_Qualitative Research Methods by Cheryl Vierheilig

Qualitative Research Methods Matrix

Qualitative Research Methods (Case Study, Phenomenology, Grounded Theory, Ethnography)By: Cheryl Vierheilig

Primary Characteristics Current Peer-Reviewed StudyCase Study

According to Leedy & Ormrod (2013), sometimes called idiographic research—a particular individual, program, or event is studied in depth for a defined period of time. Sometimes researchers focus on a single case, perhaps because its unique or exceptional qualities can promote understanding or inform practice for similar situations. At other times researchers study two or more cases—often cases that are either similar or different in certain key ways—to make comparisons, build theory, or propose generalizations; such an approach is called a multiple or collective case study. A case study may be especially suitable for learning more about a little known or poorly understood situation. It can also be appropriate for investigating how an individual or program changes over time, perhaps as the result of certain conditions or interventions. In either circumstance, it is useful for generating or providing preliminary support for hypotheses.

In a case study, the researcher collects extensive data on the individual(s), program(s), or event(s) on which the investigation is focused. These data often include observations, interviews, documents (e.g., newspaper articles), past records (e.g., previous test scores), and audiovisual materials (e.g., photographs, videotapes, audiotapes). In many case studies, the researcher may spend an extended period of time on site and interact regularly with the person or people being studied.

The researcher also records details about the context surrounding the case, including information about the

The Problem Investigated:

The development of instructional electronic material or e-material for electrical and electronic studies was developed by many companies and institutions. The problem investigated is the question of the quality of the designed instructional and electronic material or e-material for electrical and electronic studies and the potentiality to use the e-material as a tool in teaching and learning as it is doubtful and concerning. The problem relates to the consequences not meeting quality standards. The aim of this research was to understand the using technology and Instructional e-material among technical teacher and student into teaching and learning. The use of technology in education is as important as other teaching aid tools in class, in order to facilitate and develop the students' understanding pertaining to certain topic which has been taught in class. The E-module is one of the most worthwhile computing technologies which had been used widely. It has been used for learning to takes place to be either in electronic or digital ways. The use of e-module is believed to enhance understanding of the subject. By mastering the knowledge and hard skills in electrical and electronic field, with the molded attitude and outstanding value of work, students will be able to succeed as well. However, to ensure the process of learning and teaching are smooth, the teacher has to analysis the E-module. The analysis is believed to guarantee that the students will achieve knowledge and skills of electric and electronic.

How Data Were Collected And Analyzed:

A qualitative case study methodology had been used to collect and analyze the data rigorously through several activities of interview, analysis of documentation and observation by


physical environment and any historical, economic, and social factors that have bearing on the situation. By identifying the context of the case, the researcher helps others who later read the research report to draw conclusions about the extent to which the study’s findings might be generalizable to other situations.

Data analysis in a case study typically involves the following steps (Creswell, 2007; Stake, 2006):

1. Organization of details about the case. The specific “facts” about the case are arranged in a logical (e.g., chronological) order.

2. Categorization of data. Categories are identified to help cluster the data into meaningful groups. (For instance, a researcher studying the course of a political campaign might think in terms of “campaign strategies,” “fund-raising activities,” “news media accounts,” “setbacks,” etc.)

3. Interpretation of single instances. Specific documents, occurrences, and other bits of data are examined for the specific meanings that they might have in relation to the case.

4. Identification of patterns. The data and their interpretations are scrutinized for underlying themes and other patterns that characterize the case more broadly than a single piece of information can reveal.

5. Synthesis and generalizations. An overall portrait of the case is constructed. Conclusions are drawn that may have implications beyond the specific case that has been studied.

Especially when only a single case is studied, any generalizations made are, of course, tentative and must await further support from other studies—perhaps from

researchers. The research was done at two established technical schools in Malaysia which involved some students and teachers in the schools. The qualitative process was used to collect all information in a certain time and period. The data were collected from the interviewing session which is the primary data in this study. Meanwhile, observing method, documents and data triangulation method were also performed to back up the existed primary data; interviewing data. In this study, the researcher is using the secondary data which are collected from journal, books, literature reviews and the internet. The actual data collection tools were interview, observation, And document analysis.

The structured interview method was used and involved a rigid list of questions, whereby the researcher asked the participants the same type of questions. The strength of interviewing method is, it allows the researcher to get the response from individuals who are the participants of the study and the feedback ranges from one to another in different situation. The main purpose of interviewing is to recognize the issues, process and situation to be analyzed.

The observing method gives a chance for the researchers to witness and see, hear and experience the real situation. With this method, the researcher will get the clear cut on how certain thing happen, what are the teaching methods applied by teachers, and how the teachers conduct the learning planning by using the presented learning environment. While observing a particular phenomenon, the situation (for instance the conversation among teachers in the teachers' room, interactions among students) or activity, (for example, teaching and learning progress in the classroom), is essential for the researcher to take immediate note. This note is known as field notes.

The analysis of the document is a breakdown of the research


additional case studies, other kinds of qualitative studies, or experimental research.

A case study researcher often begins the data analysis process during data collection; preliminary conclusions are likely to influence the kinds of data he or she seeks out and collects in later parts of the study. Ultimately the researcher must look for convergence (triangulation) of the data: Many separate pieces of information must all point to the same conclusion.

If conducting a case study, the following should probably be included according to Leedy & Ormrod (2013):

1. A rationale for studying the case. Explain why the case was worthy of in-depth study—in other words, how it will significantly advance human beings’ knowledge about some aspect of the world.

2. A detailed description of the facts related to the case. Describe the specific individual(s), program(s), or event(s) you studied, as well as the setting and any other uncontested facts about the case. Your description should be as thorough and objective as possible.

3. A description of the data you collected. Tell your readers what observations you made, whom you interviewed, what documents you examined, and so on.

4. A discussion of the patterns you found. Describe any trends, themes, personality characteristics, and so on that the data suggest. At this point, you are going beyond the facts themselves to your interpretation of the facts. Support each pattern you identify with sufficient evidence to convince the reader that the pattern does, in fact, accurately portray the data. If some data contradict

content analysis method which explains the objective upon the communication messages which have been printed, published or pictured. In other words, the part of the message can be heard, obtained, seen by the reference of the content of texts in its words, meanings, images, symbols, ideas, themes or anything which related to the communicated messages. It includes the activities of reading, reviewing, choosing and filtering the texts which have been recognized as materials or data for the research.

The Trustworthiness Of The Data:

In ensuring the collected information in this qualitative research are precise and valid in the sense of its theory and also is reliable, proofs from the different sources are very important. Information which is obtained from particular sources will be verified in accordance to the same issues from another source. The process of verification using the different sources is known as triangulation process. In this context of study, for verifying the information about the methods of teaching, information was obtained by teachers’ and four students on the subject of electrical and electronic material. The researchers will try to get the same information from different sources, for instance, the head of the committee, subject matter expert and from the teaching documents which have been prepared by the teachers for enhancing the verification of the given information. For the research which is conducted by qualitative method through interviewing, observing and documentation of the efforts of the researcher in collecting data as much as possible, the use of triangulation technique itself could strengthen the verification of the study. The use of triangulation techniques (interviews, questionnaires, and observes) concurrently in the study should be conducted in the form of equivalent (where by criteria and constructed items are the same from the various instrument).

The verification in the qualitative research (the user interviews, observations and documentations as instruments) is not only focusing on the finding of the research but also for the whole


the patterns you propose, however, you should describe those as well. Even though you are interpreting as well as reporting data, you want to present as complete and unbiased an account of the case as you possibly can.

5. A connection to the larger scheme of things. In some way, you need to answer the question, So what? In what way does the case study contribute to our collective knowledge about some aspect of the world or human experience? The connection(s) you make here might take one or more of several forms. You might compare the case with other, previously reported cases and note similarities and dissimilarities. You might argue that the case either supports or disconfirms an existing hypothesis or theory. Or you might use the case to support your contention that a particular intervention—perhaps a medical treatment, teaching method, or campaign strategy—can be a highly effective one.

References:

Creswell, J. W. (2007). Qualitative inquiry and research design: Choosing among five approaches (2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

Leedy, P. & Ormrod, J. (2013). Practical Research: Planning and Design. Boston, MA: Pearson Education, Inc.

Stake, R. E. (2006). Multiple case study analysis. New York: Guilford.

research process.

NVivo is a computer software program developed by Qualitative Solutions and Research International (QSR) since 1999. This software is designed to help qualitative researchers, especially those who need to work with text-based data and multimedia information (such as video, images, and pictures), where a deeper level of analysis can be performed on large amounts of data. NVivo software designed to manage and analyze qualitative data, which is data that is not structured, and complex non-numerical. This software allows users to classify and organize thousands of information collected, reviewed the complex relationships between the data, the combined analysis with linking, shaping and generating model. In short, NVivo 10 is a very effective tool and useful to manage, search, analyze, and generate theory. In this study, NVivo software will help researchers analyze the data collected.

The Key Findings:

The finding shows that using technology into teaching and learning was preferred by technical teachers and students and e-material as a tool which will be enhanced to understand the subject of electrical and electronic as well. Assuredly, the teachers have masterly integrated their process of teaching in the e-material and the students have to properly integrate into their learning process.

Many methods of teaching had been applied by teachers in technical school. However, they were not really confident about the method. The teachers were approaching the students to learn based on the contents of the textbooks itself when they are not in the class. Actually, the teacher also had other sources being used such as an interactive compact disk (CD), certain WebPages and other reference books. They used more than one learning source


but they are still delivering the subject as a conventional process. They are still using textbooks as a main source in teaching. A part from using textbooks, for instance, the teachers also referred to using other sources like module and workbook which is compulsory used in their teaching. The use of only the textbooks did not give the whole understanding to all the students, in fact it did not help the students to comprehend certain topics being taught in class. Some of the teachers have chosen the module learning method to approach their students. Teachers believe that the teaching module method is used to help the students better understand and offers some benefits and is easier to prepare. The content in the module provided notes and important issues exactly like in the textbooks. All in all, the learning module patterned is among the suitable approaches to be explored. According to some of the teachers, teaching aids were preferred as a method of teaching. The interactive compact disk (CD) enabled the smooth process of teaching and learning. The CD had eventually attracted the interest of students to learn the subject.

The findings had shown that the participants of the study were encouraging the school administration to use the latest technology to assist the teachers. The development of high quality courseware could be used by the teachers and students and will make the learning interesting and entertaining rather than other methods. Participants had also said that the use of interactive Compact Disk (CD) as a tool, was the best method which will assist the students to understand the topic being delivered by the teachers. It showed that with the usage of the CD, the pictures and images, graphic and three-dimension forms will up the skill of visualization among the students. The explanation of the topic by teachers was that it will make it more fantastic and dramatized by the naked eyes and the students will face no more difficulty in imagining something. Through the use of the CD, it can enhance student visualization skills. With the analysis of the document, generally the participants in this study were using a module and interactive CD in conveying their teaching strategies. The findings of the study show that the


school should necessarily take a new approach to ensure a variety of reference sources should be available for the students to learn the subjects.

The Transferability Of The Findings:

Teachers who interested in developing an e-material should be given opportunities to attend some courses on how to develop the e-material. The process of development of e-instructional material should be introduced in technical school. Many researches on e-module need to be done for improving the quality and teaching methods. It is important to ensure that culture of learning will enhance the quality of education system in the country especially to technical teachers. However, not many people understand clearly the application of technology to support the learning process. In reality, they need to realize that technology changes every day. Hence, technical teachers should always be ready to change and should be prepared to face every reform to be introduced in line with the national vision that wants to make Malaysia to be a developed country by the year 2020.

Reference:

Hashim, M. H. M. (2015). Using technology and instructional E-material among technical teacher and student into teaching and learning: A qualitative case study. International Education Studies, 8(3), 175-180. Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/1667047565?accountid=458

Phenomenology

According to Leedy & Ormrod (2013), phenomenology refers to a person’s perception of the meaning of an event, as opposed to the event as it exists


Does parental substance abuse undermine caregiving competency and increase the likelihood of abuse and neglect of children? Both research and clinical interventions focus disproportionally on maternal substance abuse, whereas the role of fathers with addictions is largely ignored. This study used a


external to the person. A phenomenological study is a study that attempts to understand people’s perceptions, perspectives, and understandings of a particular situation. In other words, a phenomenological study tries to answer the question, What is it like to experience such-and-such? For instance, a researcher might study the experiences of people caring for a chronically or terminally ill relative, living in an abusive relationship, or home-schooling a child (Leedy & Ormond, 2013).

In some cases, the researcher has had personal experience related to the phenomenon in question and wants to gain a better understanding of the experiences of others according to Leedy & Ormrod (2013). By looking at multiple perspectives on the same situation, the researcher can then make some generalizations of what something is like from an insider’s perspective according to Leedy & Ormrod (2013).

Phenomenological researchers depend almost exclusively on lengthy interviews (perhaps 1 to 2 hours in length) with a carefully selected sample of participants. A typical sample size is from 5 to 25 individuals, all of whom have had direct experience with the phenomenon being studied (Creswell, 2007).

The actual implementation of a phenomenological study is as much in the hands of the participants as in the hands of the researcher according to Leedy & Ormrod (2013). The researcher listens closely as participants describe their everyday experiences related to the phenomenon; the researcher must also be alert for subtle yet meaningful cues in participants’ expressions, pauses, questions, and occasional sidetracks. A typical interview looks more like an informal conversation, with the participant doing most of the talking and the researcher doing most of the listening.

qualitative design to investigate fatherhood from the perspective of men with a substance addiction. Gender expectations and the father's right to participate on equal terms as the mother in the child's life are discussed against the notion of the best interest of the child. Learning about fathers' experiences can provide insights to improve child protection and care giving practices. The lack of research in this field provides an important rationale for the present work where the aim is to describe fathering issues from the perspective of men with problems of addiction. Against this background we ask the following questions: How do men with present or previous problems of addiction talk about fatherhood? And how do these men perceive themselves as fathers based on their inner experience and how they see themselves mirrored in society?

Parental substance addiction is associated with high rates of neglect, family conflict, abuse and maltreatment (Lee, Bellamy, & Guterman, 2009). Hence, it represents a serious threat to children's development and health. Most of the research on this subject deals with negative consequences from maternal addiction. According to Babcock (2008), the father's role in the risk scenario has been reduced to genes, toxicology and the quality of his sperm. McMahon and colleagues have in several articles documented the lack of attention to the fathering role of substance abusing men. The authors describe fathering as an important, but largely neglected, treatment issue for drug-abusing men. The emphasis on risk and harm outcome restricted to maternal addiction has left a gap of knowledge about the way in which drug-using fathers experience and interpret their parenting roles (Taylor, 2012). Addicted fathers are not only underrepresented in drug research, but also in policy documents and health service programs. Lee et al. (2009) argue that little is known about best practices for engaging fathers in parenting and prevention efforts, and that there is a gap in our understanding of the subjective barriers to fathering among this group.


Throughout the data collection process, the researcher suspends any preconceived notions or personal experiences that may unduly influence what the researcher “hears” the participants saying according to Leedy & Ormrod (2013). Such suspension—sometimes called bracketing or epoché—can be extremely difficult for a researcher who has personally experienced the phenomenon under investigation. Yet it is essential if the researcher is to gain an understanding of the typical experiences that people have had.

The central task during data analysis is to identify common themes in people’s descriptions of their experiences (Leedy & Ormrod, 2013). After transcribing the interviews, the researcher typically takes steps such as the following (e.g., Creswell, 2007):

1. Identify statements that relate to the topic. The researcher separates relevant from irrelevant information in the interview and then breaks the relevant information into small segments (e.g., phrases or sentences) that each reflect a single, specific thought.

2. Group statements into “meaning units.” The researcher groups the segments into categories that reflect the various aspects (“meanings”) of the phenomenon as it is experienced.

3. Seek divergent perspectives. The researcher looks for and considers the various ways in which different people experience the phenomenon.

4. Construct a composite. The researcher uses the various meanings identified to develop an overall description of the phenomenon as people typically experience it.

The final result is a general description of the phenomenon


Eight fathers in residential rehabilitation treatment programs participated in focus group discussions. Interpretative phenomenological analysis (IPA) was used to identify three figures of fatherhood: The good father, the bad father, and the invisible father. The three constructs are discussed in relation to Western trends and discourses of fathering and implications for childcare. Gender expectations and the father's right to participate on equal terms as the mother in the child's life are discussed against the notion of the best interest of the child.

The current qualitative, phenomenological study of fatherhood in men with substance use disorders was conducted on the basis of the above-presented studies and discourses. The study design and analyses were guided by Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis (IPA). The study involved conducting visits and observations at the research site, during which reflexive field notes were taken. A pilot interview was then conducted, after which a decision was made to use focus groups as the main method of data collection. Socio-demographic background information was collected from patients' files.

The study took place in a family treatment residence for parents with problems of addiction and accompanying children. The primary aim of the treatment is addiction rehabilitation, but the clinic also provides support for the parent-child relationship and attends to the child's developmental needs.

Eight ethnic Norwegian men participated in the study. All participants had female partners with addiction problems, and all received some form of social welfare benefits. Inclusion criteria were the following: A diagnosis of Substance Use Disorder (ICD- 10 2009), being a parent of a pre- school child (zero to six years), and having Norwegian as the primary language of communication. Ongoing substance use and/or psychosis excluded patients from participation in the study. After the project was approved by the Regional Committee for


as seen through the eyes of people who have experienced it firsthand. The focus is on common themes in the experience but also with consideration of diversity in the individuals and settings studied according to Leedy & Ormrod (2013).

There is no specific structure for reporting a phenomenological study. As is true for virtually any form of research, you will want to present the research problem or question, describe your methods of data collection and analysis, draw a conclusion about the phenomenon you have studied (in the form of a composite of your participants’ experiences), relate your findings to an existing body of theory and research, and discuss any practical implications of your findings.

References:



Medical Research Ethics and the Privacy Ombudsman for Research participants were recruited from the addiction treatment clinic by procedure of informed consent. Both individual and group interviewing were tested in a pilot, and a group approach was chosen to enhance the explorative dimension of the research. Nine group sessions were conducted by the first author. An employee from the clinic assisted in four of these. Seven sessions were mixed sex and two were held with either men or women only. The analyses for the current article are based on the contributions from the male participants in both types of groups. The composition of the groups changed according to the participants' availability and changes due to admissions to, and departures from, the clinic. The theme for each session was based on the preparatory work and successive analyses of the previous group sessions. The following topics were addressed: The experience of parenthood, the relationship to drugs, addictive lifestyle versus family life, support for and threats to parental role, identity, and encounters with the health care services and professionals. The men-only session focused explicitly on fathers and the fathering role. Preliminary impressions and interpretations were discussed with the participants, both as a "member-check" to ensure that statements were understood as they were meant (Denzin & Lincoln, 2000), and to get more reflections and nuances of opinion. The sessions were audio-recorded, transcribed verbatim and entered into NVivo 7 (2006) software to aid in the coding and organization of the data.

The sample was a selected group of men through the intake procedure. They were seen as having a potential to change according to the demands of parenting. They were also self-selected in terms of a strong motivation to father that brought them into treatment. Hence, the participants might represent a limited group of addicted men willing to give up drugs and invest in child, partner, and family life.


The Analysis:

The analytical work focused on how the men referred to themselves as fathers and how they perceived other people viewed them as fathers. Starting with the men-only interview, different aspects of fatherhood experiences were described and subsumed into three characteristic types or figures of fatherhood. These constructs are not used to identify roles or norms for fatherhood, or as descriptions of personality traits or personal psychology. They are used as a way to cluster aspects of the interviewee's descriptions of their own fatherhood. . An ideal type is constructed by highlighting some characteristics and elements of a given phenomena, while other features are downplayed. It is a construction of ideas - an example based on experience and interpretation (Shils & Finch, 1997).

The Key Findings:

Taylor (2012) found that, although many substance-addicted men were not fathering in a practical sense, they nonetheless held well-developed notions of what qualifies as good parenting and a desire to better fulfil their roles as a father. The author calls for greater acknowledgement of fathering issues and of men's parenting status in the provision of services. She concludes that addressing their parenting issues whilst treating their drug addiction problems could potentially facilitate better, more responsible, involved, and perhaps most importantly drug-free fathering.

Arenas and Greif (2000) describe how drug-addicted fathers bring to treatment many uncertainties about their relevance for their children. Whether they are in contact with their children or not, they often believe their children are better off without any contact with them. Feeling like a potential burden or irrelevant to their children might be strengthened by the practices of child welfare practitioners. Brown, Callahan, Strega, Walmsley, and Dominelli (2009) document how fathers are made invisible in child protection work, suggesting that fathers are not considered


as central in protecting and providing adequate care for children.

In contrast to the above, Eriksson (2007) has showed how Swedish social policy aimed to create gender equality, shared parenting, and a new fathering role sometimes collides with child protection. In a study of Swedish family court proceedings, she found that men with violent and other destructive behavior were to some degree perceived as good fathers and that contact with these fathers was encouraged, regardless of the child's reactions. A conflict between two frames of understanding was identified: the benefit of contact with both parents versus safeguarding the child from potential harm. However, this conflict was not openly discussed. Children's statements were often interpreted within an equal parenting and present father discourse, making the voices of children and the views of the mother weaker, according to Eriksson.

Norway, alongside with the other Nordic countries, has been described by Holter (2007) as a "European site of social innovation regarding equal rights." Men's active participation in childcare has been one of the central means toward reaching gender equality (Bj0rnholt, 2010). For example, Norwegian men are granted a "father quota" of 14 weeks paid leave after birth to stimulate men's participation in early childcare. The role of the father is valued for the sake of the child, the mother, the couple, the family, and, not least of all, the father himself. Within the equal parenting policy aimed to enhance present fathering, Bj0rnholt sees two trends: One with a pro-feminist approach which encourages men to take an active part in the equal rights agenda, and another is an anti-feminist movement in which fathers' rights are at the core.

Norwegian family policy rests on the assumption of a favorable father presence. The portrayal of the modern father in The White Paper Document on men, male roles and gender equality (Norwegian Ministry of Children and Equality, 2008) tends to


be oriented towards adult male identity and equal rights, and less towards the best interests of the child, i.e. more towards father's rights and less towards responsible fathering. The policy document carves out a new fathering role tailored for well-adapted and resourceful men, whereas potentially destructive fathers are barely mentioned. Men with problems of addiction fall into the category of potentially destructive fathers.

In the psychological literature father-presence is generally seen as an asset to child development (e.g., Lamb, 2010). Positive father involvement enhances cognitive, social, and emotional skills and well-being in children from infancy to adolescence (Cowan, Cowan, Cohen, Pruett, & Pruett, 2008). But there is a flip side when it comes to fathers with addiction. Paternal addiction is associated with an increase in child abuse and neglect, partner violence, and other malpractices of caregiving (Lee et al., 2009). Besides the interpersonal and psychological impairment, substance addiction distorts parenting at a neurobiological level (Pajulo, Suchman, Kalland, & Mayes, 2006).

Adinoff (2004) describes addiction as pathology of motivation and choice in which "the compulsive drive toward drug use is complemented by deficits in impulse control and decision making" (p. 305). The neural mechanisms that enable us to choose according to long-term outcomes are weakened, leading to loss of willpower to resist drugs (Bechara, 2005) leading to high rates of relapse (NIDA, 2009). Mothers with addictions are found to be more distressed by infant crying compared to non-addicted mothers, and high levels of stress in the caregiving role is associated with abuse and neglect (Mayes, 2009). The general effects of addiction on neurobiological functioning make it plausible to expect similar reactions to infant and care-related stress in fathers. Pajulo et al. (2006) describe these neurobiological mechanisms of addiction, including the drug-related changes in experiencing pleasure and reward, as a hijacking of the reward system of the brain, making it less


available for attachment behavior and the needs of the child.

From a child protection perspective, neither mothers nor fathers with an addiction can be trusted on their own to provide a child with adequate safety, sensitivity and support. However, despite the deep-rooted nature of substance addiction, becoming a parent is associated with increased motivation to change one's lifestyle and habits in the best interest of the child (Dahl & Hecksher, 2007; Raphael-Leff, 2003; Stern, 1995).

Madsen, Lind, and Munck (2002) and Palkovitz (2002) describe a similar psychological change in men who enter fatherhood. Genesoni and Tallandini (2009) found that partner pregnancy initiates demanding psychological reorganization of the self. The postnatal period was experienced as being the most interpersonally and intrapersonally challenging in terms of coping with the new reality of becoming a father. Despite these findings, men's potential to change in this period is less attended to in research and clinical interventions.

According to interpretative phenomenological analysis (IPA) (Smith, Flowers, & Larkin , 2009) , transcripts were first transformed into condensed units of meaning without explanations or analyses. Second, the descriptive units were analyzed into generalized experiences. Third, reflexive and interpretative notes were made, which eventually led to the conceptualization of the three figures. Finally, the constructs were tested and refined by analysing the transcripts from the other group interviews, looking for variations and deviations from the proposed constructs. Thus, we first used a bottom-up approach in creating the figures of fatherhood, and then a top-down approach to test them. The perspectives of the mothers and professionals are treated as outside commentaries to the images the fathers themselves presented.

First author conducted all of the interviews, and did the initial coding and categorization. Second author scrutinized the step


from narratives to figures, and offered alternative interpretations. Diverging interpretations were discussed until consensus was reached. The figures were similarly scrutinized in terms of distinctiveness. This does not mean that the figures are mutually exclusive. A father who primarily sees himself as a supportive father in the present can also describe himself as a troublesome and abusive father in the past and potentially see himself as becoming a "bad" father in the future.

The portrayal of fathers with substance use disorders in figures is not intended to construct or reinforce stereotypes or create roles, norms, or psychological profiles. Rather, they are meant to organize the complex phenomenology of fathers' experiences and describe aspects of self-images, social attributions and potential fathering behaviour described by the participating men.

The good father figure is willing to work hard to become a caring parent. The child ignites hopes for a better life, and the father seeks to overcome his addiction and find ways to support his family, both emotionally and financially. Erik saw the pregnancy as an opportunity for change but his partner was not motivated to give up drugs. Erik took charge and helped the mother-to-be to scale down her drug use. In her seventh month, she was mandated to a closed ward treatment facility where Erik was not allowed to stay. The expecting couple had daily telephone conversations where he calmed and comforted his partner's anxieties and worries. At the same time he went through detoxification and became sober.

When Erik held the baby for the first time, he described it "...as if the world on the outside ceased to exist. It was just me and the baby." His partner commented: "For a very long period he was just holding and looking at her, smiling from ear to ear. He became a dad. I saw it and it gave me a sense of safety inside."

After birth they were offered family treatment. Erik found it hard to change as quickly as he wanted to.


Erik felt that he had missed out on the normal maturation process into adulthood. He had been using drugs since his early teens. Now he had to learn how to regulate state and affect without the use of substances. In addition, he had to learn to know his partner anew: As sober, as a mother and as a co-parent. But first and foremost, the task and the goal of his efforts were to become a good father:

This is dead serious, you know. It is a question of to be or not to be. This is my last chance. If I don't succeed [as a father], I'm done. This is not the time to pretend and be superficial. You have to work hard every single second. I cannot afford to fail.

He worked hard to keep the child in mind and to make the partner relationship work. Many drug-related habits of thought and action had to be changed in his effort to lead a sober family life:

When you get money and the first things you think of is buying diapers and toilet paper, and not how many doses you can get, things have changed.

Erik illustrates the good father figure's orientation towards the best interest of the child. He acknowledges the need to learn to regulate his own needs, feelings and states according to the fundamental needs of the child. This also involves investing in his relationship with the mother. After rehabilitation, he entered vocational training and got a part time job.

Other aspects of the good father figure found in the data are competences to protect, to be reflective and participate in the daily care of the child, as illustrated by the following excerpts:

The protective father. Some of the men highlighted the urge to protect, and called it a father-instinct, something innate.

The reflective father. Thoughts about their own fathers and


experiences as children form a background on which these men build their fathering identity. The men were mostly aware of the kind of fathers they did not want to be. They wanted to be different, better, and more sensitive to the child than their own fathers had been.

The caring and participating father. These fathers described how they held, fed, cuddled, and looked after their children in similar ways as the mothers. They cherished the opportunity to participate closely in the daily care of their children. Some commented proudly that the child sometimes preferred them

The men clearly distinguished between previous and present functioning as a father. However, they felt that their efforts were poorly acknowledged, and their failures and the stigma associated with drug use continued to be reflected in the eyes of the professionals.

The Bad Father

The bad father figure depicts aspects of being self-absorbed, abusive, and driven by addiction and carelessness.

Johan was in jail during the birth of his first child. The newborn was immediately removed from the mother and put up for adoption. Johan described himself as a reckless madman at that time. Although he wanted to see his daughter, he was denied the opportunity to do so. He appealed the decision of adoption and wanted her to be placed within the family, but was not heard. Johan did not get to meet his daughter until fifteen years later when she invited him to her first communion. This meeting proved to be the first step in building a father-daughter relationship. In hindsight, Johan was glad that his daughter was shielded from his influence during her early, formative years.

The failing father. This construct refers to failures to provide a


safe environment where the child's needs are in focus.

The intrusive father. Some of the men thought that they were attentive and caring fathers when inebriated. In hindsight they realized that they acted based on their own beliefs and ideas and did not acknowledge the child's perspective.

The Invisible Father

Five of the eight fathers in this study were more or less absent or "invisible" to one or more of their children. From the perspective of these "invisible" men, they were left out, ignored and sometimes actively kept away from their children. The notion of the invisible father not only relates to not being part of the child's family, but also to feelings of being unwanted.

Roger was in his late forties and living with his partner and the younger of his two children. Although treatment at the family clinic was voluntary, he stated that he felt "incarcerated without trial." Accepting to stay in treatment was a precondition set by the child protection services for not interfering in the family. He felt that his opinions were often ignored, but found it difficult to complaint and feared for the consequences if he did not do what the professionals wanted. In meetings with the child protection professionals Roger experienced that the mother was treated as the main parent and he was treated as an appendix without parenting potential.

In the child protection services, there are mostly female employees. Females evaluate us, and you females have a tendency to see only the woman in a relationship. So we're not evaluated on equal terms.... In many ways it seems that we do not exist there. [...]

If a father relapses into drug use, the mother would get to keep the child as long as the father stays out of the picture. But if the mother uses drugs, the father will not get to keep the child. The


child is then placed in foster care.... We are not even taken into consideration, we're not considered compatible.

The hiding father. The perception of the father as the main problem for the child or for family life leads to situations where the man participates as a father and partner in secrecy. The participants referred to men who were prohibited by the child protection services to live together with their children. Some families arrange to have two addresses to cover the reality that the father actually lives with them.

The blackmailed father. Some of the fathers felt that their female partners at times used the threat of denying contact with their child as a means of exercising control in the relationship. We observed that when conflicts between the couples arose, the man was the one that stepped out of treatment and left.

Invisible to himself. Lack of insight into own problems and mental states was seen as an obstacle to seeing the child and his/her needs. This added another dimension to the invisible father, which is the father's invisibility to himself.

The absent-minded father. The urge for substances and inebriation made the fathers absent-minded and inattentive to the needs of the child. In a state of intoxication, they became self-absorbed, forgetful and careless about what went on around them.

Absent-mindedness may also contribute to the figure of the bad father, physically being there but not mentally present.

The insecure father. Most men experienced first time fatherhood as exciting, but scary. They felt they had meager learning experiences about how fathering should be. What they knew was how not to be a father.



The drug-problem, gender expectations, couples conflicts, and professional practices related to child protection issues all influence these men's active participation as fathers. The fathering role in at-risk populations and the issue of co-parenting needs more attention in research, clinical interventions, and service programs. Implications for clinical practice are discussed.

In this article we have investigated the subjective experience of fatherhood in men with problems of addiction. Subjective reports of experiences are framed within three father figure constructs, reflecting different forms of caregiving practices. The good father-figure resembles the role ascribed to modern men in the intensifying discourse of fatherhood. The narratives of good fathering bear evidence of the potential for adequate caregiving. However, several personal and contextual barriers, many of them related to the problem of addiction, might hinder the potential of developing into stable, sensitive caregivers. Problems of addiction shorten the distance from good to bad fathering, and from present to absent fathers.

Both substance-abusing mothers and fathers may be a threat to the well-being of their children. The cultural roles of parenting still favor investment in the mother-child relationship, while fathers are in many ways a hidden population. They have been largely absent in the addiction and child maltreatment services literature, and few parenting programs are designed for fathers (Lee et al., 2011). The many dilemmas of child protection and at-risk parenting are better solved by intensified attention to parenting roles and the caregiving triad, rather than continuing to ignore half of this parenting population. The present work is concluded with a call to include the fathering role of men with


problems of addiction in future research and intervention programs.

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Arenas, M.L., & Greif, G.L. (2000). Issues of fatherhood and recovery for VA substance abuse patients. Journal of Psychoactive Drugs, 32(3), 339-341.

Babcock, M. (2008). Substance-using mothers: Bias in culture and research. Journal of Addictions nursing, 19(2), 87-91.

Bechara, A. (2005). Decision making, impulse control and loss of willpower to resist drugs: A neurocognitive perspective. Nature Neuroscience, 8(11), 1458-1463.

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Cowan, P.A., Cowan, CP., Pruett, M.K., Pruett, K., & Wong, J.J. (2009). Promoting fathers' engagement with children: Preventive interventions for low-income families. Journal of Marriage and Family, 71, 663-679.

Dahl, H V., & Hecksher, D. (2007). Graviditet og misbrug-belyst ut fra kvinders perspektiv: Analyse af26 livs- og behandlingshistorieinterwiew [Pregnancy and addiction from the perspective of the women] . Aarhus, Denmark: Center for


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Grounded Theory A grounded theory study is the one least likely to begin from a particular theoretical framework (Leedy & Ormrod, 2013). On the contrary, the major purpose of a grounded theory approach is to begin with the data and use them to develop a theory. The term grounded refers to the idea that the theory that emerges from the study is derived from and rooted in data that have been collected in the field rather than taken from the research literature (Leedy & Ormrod, 2013). Grounded theory studies are especially helpful when current theories about a phenomenon are either inadequate or nonexistent according to Leedy & Ormrod, 2013).

Typically, a grounded theory study focuses on a process related to a particular topic—including people’s actions and interactions—with the ultimate goal of developing a theory about that process according to Leedy & Ormrod (2013).

Virtually all experts agree that a grounded theory researcher should have a firm grasp of general concepts and theoretical orientations in his or her discipline as a whole; hence, an in-depth literature review early in the process is essential (Leedy & Ormrod, 2013). However, experts disagree about whether the researcher should look closely at previous findings directly related to the present research problem before collecting and analyzing data.

Interviews typically play a major role in data collection, but observations, documents, historical records, videotapes, and anything else of potential relevance to the research question might also be used (Leedy & Ormrod, 2013).

Data analysis begins almost immediately, at which point the researcher develops categories to classify the data according to Leedy & Ormrod (2013). Subsequent data collection is aimed at saturating the categories—in

The Problem Investigated:The problem investigated centers around consequences to work-to-family enrichment in totality. What are the consequences of work-to-family enrichment in totality? Using grounded theory, the study aims to understand antecedents, moderators, and consequences of work-to-family enrichment. This study also investigates strategies adopted by individuals to enhance their work-family enrichment experience. The paper provides insights to the managers about the importance of suitable work-family culture and other factors to ensure successful implementation of work-family policies. The paper also identifies strategies adopted by individuals to attain work-family enrichment. Demographic shifts, changing market and economic trends, technological advances and competitive forces have made work-family interface an important issue for both academicians and practitioners. In India, these changes can be experienced in terms of demographic profile of work force. Changes in the definitions of work and family, shifting family structure, changing profile of work (due to technological advancement, women empowerment, etc.) are transforming the work-family interactions in emerging economies. According to Hewitt's Attrition and Retention Asia Pacific Study, the need for a balance between work and personal life has become an integral element of employee's expectations from their work organization.

The focus of the study has been to understand work-to-family enrichment phenomenon. Qualitative approaches are considered best to understand a phenomenon, as they can capture the domain from different angles like the context of operation, feelings, attitudinal, and experiential information. Among the qualitative approaches, we decided to use the grounded theory approach developed by Strauss and Corbin (1990) to conduct this study. The rationale of using the grounded theory approach stems from its potential of discovering new constructs and/or to enrich existing theories (Goulding, 2002; Strauss and Corbin,

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essence, learning as much about them as possible—and at finding any disconfirming evidence that may suggest revisions in the categories identified or in interrelationships among them (Leedy & Ormrod, 2013). This process of moving back and forth between data collection and data analysis, with data analysis driving later data collection, is sometimes called the constant comparative method (Leedy & Ormrod, 2013).

One widely used approach for data analysis is that proposed by Corbin and Strauss (2008); Strauss and Corbin (1990); Neuman (2011), who suggest the following steps:

1. Open coding. The data are divided into segments and then scrutinized for commonalities that reflect categories or themes. After the data are categorized, they are further examined for properties—specific attributes or subcategories—that characterize each category. In general, open coding is a process of reducing the data to a small set of themes that appear to describe the phenomenon under investigation.

2. Axial coding. Interconnections are made among categories and subcategories. Here the focus is on determining more about each category in terms of

The conditions that give rise to it

The context in which it is embedded

The strategies people use to manage it or carry it out

The consequences of those strategies

The researcher moves back and forth among data collection, open coding, and axial coding, continually refining the categories and their interconnections—and perhaps combining or

1990). Further, the grounded theory approach has been established as one of the best methods that helps explore and understand complicated and multifaceted issues in a comprehensive manner (Glaser and Strauss, 1967). This is exactly the case of work-family research where there is a need to understand various concepts like work-life balance, work-to-family conflict, work-to-family facilitation, family-to-work conflict, family-to-work facilitation, work-to-family enrichment, family-to-work enrichment, etc., in a specific economic and cultural context, and also make cross-cultural comparisons among the constructs. The grounded theory approach offers a unique opportunity to understand a concept in the context in which it operates. Moreover, there is a need to redefine concepts like work, family, and life periodically, as per the changing environment. Thus, there is an ongoing need to keep updating work-family literature.

This study would add to the sparse literature in Indian context and application of grounded theory would be consistent with the emic approach (culture specific) of understanding work family interface. Such an inquiry has the potential to enrich cross-cultural perspective on this important phenomenon. It is expected that by studying work-to-family enrichment in the Indian context, the current study can identify facilitating mechanisms, which organizations may adopt to enhance the work-to-family enrichment. Further, the study may be instrumental in evolving policies which can help professionals in achieving satisfaction both in their professional and personal lives.

Thus, the objectives of this study are: investigating work-to-family enrichment in the Indian context; identifying consequences of work-to-family enrichment; and identifying important variables which would help evolve policies, and major strategies adopted by the individuals to enhance their work-to-family enrichment experience.





subdividing some of the categories—as additional data are collected.

2. Selective coding. The categories and their interrelationships are combined to create a story line that describes “what happens” in the phenomenon being studied.

3. Development of a theory. A theory, in the form of a verbal statement, visual model, or series of hypotheses, is offered to explain the phenomenon in question. The theory depicts the evolving nature of the phenomenon and describes how certain conditions lead to certain actions or interactions, how those actions or interactions lead to other actions, and so on, with the typical sequence of events being laid out. No matter what form the theory takes, it is based entirely on the data collected.

Building on Creswell’s (2007) recommendations, Leedy & Ormrod (2013) suggest to include the following in the report:

1. A description of the research question. Describe your general research problem and explain how you delineated it more precisely over the course of the study.

2. A review of the related literature. Do not use the literature to provide the specific categories or themes for coding your data, but do use it to provide a rationale and context for your study.

3. A description of your methodology and data analysis. Describe the approach you took at the beginning of the study and how your approach evolved over time. Outline the nature of the sample and setting, as well as the specific methods (interviews, observations, etc.) you used. Explain the categories and properties you identified.


The paper opted for an exploratory study using the open-ended approach of grounded theory. This paper builds a model to understand the phenomenon by applying Strauss and Corbin's (1990) “paradigm model” approach of grounded theory. The paper throws light on the key tenets of grounded theory research and explains use of grounded theory as a rigorous method for business research. Data were collected by taking 24 in-depth interviews with employees representing middle management segment of consulting, IT and FMCG firms in India. For data collection, in-depth interview was the preferred method because it provided rich and detailed information about an individual's experience and views. Broad open questions were developed to seek information on the various themes related to work-family domain including: antecedents and consequences of work-family enrichment, family-friendly policies, implementation of family-friendly policies, employee's perception, and experience of family-friendly policies. The open-ended questions provided an opportunity to the interviewee to share his/her experiences and thoughts in detail, which was the aim of the study.

Twenty-four face-to-face, in-depth, interviews were conducted by the first author. Each interview lasted for about 60-75 minutes. All the interviews were recorded and transcribed by the interviewer. Memos were prepared after every interview and were compared among each other. Memos were useful in organizing the information received from the interviews and in identifying issues which required further attention. Respondents were from middle management level working in different sectors like consulting, IT, and FMCG. In all, 15 percent of the respondents had a PhD degree, 35 percent had MBA degree, and 50 percent were BTech degree holders. In total, 65 percent of the respondents were male while 35 percent were females. Almost 66 percent of respondents had one or two children. Interviews were conducted until the point of theoretical saturation, i.e. when the researchers realized that further collection of data were generating no new information and/or


Describe how your data collection was driven by your data analysis.

4. A presentation of your theory. Present the theory you have developed in a verbal or visual form, or, even better, both verbally and visually. Use some of your actual data (e.g., excerpts from interviews) to illustrate and support the theory.

5. A discussion of implications. Show how your theory is similar to or dissimilar from other theoretical perspectives. Explain how it relates to existing knowledge about the topic. Discuss potential implications of the theory for practice or future research.

References:

Corbin, J., & Strauss, A. C. (2008). Basics of qualitative research: Techniques and procedures for developing grounded theory (3rd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.


Neuman, W. L. (2011). Social research methods: Qualitative and quantitative approaches (7th ed.). Boston: Allyn & Bacon. (See Chapter 13, “Field Research and Focus Group Research,” and Chapter 15, “Analysis of Qualitative Data.”)

Strauss, A., & Corbin, J. (1994). Grounded theory methodology: An overview. In N. Denzin & Y. Lincoln (Eds.), Handbook of qualitative research (pp. 273–285). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

relationship.

Theoretical sampling was adopted for the study. Initially both single and married individuals were targeted. Later, it was realized that married individuals were able to relate more to the work-to-family enrichment experiences than the single individuals. One of the possible reasons could be that spouse and children play a crucial role in experiencing of the enrichment phenomenon as also identified in this study. Further, married individuals are expected to play more number of roles than an individual who is unmarried and hence may have higher opportunity of experiencing enrichment. Also, the four unmarried candidates who were interviewed were living away from their families (parents), either alone or with a flat-mate and therefore, their family roles and responsibilities were very different than those of married individuals. Due to this, their understanding of “family” was also very different from the way any married individual will define it.

The interviewer (first author) played only a minimal role during the process to allow the respondents share their experiences in as much detail as possible. However, the interviewer intercepted with minimal prompts to encourage participants; clarify any confusion and incoherence; and control any divergence from the interview objectives. To avoid any personal bias of the interviewer, analysis of each interview was done in consultation with all the authors. Apart from this, before conducting the final analysis, the interviewer prepared a list on her views, feelings, and understanding of the topic. This helped her in becoming aware of her own thought processes. Having done this introspection, it was easier to segregate her interpretations from that of the respondents.

The Trustworthiness Of The Data:

The findings of the analysis were shared with five HR specialists and ten interview respondents (five men and five


women) to receive their feedback. Their approval on the findings led to strengthening the credibility of the study. The data were systematically analyzed, following Strauss and Corbin (1990) coding procedure involving open coding, axial coding, and selective coding. As explained by Strauss and Corbin (1990), coding represents the process of analyzing the data, in which data are broken down, conceptualized, and then put back together, leading to new understandings.

The Key Findings:This study reports “perceived work-family culture” of an organization as an antecedent of “work-to-family enrichment.” It also finds “community resources” and “family role salience” as significant contributors in enriching the experience of professionals. Work-to-family enrichment experience has positive influence on “employer brand attraction” and “organizational citizenship behavior” and has negative influence on “intention to quit.” The study has also added to the literature by identifying Psychological Capital as one of the consequences. The study has highlighted segmentation, i.e. by maintaining work and family boundaries, support from extended family members or close friends, engaging in activities that provides happiness and personal peace like being a part of NGO, time management and scheduling, engaging in shopping and availing community facilities like good day cares as major strategies used by Indian professionals to enhance their work-to-family enrichment.

The findings of this study points development of psychological capital as an outcome of work-to-family enrichment. This is one of the major finding of our research as there is very little work done on exploring factors and conditions which can develop psychological capital. The broaden and build theory hypothesizes that positive emotions such as joy, interest, and contentment have the ability to broaden the means by which individuals relate to their world through a momentary thought – action repertoire. Building on this stream of research, we can






conclude that positive experiences from work-to-family enrichment can facilitate individuals in development of their psychological capital.

Another interesting finding of this study is related to individual strategies. Kalliath et al. (2007) found that one of the most widely used coping strategies involves dependency on religious activities and prayers in India while dealing with work-family conflict. In our study, we have found no mention of the role of “religion” or “God” for attaining enrichment. Therefore, we may hypothesize that people rely on “prayers” while dealing with work-family conflict, whereas to achieve enriching experience no such need has been noticed. However, some of the respondents have mentioned about participating in community activities or volunteering for NGO.


Future studies may explore and compare the views of men and women on the phenomenon and the strategies they adopt to enhance their work-to-family enrichment experience. It may also be interesting to understand the phenomenon from point of view of single employees. Literature has identified that it is important to understand single employees’ views of work-family issues (Young, 1999). Similarly, future studies may explore the phenomenon from the point of view of divorced and single parents. This paper identifies that perceived organizational work-family culture is considered as an important construct for attaining work-to-family enrichment. The participants unanimously emphasized on the importance of studying holistic picture of work-family culture, as the support from any one (say manager support) might not be of much use, if the other (say co-worker or team support) opposes. It was also reported that supportive work-family culture in the organization is useful for the implementation of the policies which otherwise may not be practiced. Organizations should focus on building a supportive work-family culture which encourages their employees to make use of family-friendly benefits without any




fear of having a negative effect on their appraisal or career growth. Since in current times both men and women are considered to be equally responsible for family responsibilities and have high career aspirations, it is also important that work-family policies should not be biased toward any particular gender thus, providing equal opportunity to anyone who needs it.

References: Corbin, J.M. and Strauss, A.L. (1990), “Grounded theory research: procedures, canons, and evaluative criteria”, Qualitative Sociology, Vol. 13 No. 1, pp. 3-21.

Glaser, B.G. and Strauss, A. (1967), The Discovery of Grounded Theory, Aldine, Chicago, IL.

Goulding, C. (2002), Grounded Theory: A Practical Guide for Management Business and Market Researchers, SAGE, Thousand Oaks, CA.

Kalliath, P., Kalliath, T. and Singh, V. (2007), “When work intersects family: a qualitative exploration of the experiences of dual earner couples in India”, South Asian Journal of Management, Vol. 18 No. 1, pp. 37-59.

Pavitra Mishra , Rajen Gupta , Jyotsna Bhatnagar , (2014) "Grounded theory research: Exploring work-family enrichment in an emerging economy", Qualitative Research Journal, Vol. 14 Iss: 3, pp.289 - 306

Strauss, A.L. and Corbin, J.M. (1990), Basics of Qualitative Research: Grounded Theory Procedures and Techniques, SAGE, Thousand Oaks, CA.

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Young, M. (1999), “Work-family backlash: begging the question, what's fair?”, Annals of the American Academy of Political and social Science, Vol. 56 No. 2, pp. 32-46.

EthnographyThe researcher looks in depth at an entire group—more specifically, a group that shares a common culture. (The word ethnography comes from ethnos, Greek for “a nation or other close-knit group of people,” and graph, “something written or recorded.”) (Leedy & Ormrod, 2013). The ethnographic researcher studies a group in its natural setting for a lengthy time period, often several months or several years according to Leedy & Ormrod, 2013). The focus of investigation is on the everyday behaviors of the people in the group (e.g., interactions, language, rituals), with an intent to identify cultural norms, beliefs, social structures, and other patterns (Leedy & Ormrod, 2013). Ideally the ethnographic researcher identifies not only explicit cultural patterns—those readily acknowledged by group members or easily observable in objects or behaviors—but also implicit patterns—those beliefs and assumptions that have such a below-the-surface, taken-for-granted quality that even group members aren’t always consciously aware of them (Leedy & Ormrod, 2013).

An ethnography is especially useful for gaining an understanding of the complexities of a particular sociocultural group as it allows considerable flexibility in the methods used to obtain information, which can be either an advantage (to the astute researcher who knows what to look for) or a disadvantage (to the novice who may


The problem investigated is how the ethnographic approach can be usefully adopted in the context of researching dirty or undesirable work. Drawing on a study of refuse collectors, it shows how ethnography can enable a fuller social articulation of the experiences and meanings of a social group where conventional narrative disclosure and linguistic expression may be insufficient.

Viewing ethnography as no one particular method, but rather a style of research that is distinguished by its objectives to understand the social meanings and activities of people in a given “field” or setting, this paper highlights aspects of reproductive and “dirty” work which may be hidden or difficult to reveal. Combining the methods of participant observation, photographic representation and interviews, we add to an understanding of dirty work and how it is encountered. We draw on Willis and Trondman's (2002) three distinguishing characteristics namely, recognition of theory, centrality of culture and critical focus to highlight some meanings men give to their work.

This paper explores how ethnographic methods in the form of participant observation, interviews and photographic representation, can be usefully adopted in the context of researching dirty or undesirable work. We draw on a study that focused on the meanings that men attach to dirt and their experiences of dirty work involving the handling and disposal of


be overwhelmed and distracted by unimportant details) (Leedy & Ormrod, 2013).

Site-based fieldwork is the sine qua non—the essence—of any ethnography. Prolonged engagement in the group’s natural setting gives the researcher time to observe and record processes that would be almost impossible to learn about by using any other approach (Leedy & Ormrod, 2013).

The first step in an ethnographic study is to gain access to a site appropriate for answering the researcher’s general research problem or question. Ideally, the site should be one in which the researcher is a “stranger” and has no vested interest in the outcome of the study. A site that the researcher knows well (perhaps one that involves close acquaintances) may be more accessible and convenient, but by being so close to the situation, the researcher may have trouble looking at it with sufficient detachment to gain a balanced perspective and portray an accurate picture of the processes observed (Creswell, 2007).

To gain access to a site, the researcher must often go through a gatekeeper, a person who can provide a smooth entrance into the site. Then, after gaining entry into the site, the researcher must establish rapport with and gain the trust of the people being studied.

Initially, the researcher casts a broad net, intermingling with everyone and getting an overall sense of the social and cultural context. Gradually, the researcher identifies key informants who can provide information and insights relevant to the research question and can facilitate contacts with other helpful individuals.

In some ethnographic studies, the researcher engages in participant observation, becoming immersed in the daily life of the people. In fact, over the course of the study, the

waste (refuse collection) – part of a classed group that has arguably been invisible within both academic work and policy discourses. Refuse collection, as an occupation that is concerned with dirt's removal and the handling or manner of its return, conforms to Ashforth and Kreiner's (1999) notion of physically tainted work, i.e. work that involves direct contact with physical dirt or danger. Such work is often undertaken by those at the lower end of the social hierarchy.


The project was conducted in the summer of 2011 by a team of four researchers (two women and two men). One man (who, as a skilled photographer, also took photographs of daily routines) and one woman collected data through participant observation and by conducting interviews. All four researchers were involved in data analysis detailed below.

The work of refuse collection, like many other work environments, can be a source of pain, drudgery and boredom as well as a source of joy, energy and fulfillment of work-based tasks (Wrzesniewski, 2003). Nonetheless, the day-to-day nature of the work is generally repetitive and routine, following the same weekly route with little to no variation. This weekly cycle is repeated throughout the year, regardless of weather conditions or the varying amounts of rubbish disposal (i.e. increased loads during the summer or after public holidays). Our experiences in the field identified three key elements of the job: first, the “pullers” must go into front gardens and down alleys to pull out all of the black refuse sacks (or recycling bins) and place them in piles by the side of the road for pickup. This group starts earliest but will also finish before the other two groups. The “loaders” then work alongside the truck, throwing the bags into the back of the vehicle. Twice daily (usually around 9.30 a.m. and then 1.00 p.m.) this routine is interrupted by a visit to the dump to empty the rubbish containers at the back. Finally, the trucks are driven by “bankers” – skilled drivers who normally head the team and who must be able to reverse round tight corners and maneuver in narrow suburban streets. This job is

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researcher’s role may gradually change from “outsider” to “insider.” The advantage here is that the researcher might gain insights about the group and its behaviors that could not be obtained in any other way. The disadvantage is that he or she may become so emotionally involved as to lose the ability to assess the situation accurately. In some situations, the researcher may even “go native,” joining the group and therefore becoming unable to complete the study (Creswell, 2007).

Throughout the fieldwork, the researcher is a careful observer, interviewer, and listener. Furthermore, he or she takes extensive field notes (written either on site at the time or in private later in the day) in the forms of dialogues, diagrams, maps, and so forth. Lengthy conversations and significant events can be recorded using audiotapes and videotapes. The researcher may also collect artifacts (e.g., tools, ritualistic implements, artistic creations) and records (e.g., accounting ledgers, personal journals, lesson plans) from the group.

Data collection and data analysis in an ethnographic study often occur somewhat simultaneously. The analysis typically proceeds in the following sequence (Wolcott, 1994):

1. Description. The information obtained is organized into a logical structure. Ethnographers have used a variety of strategies to organize and describe the groups they have observed, including the following:

Describing events in chronological order

Describing a typical day in the life of the group or of an individual within the group

Focusing on a critical event for the group

Developing a story, complete with plot and

seen to be the most desirable of the three since the driver gets to stay inside the cab throughout the day. Together, these team-based work practices engender a strong occupational culture based on camaraderie and a valued and pleasurable humour (“having a crack”) – providing defense against assaults on identity (from the public and from the grim nature of the work). The day starts early. Workers would normally be required to be at the depot by 6.00 a.m. from where they head out in their various teams. While this experience would be limited to the specific London Boroughs that formed that basis of our sample, what is expected to be more generalizable is the manner in which the teams are usually held together to provide a sense of continuity and unity. However, the increased reliance on temporary “agency” workers more recently means that this is not always the case as teams have to work with higher turnover of staff.

A process of direct sampling was adopted through telephone and e-mail contact with councils and with contractors in and around London. While direct sampling would not traditionally be countenanced as a method, issues around access meant that the project was reliant on the co-operation and agreement of managers and supervisors. One council in Greater London and two contractors agreed to take part in the study, granting permission for two days in which we, the research team, could come on-site and work alongside the participants as well as conduct interviews “on the job”. Negotiation had to be made as to what sort of access we would be granted, with participant observation key. Each morning, when we arrived, we found ourselves standing in the “yard” waiting alongside all the other workers, waiting to discover which driver they would be working alongside that day. The first day we were placed with a “black bags” refuse team and on the second day we requested to work with the recycling team. Given the level of competition between the two groups (with recycling not seen by the “black bags” as “proper” work given that they were dealing with lighter and cleaner material) it seemed to be a fruitful opportunity to understand the existing nuances that operate within each job.


characters

1. Analysis. The data are categorized according to their meanings. Patterns, regularities, and critical events are identified.

2. Interpretation. The general nature of the group and its practices is inferred from the categories, meanings, and patterns identified in Step 2. Existing theoretical frameworks in one’s discipline may lend structure and support during the interpretation process.

The final report for an ethnography may or may not be written in the impersonal style that is typical for many other forms of research. Sometimes it is, instead, a personal, literary narrative designed to engage the reader’s attention and interest. Some experienced ethnographers are storytellers as much as they are scholars and researchers.

In an ethnographic study, the following should be included:

1. An introduction that provides a rationale and context for the study. Present your research question at the beginning of the report and describe the nature of your study as it relates both to your question and to one or more theoretical perspectives. More generally, explain why the study was an important one for you to conduct and for others to read about.

2. A description of the setting and methods. Describe the group you studied and the methods you used to study it. Go into considerable detail about what people do and say, how they interact with one another, what systems and rituals they have in place, and so on. Ideally, an ethnographic report should “place the reader figuratively in the setting. . . transport the reader to the actual scene. . . make it real” (Creswell, 2012, p. 472).

While there was a concern that this “top-down” process of access might lead to a lack of disclosure on the part of participants, with our presence being viewed as part of some management objective, this concern dissipated once the process of data collection got underway. The presence of the two members of the research team, who engaged fully in all disposal activities of the day, generated considerable interest and amusement. This was particularly the case with the one woman researcher who, while also taking part in activities of rubbish disposal, was carefully overseen in a paternalistic manner by the all-male crew. Further, the break for the interviews was welcomed as a “rest” from the routines of the day. In this respect, working alongside the men presented a chance for a more informal “conversational” dialogue to develop with its own themes and discourses emerging.

The research drew on a three-tiered ethnographic approach of participant and non-participant observation, semi-structured interviews and photographic representation. This triangulation allowed the events of ethnographic observation to be corroborated and developed through the systematic collection of work-histories and photographic capture. In total, the two researchers collected 14 interviews and over 50 photographs. Rather than facilitating the production of data, as in photo-elicitation (Harper, 2002), photographs gave visual image over and above textual accounts of some of the work practices that are embedded within the routines of the day. The breadth of research methods utilized aimed to, as Tyler (2012) argues, establish an ethnographic lens which can help bring into focus the ways in which dirty work may be enacted and experienced. On each of the days the research team accompanied the workers on their rounds, one member focused on conducting the interviews while the other made up of the “lost body” by filling in for them on the street – thereby directly engaging in the daily experiences of the job. In this manner, ethnographic participation opened up the potential for a fuller articulation of habitual and mundane experiences of the job that might have otherwise gone unexplored. At the end of each working day




3. An analysis of the group studied. Describe the patterns and themes you observed (e.g., the stated or unstated norms and conventions for behavior, the social hierarchy, the belief system). Present evidence (e.g., descriptions of artifacts, conversations with group members) to support your claims. To the extent that different group members have different perspectives, you should present those perspectives. Use the participants’ actual words—perhaps including their language or dialect as well—to give your account realism and “life.” Ethnographers give their research participants voice: They often use participants’ own words to convey a sense of what it is like to live and work within the group.

4. A conclusion. Relate your findings to your research question and to concepts, theories, and previous research in your discipline. In the process, also be explicit about how your background and perspectives may have colored your analysis and conclusions.

Although it may be impossible for you to be completely objective when you describe the group you have studied, you should nevertheless conscientiously try to avoid making judgments according to Leedy & Ormrod (2013).

References:


Creswell, J. W. (2012). Educational research: Planning, conducting, and evaluating quantitative and qualitative research (4th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson/Allyn and Bacon.

field notes were written up to detail the events, interactions and conversations of the day.

Interviews took the form of “conversations with a purpose” (Kvale and Brinkmann, 2009) and included key themes such as men's occupational journeys; job opportunities presented and choices made; the daily routines of the job; the skills drawn on and developed; aspects of the work they found most challenging and those they enjoyed. Interviews were recorded and transcribed in full. Careful reading of transcripts and the field notes was undertaken by the four researchers so that familiarization could take place. Upon familiarization, the research team were able to discuss their own interpretations of the data leading to the broad themes of inquiry as identified above. After this a more detailed thematic analysis took place, using qualitative analysis software. This was undertaken by each researcher separately in the first instance with later corroboration given to emerging themes by comparing and discussing, in a reflexive fashion, individual insights and interpretations. This analytical process facilitated the identification of “patterns of experiences” based, from Taylor and Bogdan, on “conversation topics, vocabulary, recurring activities, meanings, feelings” (Taylor and Bodgan, 1984, p. 131). Accordingly, “disorderly” behaviour from the public (e.g. in terms of leaving out “unacceptable” waste) and lack of recognition of the service provided emerged from discussions of the less pleasurable aspects of the job while humour and a strong sense of camaraderie was a source of satisfaction and enjoyment. Finally, comparisons were made across the slices of data via axial coding “a set of procedures whereby data are put back together in new ways” (Strauss and Corbin, 1990, p. 61) in order to elucidate the inter-relationship between themes, identify core and recurring themes, and then to explore the extent to which such themes might be indicative of more generalized phenomena.

The Key Findings:







Wolcott, H. F. (1994). Transforming qualitative data: Description, analysis, and interpretation. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

Ethnographic methods in the form of participant observation, interviews and photographic representation, can be usefully adopted in the context of researching dirty or undesirable work. Drawing on a study of refuse collectors, we highlight some of the meanings men attach to their work. In so doing our paper makes the following contributions.

First, the paper offers fresh understandings of how dirt may be perceived by this group and gives empirical weight to previous research that has highlighted the significance of strong occupational ideologies in how such work is negotiated. In regards to the theoretical contribution of Douglas (1966), the empirical observations gained through this study reinforce the conceptualisation of dirt as a socially constructed phenomenon which is given meaning in context. It is not dirt in itself which “offends against order” (Douglas, 1966, p. 45), but contingent and symbolic perception of dirt as a matter out of place that is a violation or corruption of cultural norms. The daily routine of handling refuse bags and the sensory experiences of the job (the smell, physicality and proximity to waste) is not seen as a matter out of place but part of the “normalised domain”. It is only when the normalised experience was transgressed through the use of inappropriate bags or when dangerous objects (such as knifes, cut glass or excrement) were encountered that the label or “dirt” was applied. Thus, the daily activities of refuse work have created a distinction between the “orderly” and “disorderly”, imbuing perceptions of dirt only when these normative distinctions are transgressed.

Second, the paper draws on Willis and Trondman (2002) as a way of making sense of ethnographic method in a specific context. Using the theoretical position of Douglas (1966), this project is able to generate a vision of dirt, not as an essential property in itself, but rather a product which is given meaning through context and socially negotiated experience. By reconstructing the nature of dirt within the boundaries of their work, the men are able to recreate the principle meaning within






the activity of their labour. The centrality of culture locates the lived meanings of social groups in a temporal and spatial position in society. Broader cultural perceptions of dirt lead to a sustained lack of contact and recognition, impinging on notions of self-worth and a low social disposition which affects the work experience. Finally, the critical focus in research and writing allows for discourses of dirt to be situated in a wider social context, encapsulating the explicit lived in “conditions of being” informed through social relations and constructions of power. As this study shows, refuse workers, despite performing an essential public service, the true condition of their experience is shaped by negatively imposed constructions of class and dirt which comes to define their labour. By incorporating these issues of theory, culture and reflexivity throughout the research process, this paper highlights how Willis and Trondman's (2002) approach aids the ethnographic objective and is crucial to the understanding of representation and experience. Devaluation and lack of recognition affect the daily work experience and translate, arguably, into strong occupational cultures based on a shared camaraderie which helps to give meaning to work.

The use of field-notes recorded the daily ethnographic observations of the work, focusing on textures and feel for the routine as well as noting the general conversational flows that punctuated the day. The collection of interviews supported this position by offering us, the research team, the opportunity to focus on specific developments that interested us during the day as well as to gain further information of the work histories of the employees. Finally, photographs were used to offer a fixed caption of a moment in time, highlighting the particularities of work which aided the communication of the ethnographic experience.


In recognition of the influence of relative social positioning (e.g. between participant and researcher) on modes of understanding



we sought to develop a “deep attentiveness” (Charlesworth, 2000) based on an engaged and committed interaction in which one “helps the other to articulate the pieces that have contributed to the totality of their experience” (Charlesworth, 2000, p. 144). This involved a position of sharing thoughts and feelings and responding in sensitive and affirming ways to accounts of work experiences; the careful monitoring of our own language and non-verbal signs to convey sympathetic interest in a context where men are rarely given the opportunity to articulate their social experiences. Employing this model of reflexive engagement helped us to elucidate facets of occupational distance as well as gender difference (one researcher undertaking participant observation was female.

Thus, through “active listening” and careful scrutiny of our own “knowing practices” (Charlesworth, 2000, p. 31), we sought to afford voice to men's experiences in a context where, as Schwalbe and Wolkomir (2001) argue, male working class voices are rarely heard.

References:

Ashforth, B. and Kreiner, G. (1999), ““How can you do it?” Dirty work and the challenge of constructing a positive identity”, Academy of Management Review, Vol. 24 No. 3, pp. 413-434.

Charlesworth, S. (2000), A Phenomenology of Class, Oxford University Press, Oxford.

Douglas, M. (1966), Purity and Danger: An Analysis of Concepts of Pollution and Taboo, Routledge, London.

Harper, D. (2002), “Talking about pictures: a case for photo elicitation”, Visual Studies, Vol. 17 No. 1, pp. 13-26.

Kvale, S. and Brinkmann, S. (2009), InterViews: Learning the







Craft of Qualitative Research Interviewing, 2nd ed., Sage, London.

Schwalbe, M. and Wolkomir, M. (2001), “The masculine self as problem and resource in interview studies of men”, Men and Masculinities, Vol. 4 No. 1, pp. 90-103.

Simpson ,Slutskaya , Hughes , & Simpson , (2014) "The use of ethnography to explore meanings that refuse collectors attach to their work", Qualitative Research in Organizations and Management: An International Journal, Vol. 9 Iss: 3, pp.183 - 200

Strauss, A. and Corbin, J. (1990), Basics of Qualitative Research: Grounded Theory Procedures and Techniques, Sage, London.

Taylor, S. and Bodgan, R. (1984), Introduction to Qualitative Research Methods: The Search for Meaning. , Wiley, New York, NY.

Tyler, M. (2012), “Clamour girls, macho men and everything in between: un/going gender and dirty work in soho's sex shops”, in Simpson, R., Slutskaya, N., Lewis, P. and Hopfl, H. (Eds), Doing Dirty Work: Concepts and Identities, Plagrave, Basingstoke.

Willis, P. and Trondman, M. (2002), “Maifesto for ethnography”, Cultural Studies – Critical Methodologies , Vol. 2 No. 3, pp. 394-402.

Wrzesniewski, A. (2003), “Finding positive meaning in work”, in Cameron, K. S. , Dutton, J. E. and Quinn, R. E. (Eds), Positive Organisational Scholarship , Berrett-Koehler, San Francisco, CA.

http://www.emeraldinsight.com.contentproxy.phoenix.edu/action/doSearch?ContribStored=Simpson%2C+R

http://www.emeraldinsight.com.contentproxy.phoenix.edu/action/doSearch?ContribStored=Hughes%2C+J

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Distinguishing characteristics of different qualitative designs (Leedy & Ormrod, 2013)

Design Purpose Focus Methods of Data Collection Methods of Data AnalysisCase study To understand one

person or situation (or perhaps a very small number) in great depth

One case or a few cases within its/their natural setting

Observations

Interviews

Appropriate written documents and/or audiovisual material

Categorization and interpretation of data in terms of common themes

Synthesis into an overall portrait of the case(s)

Ethnography To understand how behaviors reflect the culture of a group

A specific field site in which a group of people share a common culture

Participant observation

Structured or unstructured interviews with “informants”

Artifact/document collection

Identification of significant phenomena and underlying structures and beliefs

Organization of data into a logical whole (e.g., chronology, typical day)

Phenomenological study

To understand an experience from the participants’ points of view

A particular phenomenon as it is typically lived and perceived by human beings

In-depth, unstructured interviews

Purposeful sampling of 5–25 individuals

Search for meaning units that reflect various aspects of the experience

Integration of the meaning units into a seemingly typical experience

Grounded theory study

To derive a theory from data collected in a natural setting

A process, including human actions and interactions and how they result from and influence one another

Interviews

Any other relevant data sources

Prescribed and systematic method of coding the data into categories and identifying interrelationships

Continual interweaving of data collection and data analysis

Construction of a theory from the categories and interrelationships

Content analysis To identify the specific Any verbal, visual, or Identification and possible Tabulation of the


Design Purpose Focus Methods of Data Collection Methods of Data Analysischaracteristics of a body of material

behavioral form of communication

sampling of the specific material to be analyzed

Coding of the material in terms of predetermined and precisely defined characteristics

frequency of each characteristic

Descriptive or inferential statistical analyses as needed to answer the research question

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_Qualitative Research Methods by Cheryl Vierheilig