorisk niveau, Gymnasiebekendtgrrelsen Bilag 22. 1993


Engelsk – Sproglig Linje, Obligatorisk niveau. 1993. Sproglig linje, Hojt niveau.1993

Sciences Separate documents issued by Ministry of Education:Fysike, Matematisk Linje, Obligatorisk Niveau and Hrjt Niveau, undatedKemi Bilag 20, Matematisk Linje, Obligatorisk Niveau and Hrjt Niveau. 1993Biologi, Bilag 2, Obligatorisk Niveau and Hrjt Niveau. 1993

FINLAND- Compulsory secondary All subject areas Framework Curriculum for the Comprehensive School. National

Board of Education. 1994

- Upper secondary All subject areas Framework Curriculum for the Senior Secondary School. National Board of Education. 1994

FRANCE- Lower secondary(2) Language of

instructionFranHais, Langues Anciennes. 1996

Mathematics Mathematiques. 1995


Anglais. 1995

Sciences Sciences et Techniques Biologiques et Geologiques. 1994Physique, Chimie. Classes des CollPges 4,3. 1994

- Upper secondary(3) Language ofinstruction

FranHais.1995

Mathematics Mathematiques sJries ES, L, S. 1995


Anglais. 1995

115

Sciences Sciences de la Vie et de la Terre. 1995Physique, Chimie sJrie S. 1996

Background DocumentsDipl^me National du Brevet. Centre National de Documentation PJdagogique 1996BaccalaurJat GJnJral. Centre National de Documentation PJdagogique. 1996BaccalaurJat GJnJral SJrie Scientifique (S). Centre National de Documentation PJdagogique. 1996BaccalaurJat GJnJral SJrie Litteraire (L). Centre National de Documentation PJdagogique. 1996Guide to Secondary Education in France. Marc Rancurel. Council of Europe Press. 1995Le Bac 1995, les nouvelles Jpreuves. MinistPre de l'Education Nationale. 1995.

GERMANY, (BAVARIA)- Lower and Upper secondary(4)

All subjectareas:

Amtsblatt der Bayerischen Staatsministerien fhr Unterricht und Kultus und Wissenschaft und Kunst, Teil 1, Sondernummer 3, Ausgegeben in Mhnchen am 5 September 1990, Jahrgang 1990. Lehrplan fhr das bayersiche Gymnasium. 1990


Amtsblatt, Sondernummer 7, Lehrplan fhr das bayerische Gymnasium, Fachlehrplan fhr Deutsch, Jahrgang 1992

Mathematics Amtsblatt, Sondernummer 8, Lehrplan fhr das bayerische Gymnasium, Fachlehrplan fhr Mathematik, Jahrgang 1991


Amtsblatt, Sondernummer 2, Lehrplan fhr das bayerische Gymnasium, Fachlehrplan fhr Englisch, Jahrgang 1992

Sciences Biology Amtsblatt Sondernummer 7, Lehrplan fhr das bayerische Gymnasium, Jahrgang 1991 ChemistryAmtsblatt Sondernummer 6, Lehrplan fhr das bayerische Gymnasium, Fachlehrplan fhr Chemie, Jahrgang 1991PhysicsAmtsblatt Sondernummer 9, Lehrplan fhr das bayerische Gymnasium, Fachlehrplan fhr Physik, Jahrgang 1991

Background documents:Education in Bavaria, Bavarian State Ministry of Education, Cultural Affairs, Science and the Arts, Munich. 1993Gesamtkonzept. Moderne fremdsprachen in der Schule. Bayerisches Staatsministerium fur Unterricht, Kultus, Wissenshchaft und Kust. 1996Bildung und Kulturpflege in Bayern 1996. Schriflen des Bayerischen Staatsministerium fur Unterricht, Kulture, Wissenschaft und Kunst. 1996

116

GERMANY, (NORTH RHINE WESTPHALIA)

Language of instruction

Richtlinien und Lehrplane, Deutsch, Gymnasium Sekundarstufe 1, (3409). 1996

- Lower secondary(5) Mathematics Richtlinien und Lehrplane, Mathematik, Gymnasium Sekundarstufe 1, (3401). 1993


Richtlinien und Lehrplane, Englisch, Gymnasium Sekundarstufe 1, (3417). 1993

Sciences Richtlinien und Lehrplane, Biologie, Gymnasium Sekundarstufe 1, (3413). 1993Richtlinien und Lehrplane, Chemie, Gymnasium Sekundarstufe 1 (3415). 1993Richtlinien und Lehrplane, Physik, Gymnasium Sekundarstufe 1 (3411). 1993

- Upper secondary Language ofinstruction

Richtlinien, Deutsch, Gymnasium Oberstufe (4701). 1981

Mathematics Richtlinien, Mathematik, Gymnasium Oberstufe (4720). 1981


Richtlinien, Englisch, Gymnasium Oberstufe (4704). 1981

Sciences Richtlinien Biologie, Gymnasium Oberstufe (4722). 1981Richtlinien Chemie, Gymnasium Oberstufe (4723). 1981Richtlinien Physik, Gymnasium Oberstufe (4721). 1981

Background documents: Die Sekunderstufe II. Kultusministerium des Landes Nordrhein-Westfalen, 1995 Die Schulformen in der Sekundarstufen 1. Hauptschule, Realschule, Gymnasium, Gesamtschule. Ministerium fur Schule und Weiterbildung des Landes Nordrhein-Westfalen, 1996Die Gymnasiale Oberstufe: der Gesamtschule, des Gymnasium, der hohren Berufsfachschule. Ministerium fur Schule und Weiterbildung des Landes Nordrhein-Westfalen, 1996Secondary Education in Germany. Gerdi Jonen. Council of Europe Press. 1995.

ICELAND- Compulsory secondary All subject areas Adaln<mskr< Grunnsk\la, Menntam<lar<xuneytix. 1989

- Upper secondary All subject areas N<mskr< Handa Framhaldssk\lum, N<msbrautir og <fangalvsingar 3. dtg<fa. Menntam<lar<xuneytix sk\lam<laskrifstofa. 1990

117

IRELAND- Lower secondary Language of

instruction

Mathematics, Modern foreignlanguages

An Roinn Oideachais – The Junior Certificate, English Syllabus (undated)

The curriculum for Mathematics and French are described in:An Roinn Oideachais, Rules and Programme for Secondary Schools 1987/88 to 1996/97, Government of Ireland. 1996

Sciences An Roinn Oideachais – The Junior Certificate, Science Syllabus (undated)

- Upper secondary Language ofinstruction andScience

The curriculum for English, Physics, Chemistry, Biology and Physics and Chemistry are described in:An Roinn Oideachais, Rules and Programme for Secondary Schools 1987/88 to 1996/97, Government of Ireland. 1996

Mathematics An Roinn Oideachais – the Leaving Certificate, Mathematics Syllabus (undated)


An Roinn Oideachais – The Leaving Certificate, French Syllabus. 1995

Background documentsSecondary education in Ireland. John Coolahan. Council of Europe Press. 1995An Roinn Oideachais (Department of Education), Statistical Report, 1994/95, Government of Ireland.1996

ITALY- Lower secondary All subject areas Scuola Media Statale. Programmi e Orari di Insegnamento Criteri

Orientativi per le Prove D'Esami di Licenza e Relative ModalitB di Svolgimento. Istituto Poligrafico e Zecca dello Stato. 1981

- Upper secondary

LIECHTENSTEIN- Lower and Upper secondary

LUXEMBOURG- Lower and Upper secondary

All subject areas

All subject areas

All subject areas

Piani di Studio della Scuola Secondaria Superiore e Programmi dei Primi Due Anni. Le proposte della Commissione Brocca. Le Monnier 1991Piani di Studio della Scuola Secondaria Superiore e Programmi dei

Trienni. Le proposte della Commissione Brocca. Tomo 1 and 2. Le Monnier 1992

Liechtensteinsches Gymnasium, Lehrziel, Stoffplan (undated)

Additional material : Eurydice Eurybase. 1996Reform der Gymnasialen Oberstufe. Projekt- und Spurgruppe. Zwischenberichte HEFT4. Liechtensteinisches Gymnasium. 1998

Enseignement Secondaire. Horaires et Programmes. 1995 - 1996. Grand-DuchJ de Luxembourg, MinistPre de l'Education Nationale et de la Formation Professionnelle. 1995Examen de fin d'Etudes Secondaires. MinistPre de l'Education Nationale et de la Formation Professionnelle. 1997

Background documentsExtraits du Courrier de L’Education Nationale. Questions d’examen 1995. Enseignement secondaire. MinistPre de l’Education Nationale et de la Formation Professionnelle. 1995

118

NETHERLANDS- Lower secondary All subject areas Basic Education in the Netherlands – the attainment targets, Ministry

of Education and Science. 1994

- Upper secondary All subject areas Exameneisen VWO, HAVO, MAVO en VBO 1996 – Examenprogramma’s stofomschrijvengen en andere informatie, Drs. R. J. de Kievit, Drs. H. P. J. Kreeft, Drs. M. Melissen. Samson H. D. Tjeenk Willink, Alphen aan den Rijn. 1995

New examination programmes (VWO and HAVO) can be obtained from:Http://www.dds.nl/pdc/9221202/t/exprog.htm (word document)

Background documentsSecondary education in the Netherlands. Dr Kees Broekhof & Monique Goemans. Council of Europe Press. 1995

NORWAY

-Primary & compulsory secondary

Laereplanverket for den 10-Drige Grunnskolen, Det kongelige kirke-, utdanings- og forskningsdepartement. 1996

- Compulsory secondary All subject areas Curriculum details in all subject areas obtained from: Http://skolenettet.nls.no/dok/sn/planer/laereplaner.grunnskole.html

- Upper secondary Language ofinstruction

Laereplan for videregDende opplFring, Norsk, felles allment fag for alle studieretninger, Kyrkje-,utdannings-og forskingsdepartementet. 1993

Mathematics Laereplan for videregDende opplFring, Matematikk. Felles allment fag for alle studieretninger. Kirke-,utdannings-og forskningsdepartementet. Oslo. 1993Laereplan for videregDende opplFring Matematikk. Studieretningsfag i studieretning for allmenne og okonomiske/administrative fag, Kirke-, utdannings,-og forskningsdepartementet. Oslo. 1994Http://balder.nls.no/lp/matte2.html


English, Advanced Course VKI and VKIICurriculum details obtained from Http://balder.nls.no/lp/engelsk.html

119

Sciences Laereplan for videregDende opplFring, Naturfag. Felles allment fag for alle studieretninger. Kirke-,utdannings- og forskningsdepartementet, Oslo. 1993Laereplan for videregDende opplFring Biologi. Studieretningsfag i studieretning for allmenne, okonomiske og administrative fag, Kirke, utdannings-, og forskningsdeparteementet. Oslo. 1996Http://balder.nls.no/lp/biologi.html

Laereplan for videregDende opplFring, Fysikk. Studieretningsfag i studieretning for allmenne, okonomiske og administratrive fag. Kirke, utdannings-, og forskningsdeparteementet. Oslo.1996 http://balder.nls.no/lp/fysikk.htmlLaereplan for videregDende opplFring. Kjemi. Studieretningsfag i studieretning for allmenne, okonomiske og administratrive fag, Kirke, utdannings-, og forskningsdeparteementet. Oslo. 1996Http://balder.nls.no/lp/kjemi2.html

PORTUGAL All subject areas OrganizaHao Curricular e Programas, Vol I, Ensino B<sico 3. CicloMinistJrio de EducaHno. 1991

- Lower secondary(6) Language ofinstruction

Lingua Portuguesa. 1996

Mathematics Programa Matem<tica Programa de Plano de OrganizaHno doEnsino-Aprendizagem Volume II. 1994

Sciences Programa de CiLncias FRsico-QuRmicas Programa e OrganizaHno Curricular. 1995


PortuguLs. 1996

Mathematics Programas de Matem<tica Metodos Quantitativos. 1994


InglLs, NRvel Inicial Programa. 1995InglLs, NRvel ContinuaHno da Lingua Estrangeira 1, Programa. 1995InglLs, NRvel ContinuaHno da Lingua Estrangeira 2, Programa.1995

Sciences CiLncias da Terra e da Vida, Biologia, Geologia, OrganizaHno Curricular e Programa. 1995CiLncias FRsico-QuRmicas, 10 Ano Programa.1995CiLncias FRsico-QuRmicas, 11 Ano Programa. 1995FRsica, 12 Ano Programa. 1995Programa QuRmica, 12 Ano. 1995

SPAIN- Lower secondary All subject areas Educaci\ SecundBria Obligatbria, Ordenacio curricular, Generalitat

de Catalunya, Departament d’Ensenyament. 1992

- Upper secondary All subject areas Real Decreto 2 Octubre NUM 1178/1992. Ministerio Educacion y Ciencia. Bachillerato.1992

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SWEDEN- Compulsory secondary All subject areas Kursplaner f`r Grundskolan, Utbildningsdepartementet. 1996

Syllabuses for the Compulsory School, Swedish Ministry of Education and Science. Stockholm. 1995Information on the 1994 Curriculum for the Compulsory School System, LPO94, Swedish Ministry of Education and Science. Stockholm. 1996

- Upper secondary All subject areas Study Programme Information for Upper Secondary Schools and Upper Secondary Adult Education Programme, Programme objectives, core subject syllabuses and programme outlines, Skolverket. Stockholm. 1995Kursplaner; Karnamnen, Skolverket.Http://www.skilverket.se/kursplan/gyskola/allkarn.html

Language ofinstruction andmodern foreign languages

Study Programme Information for Upper Secondary Schools and Upper Secondary Adult Education Programme. The Social Sciences Programme. Skolverket. Stockholm. 1995

Sciences andMathematics

Study Programme Information for Upper Secondary Schools and Upper Secondary Adult Education Programme, Natural Sciences Programme. Skolverket. Stockholm. 1995

UK – E W & NI- Compulsory secondary(8) All subject areas

Language ofInstruction

The National Curriculum. Her Majesty’s Stationery Office. London 1995

GCSE English (1202) English (17) (5202) English Literature (1212) Syllabuses May/June 1996 and May/June 1997. University of London Examinations and Assessment Council. 1996

Mathematics GCSE Mathematics A, B, C1 and C2. University of London Examinations and Assessment Council. 1994


GCSE Modern Languages (1225,1230,1236, 1240, 1245) Syllabuses May/June 1996 and May/June 1997. University of London Examinations and Assessment Council. 1994

Sciences Science: Double Award (Combined). University of London Examinations and Assessment Council.


GCE English Language (9174) English Literature (9171)English Literature (8171), English (8177). University of London Examinations and Assessment Council. 1994

Mathematics Advanced Supplementary and Advanced Level Modular Mathematics.University of London Examinations and Assessment Council. 1996


GCE Modern languages (8192, 8232, 8332, 8592, 9190, 9191, 9230, 9330, 9570, 9590) Advanced Supplementary and Advance Level Syllabuses May/June. University of London Examinations and Assessment Council.1994

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Sciences GCE Physics (9541) Advanced Level. University of London Examinations and Assessment Council. 1995GCE Chemistry Advanced Level (9081). University of London Examinations and Assessment Council. 1994GCE Biology (9041) Advanced Level. University of London Examinations and Assessment Council. 1996

UK – SCOTLAND- Compulsory and Upper secondary

All subject areas Conditions and Arrangements for Scottish Certificate of Education and Certificate of Sixth Year Studies Examinations, Scottish Qualifications Authority. 1996

- Compulsory secondary(10)


English. 1987

Mathematics Mathematics. 1987


Modern Languages. 1993

Sciences Chemistry. 1992Biology. 1992Physics. 1992


English. 1991

Mathematics Mathematics. 1986


Modern Languages. 1987

Sciences Chemistry. 1990Biology. 1990Physics. 1990

Notes1 All documentation obtained from the website of the Danish Ministry of Education, unless otherwise specified.2 The following documents are issued separately for each subject, for Lower secondary, in the series “Classes des Coll Pges

6e, 5e, 4e, 3e, Horaires/ Objectifs/ Programmes/ Instructions”. Centre National de Documentation PJdagogique.3 The following documents issued separately for each subject at Upper secondary,in the series “Classes de seconde,

premiPre et terminale, Horaires/ Objectifs/ Programmes/ Instructions,” Centre National de Documentation PJdagogique.

4 Lower and upper secondary – one document for each subject area covers both stages.5 Separate curriculum documents for lower and upper stages. All documents issued by the Ministry (Schriftenreihe des

Ministeriums fhr Schule und Weiterbildung /Schriftenreihe des Kultusministeriums).6 The following subjects issued separately at Lower secondary in the series “Plano de OrganizaHno da Ensino

Aprendizagem, Ensino Basico 3 Ciclo, Programa” MinistJrio de EducaHno.7 The following subject areas issued separately at Upper Secondary in the series “OrganizaHno Curricular e Programas,

Ensino Secondario” Ministerio de EducaHno.8 The following subjects issued separately at Lower Secondary in the series “University of London Examinations and

Assessment Council GCSE Syllabuses”.9 The following subjects issued separately at Upper secondary in the series “University of London Examinations and

Assessment Council GCE Syllabuses”.10 The following subjects issued separately at Lower secondary in the series “Scottish Certificate of Education, Standard

Grade - Revised Arrangements at Foundation, General and Credit Levels”, Scottish Qualifications Authority.11 The following documents issued separately at Upper secondary in the series “Scottish Certificate of Education, Higher

Grade and Certificate of Sixth Year Studies”, Scottish Qualifications Authority.

Other selected background documents

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Eurostat (1997) Education across the European Union Statistics and Indicators 1996, Luxembourg: Office des publications officielles des CommunautJs europJennes.

Eurybase Website Address: http://www.eurydice.org/Eurybase/files/dossier.htm.


MinistPre de l’Iducation Nationale (1997) The Effectiveness of the Teaching of English in the European Union. Report of the Colloquium (20-21 October 1997, Paris).

OECD (1997) Education at a Glance, Paris: OECD.

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Endnotes1 Austria, Belgium, Denmark, Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Ireland, Italy, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, Portugal, Spain, Sweden and the UK.2 Given the number of countries/regions included in the study and the duration of the study, it was agreed with DGXXII of the European Commission that the focus should be on general not vocational secondary education. Furthermore, in certain countries, whilst all pupils receive a general education in lower education, the focus was on the curriculum in academic or pre-university schools (Austria, Belgium, Germany, Liechtenstein, Luxembourg, the Netherlands). In upper secondary general education, the focus was on those tracks/courses that provide the highest or most specialist level for particular subject areas.3 School types offering more than one educational path are the Gesamtschule, the Schulzentrum, the Mittelschule, the Regelschule, the Sekundarschule, the Verbundende Haupt-und Realschule, the Integrierte Haupt-und Realschule and the Regionale Schule.4 The government expects religious education to be available.5 The 15 countries of the EU plus Iceland, Liechtenstein and Norway in the framework of the European Economic Area agreement. Because of the differing responsibilities for education, 21 countries/regions are represented in this study: Austria (AT), Belgium, Flemish Community (BE(FL)), Belgium, French Community (BE(FR)), Germany (Bavaria) (DE(BA)), Germany (North Rhine Westphalia) (DE(NRW)), Denmark (DK), Spain, (ES), Finland (FI), France (FR), Greece (GR), Ireland (IE), Iceland (IS), Italy (IT), Liechtenstein (LI), Luxembourg (LU), the Netherlands (NL), Norway (NO), Portugal (PT), Sweden (SE), UK, England, Wales & Northern Ireland (EWNI), UK, Scotland (S).6 Such as the Third International Mathematics and Science Study (TIMSS).7 It is, of course, also necessary to establish the extent to which the intended curriculum matches the implemented curriculum, but this was beyond the scope of the present study.8 For this study we focused on two geographically and politically distinct Länder, Bavaria and North Rhine Westphalia.9 These are compulsory in the Flemish Community but optional in the French Community.10 The syllabuses from the five examining groups are all based on the requirements of the national curriculum. Our study focused on those from the University of London Examinations and Assessment Council (ULEAC) now known as Edexcel. Schools are free to select syllabuses from the examining group of their choice.11 Major curricular reforms are currently underway in Liechtenstein, which will result in a more detailed, prescribed curriculum. 12 In Scotland, there are no compulsory subjects, apart from religious and moral education. However, English, mathematics, science and one modern foreign language are ‘considered essential’. In this chapter, this will be assumed to be synonymous with ‘compulsory’.13 The end of lower secondary general/academic education in: Austria, Belgium, Germany, Spain, France, Greece, Ireland, Italy, Liechtenstein, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, Portugal; the end of compulsory education in: Denmark, Finland, Iceland, Norway, Sweden and the UK. 14 This is the language of instruction in lower secondary general education.15 Six countries/eight regions.16 Six countries/eight regions.17 The domains were modified versions of the classification system used for TIMSS (Robitaille et al., 1993, see Appendix 2).18 No information was available for biology in Greece. 19 Geology may be studied with geography and is thus not a focus here.20 The domains were modified versions of the classification system used for TIMSS (Robitaille et al., 1993, see Appendix 2).21 See Appendix 2 for details.22 In Scotland, there are no compulsory subjects, apart from religious and moral education. However, English, mathematics, science and one modern foreign language are ‘considered essential’. In this chapter, this will be assumed to be synonymous with ‘compulsory’.23 The total number of countries is 18 (15 countries of the EU plus Iceland, Liechtenstein and Norway in the framework of the European Economic Area agreement). Because of the differing responsibilities for education, 23 countries/regions are represented in this study: Austria (AT), Belgium, Flemish Community (BE(FL)), Belgium, French Community (BE(FR)), Germany (Bavaria) (DE(BA)), Germany (North Rhine Westphalia) (DE(NRW)), Denmark (DK), Spain, (ES), Finland (FI), France (FR), Greece (GR), Ireland (IE), Iceland (IS), Italy (IT), Liechtenstein (LI), Luxembourg (LU), the Netherlands (NL), Norway (NO), Portugal (PT), Sweden

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(SE), UK, England, Wales and Northern Ireland (EWNI), UK, Scotland (S).24 In a number of countries, tests, usually with samples of pupils, are administered to evaluate the education system; these are not the focus of this study.25 In the Netherlands, there are ‘high stakes’ examinations (having a labour market value) at the end of non-academic (VBO and MAVO) secondary education; these are in Dutch, one foreign language and at least four other subjects. The mathematics examination comprises one paper, lasts 2 hours and contains about 30 questions, all of which, in principle, are ‘real world’. The content covers: measurement, geometry, proportionality, functions etc., and data representation etc. For the language of instruction there are two papers, lasting 4 hours in total and requiring: essay, short paragraph, sentence and multiple choice answers (Melissen, 1998).26 Formerly the Scottish Examinations Board.27 We examined the content of the mathematics examinations using the TIMSS categories (Robitaille et al., 1993). They utilise major content categories: numbers; measurement; geometry: position, visualisation and shape; geometry: symmetry, congruence and similarity; proportionality; functions, relations and equations; data representation, probability and statistics; elementary analysis; validation and structure; and other content. For the purposes of this study we modified the framework by collapsing the two TIMSS geometry categories (resulting in one geometry category) and we did not use the ‘other’ content category as it did not appear in the examination questions that we analysed.28 The 15 countries of the EU plus Iceland, Liechtenstein and Norway in the framework of the European Economic Area agreement. Because of the differing responsibilities for education, 21 countries/regions are represented in this study: Austria (AT), Belgium, Flemish Community (BE(FL)), Belgium, French Community (BE(FR)), Germany (Bavaria) (DE(BA)), Germany (North Rhine Westphalia) (DE(NRW)), Denmark (DK), Spain, (ES), Finland (FI), France (FR), Greece (GR), Ireland (IE), Iceland (IS), Italy (IT), Liechtenstein (LI), Luxembourg (LU), the Netherlands (NL), Norway (NO), Portugal (PT), Sweden (SE), UK, England, Wales and Northern Ireland (EWNI), UK, Scotland (S).29 It is, of course, also necessary to establish the extent to which the intended curriculum matches the implemented curriculum, but this was beyond the scope of the present study.30 Our analysis did not extend to schools providing vocational, technical or other specialist education. 31 Our focus in this study was on syllabuses from the University of London Examinations and Assessment Council (ULEAC) now known as Edexcel. Schools are free to select syllabuses from the examination board of their choice. 32 Major curricular reforms are underway in Liechtenstein which will result in a more detailed, prescribed curriculum.33 It is important to note that in different countries different conventions are used, so that in some each science subject may be listed and in others the term ‘science’ may be used. The same is true for social sciences and languages.34 Additionally, there is a statutory requirement to teach religious education.35 Although the government expects religious education to be available to pupils in schools.36 This is the language of instruction in upper secondary general education.37 In the Netherlands, literature is cross-curricular (e.g. it is also covered in relation to modern foreign languages). It is considered to be one-sixth of the curriculum.38 No information was available for BE(FL). It should be noted that in Liechtenstein, the information relates to general courses, not a specialist course.39 Scotland and Greece do not specify the types of text.40 In Denmark reference is made to the use of English in a correct and concise manner.41 In Norway, one of the objectives of English courses at this level is that pupils should use written and spoken forms of expression, demonstrating precision, coherence and nuances of language.42 In this section, it should be noted that in Liechtenstein the information relates to general courses not a specialist course.43 In this section, it should be noted that in Liechtenstein the information relates to general courses not a specialist course. 44 This includes a wide range of topics amongst them: alpha and beta particles, gamma rays and neutrons, kinetics of nuclear decay, fission, fusion, biological effects of radiation, subatomic particles, nuclear atom, photoelectric effect, matter waves, line spectra.45 Both are obligatory from 1998/99.46 In Scotland there is a separate course ‘human biology’. In England, Wales & Northern Ireland there is also a separate course in ‘human biology’ but with some modules in common with the biology course.47 Not vocational education or training.48 It should be noted that reforms of the examination systems are under way in a number of countries (e.g.

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Iceland, Italy, Liechtenstein and the Netherlands). We report on the situation during the period of the study, namely, 1996 to the summer of 1998. 49 In Iceland, there are no nationally co-ordinated examinations leading to matriculation. Legislation passed in May 1996 has proposed that nationally co-ordinated examinations in selected subjects should be introduced in 2000/1 at the end of every branch of study at upper secondary level. It is not clear how many subjects will be examined, but this will be stipulated at a later date (Icelandic Ministry of Education, 1998).50 If there are still one or two 5s (‘insufficient’) after the oral, pupils have to attempt it again after 4 months of individual preparation. There is a third chance after a second failure or a second chance following more than two 5s, 8 months later. There is a maximum of three attempts to pass the Matura or pupils repeat the final year voluntarily (Kern, 1998).51 In the UK(EWNI) the focus in this study is on examinations set by the University of London Examinations and Assessment Council (ULEAC, now Edexcel). All examination boards abide by a voluntary code of practice designed to ensure consistency, accuracy and fairness in the operation of all GCE examinations. Schools are free to select the examination board of their choice.52 Data are not available for all countries.53 The curriculum and examination system is in the process of being reformed.54 In the new system introduced in 1998/99 the school examination becomes the ‘examendossier’ or portfolio with the result determined 40% by written school tests and 60% by practical work.55 This is the most widely taught foreign language in the EU.56 This is the second most widely taught foreign language in the EU. 57 The resources available and limited timescale meant that analysis of examination papers for more than one year was not feasible.58 There is only one such school in Liechtenstein.59 In Norway this domain is addressed in another Norwegian examination paper that focuses on literature.60 In the Netherlands, the marking for literature is separate from that of Dutch language. The mark for literature in the language of instruction is combined with the mark for the study of literature in modern foreign language.61 No information was available for Norway.62 Candidates choose one of four papers: either a themed essay, or a reading comprehension and composition (current affairs) or a reading comprehension along with a composition (literary text) or a reading comprehension with a composition (socio-economic text).63 In the Netherlands students obtain a combined mark for the study of literature in modern foreign languages and the study of Dutch literature.64 In some countries these topics are covered in examinations in other years and/or schools than those that were the specific focus in this study.65 In Liechtenstein it is important to note that there is currently no specialised Matura in the sciences (this will change from 1999; there is an oral examination only (pupils have a choice between biology/chemistry/physics).66 Relating to one school. 67 In Liechtenstein it is important to note that there is currently no specialised Matura in the sciences. There is an oral examination only (pupils have a choice between chemistry/physics/biology). 68 In Liechtenstein it is important to note that there is currently no specialised Matura in the sciences. There is an oral examination only (pupils have a choice between chemistry/physics/biology).69 In Austria there is an oral but no written examination in this subject.

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Acknowledgements

We would like to thank all those who have been involved in this research, including DGXXII and the Socrates Committee for supporting the study. The following have also provided invaluable assistance:

AustriaMr Augustin Kern (Federal Ministry of Education and Cultural Affairs, Austria)Professor Karl Heinz Gruber (University of Vienna)Mr Johann Wimmer (Federal Ministry of Education and Cultural Affairs, Austria)Ms Hermine Dobrozemsky (Federal Ministry of Education and Cultural Affairs, Austria)Mr Friedrich Plank (Federal Ministry of Education and Cultural Affairs, Austria)

BelgiumMr Roger Standaert (Flemish Community Department of Education)Mr Marc Demeuse (Université de LiPge, Belgium)Ms Aletta Grisay (and colleagues) (Université de LiPge, Belgium)

DenmarkMr Vagn Lauersen (Danish Ministry of Education)Mr Henrik Aaes (Danish Ministry of Education)

Finland Ms Kaija Salmio (National Board of Education, Finland) Mr Aslak Lindstr`m (National Board of Education, Finland) Mr Anneli Roman (National Board of Education, Finland)

FranceMs Catherine Clement (French Ministry of Education)Mr J M Goursolas (French Ministry of Education)Mr Gerard Bonnet (French Ministry of Education)

GermanyMs Helga Hinke (Ministry of Education, Bavaria, Germany)Mr Halbhuber (Ministry of Education, Bavaria, GermanyMs Hildegard Jacob (Ministry of Education, North Rhine Westphalia, Germany)

Greece Ms Vassiliki Ketsidou (Greek Ministry of Education)

IcelandMr Stef<n Baldursson (Icelandic Ministry of Education)

IrelandMr Tim Glavin (Department of Education and Science, Ireland)Ms Anne Looney (National Council for Curriculum and Assessment, Dublin)Mr Tom Kellaghan (Educational Research Centre, St Patrick’s College)

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ItalyMs Chiara Croce (Italian Ministry of Education)

LiechtensteinMr Helmut Konrad (Liechtenstein Gymnasium)

LuxembourgMr Germain Dondelinger (Ministry of Education, Luxembourg)Mr Dominique Portante (Ministry of Education, Luxembourg)

The NetherlandsMr Melis Melissen (Ministry of Education, the Netherlands)

NorwayMs Marit Granheim (Norwegian Ministry of Education)

PortugalMs Gertrudes Amaro (Ministry of Education, Portugal)

SpainMs Pepita Corominas (Ministry of Education, Catalonia, Spain)

SwedenMs Birgitte Fredander (Swedish National Agency for Education)

UKMs Christine Agambar (Office for Standards in Education, England)Mr Geoff Lucas, Mr Ian Colwill and colleagues (Qualifications and Curriculum Authority, England)Mr Robert Wood (Department for Education and Employment, England)Mr Julian Critchley (Department for Education and Employment, England) Ms Moira Macfarlane (Her Majesty’s Inspector, Scottish Office, Education and Industry Department)

We would also like to thank Eugene Owen the Network Leader of Network A on Educational Outcomes of the OECD’s INES project.

Analysis of the mathematics and science examination papers at upper secondary level was provided by Dr Kevin Beurle, Jim Jeffs and Dr Alison M. Dangerfield and enabled the LSE team to make comparisons to be made between external examinations in the countries concerned. Thanks are also due to Eurostat for providing up-to-date statistics and to the EURYDICE European Unit. Help was provided by Liz Beecheno of the French lycJe in London, the former Scottish Examinations Board and Edexcel (formerly University of London Examinations and Assessment Council). We would like to thank those who provided research assistance including Jan Hunter and Annick Kieffer and all those who helped by explaining the various education systems, obtaining and translating materials. Finally, we would like to thank John Wilkes for ongoing technical support and especially for production of graphical material for the study.

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